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150-534: The name Shinra Myōjin can be translated as "bright deity of Silla". Silla was a historical kingdom on the Korean Peninsula which existed between 57 BCE and 935. While the combination of signs used to write its name in Japanese , 新羅, is commonly read as Shiragi or Shiraki, Shinra is the typical reading in proper names. The term myōjin , "bright deity", designates a class of deities. It is possible that

300-469: A "sacred" and a "true bone" parent were considered as "true bones". There were also many ways for a "sacred bone" to be demoted to a "true bone", thus making the entire system even more likely to collapse eventually. The king (or queen) theoretically was an absolute monarch, but royal powers were somewhat constrained by a strong aristocracy. The " Hwabaek " (화백,和白) served as royal council with decision-making authorities on some vital issues like succession to

450-722: A Japanese naval fleet convened in southern Baekje to confront the Silla forces in the Battle of Baekgang . The Tang dynasty also sent 7,000 soldiers and 170 ships. After five naval confrontations, all of which the Silla-Tang joint fleet won, that took place in August 663 at Baekgang, considered the lower reaches of Geum River or Dongjin river , the Silla–Tang forces emerged victorious, and Buyeo Pung escaped to Goguryeo. The establishment of

600-459: A belief that Shinra Myōjin was a Japanese kami who conquered Silla developed, as documented in Onjō-ji denki . It states that he "became a king of Silla in order to wield Japanese power all over the world". Bernard Faure argues that the change in the characterization of Shinra Myōjin in both Onjōji denki and another source documenting this tradition, Hachiman gudōkin , can be characterized as

750-402: A brief period of about a century from the late 7th to late 8th centuries the monarchy made an attempt to divest aristocratic officialdom of their landed base by instituting a system of salary payments, or office land ( jikjeon , 직전, 職田), in lieu of the former system whereby aristocratic officials were given grants of land to exploit as salary (the so–called tax villages, or nog-eup , 녹읍, 祿邑). By

900-497: A centralized state in Baekje is usually traced to the reign of King Goi , who may have first established patrilineal succession . Like most monarchies , a great deal of power was held by the aristocracy . King Seong , for example, strengthened royal power, but after he was slain in a disastrous campaign against Silla, the nobles took much of that power away from his son. The ruler titles of Baekje were *eraγa ( 於羅瑕 ), mostly used by

1050-613: A deity of waka poetry in the Jimon tradition. In this capacity, he was known as the "Poetic Immortal of Mii-dera " (三井の歌仙, Mii no Kasen ). This development reflected a broader pattern of incorporating waka into esoteric Buddhism due to its growing role in courtly life. The poems were understood in this context as a Japanese counterpart of dharani . Jimon monks believed that Shinra Myōjin could bestow inspiration upon them, and some of them, for example Gyōson , were known for both their poetry and their devotion to this deity. Shinra Myōjin

1200-484: A display of " anti-Korean prejudice ", comparable to hostile attitudes also present in the narrative of empress Jingū . Sujung Kim connects the change to the development of the notion of transmission of Buddhism from India through China to Japan, originally developed in the Kamakura period , which marginalized the role of Korea in the process. She also notes that while anti-Korean, or specifically anti-Silla, sentiment

1350-580: A figure belonging to the Mañjuśrī Pentad. His name designates him as a manifestation of Mañjuśri as an old man, as it is a combination of two signs from the full Chinese name of Mañjuśri (大聖文殊師利, Dasheng Wenshu Shili) and the term laoren , "old man", pronounced in Japanese as rōnin ; therefore, his iconography might have been adopted for Shinra Myōjin to give him more legitimacy as a Buddhist figure. While depictions of Shinra Myōjin are relatively rare,

1500-430: A member of one of the two categories resulting from the distinction between kami and Buddhist figures made within honji suijaku . On occasion he was described as a Daoist immortal (神仙, shinsen ). In modern scholarship, he is considered one of the examples of so-called "eccentric gods" (異神, ishin ), deities associated with medieval form of Japanese esoteric Buddhism . In engi stories, Shinra Myōjin's primary role

1650-581: A military alliance was forged between Silla and Baekje against Goguryeo. Most maps of the Three Kingdoms period show Baekje occupying the Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces, the core of the country in the Ungjin and Sabi periods. In 538, King Seong moved the capital to Sabi (present-day Buyeo County ), and rebuilt his kingdom into a strong state. Temporarily, he changed the official name of

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1800-477: A misspelling of hoshikami 星神, meaning ‘star deity’"). Jimon denki horoku (寺門伝記補録), a fifteenth century supplement to the earlier Onjōji denki , affirms that Shinra Myōjin is identical with Susanoo, describes Izanami as his mother, and states that he traveled through Silla with his son Isotakeru  [ ja ] . It also identifies both Shinra Myōjin and Susanoo as Somin Shōrai . Shinra Myōjin also belonged to

1950-484: A need to redefine Shinra Myōjin as a deity acting on behalf of Japan emerged. Shinra Myōjin is associated with the Jimon branch of Tendai . Historically he effectively functioned as a symbol of its institutions, in addition to being its paramount deity. He is regarded as a gohōjin , "protector of Buddhist dharma ". Such figures function as protectors of Buddhist temples and teachings. He cannot be easily classified as

2100-684: A passage in the Gwanggaeto Stele to establish ideological rationale to the imperialist outcry for invasion of Korea. Other historians have pointed out that there is no evidence of this Japanese account in any part of Korea, in addition to not being in any viable text in China or Korea. Regarding the Gwanggaeto Stele, because the lack of syntax and punctuation the text can be interpreted 4 different ways. Due to this problem in interpretation, nothing can be concluded. Also complicating

2250-578: A red robe, holding a pilgrim's staff and a scroll. His hair is usually white. However, a scroll showing him with dark hair is known from the collection of the Ōtsu City Museum of History. According to Mark Teeuwen , despite his possible Korean origin, his appearance is "distinctly un-Korean". Sujung Kim describes him as typically having the appearance of a Tang period official, and remarks his iconography shows less variety than those of other similar deities, such as Sekizan Myōjin . It might have been in part based on Taisho Rōnin (大聖老人; also Saishō Rōnin, 最勝老人),

2400-527: A relief force, and Liu Rengui and Liu Renyuan were able to fight off the Baekje resistance forces' attacks, but were themselves not strong enough to quell the rebellion, and so for some time the armies were in stalemate. Baekje requested Japanese aid, and King Pung returned to Baekje with a contingent of 10,000 soldiers. Before the ships from Japan arrived, his forces battled a contingent of Tang forces in Ungjin County. In 663, Baekje revival forces and

2550-527: A sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the Japanese rulers of the Kofun period , transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan. The Chinese writing system , Buddhism , advanced pottery , ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks throughout their relationship. During this period, the Han River basin remained

2700-666: A small number of Jin (Hanja: 辰人) were also admitted into the polities of Baekje. According to the Samguk sagi , Baekje was founded in 18 BCE by King Onjo , who led a group of people from Goguryeo south to the Han River basin. Jumong had left his son Yuri in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo. Jumong became Divine King Dongmyeong , and had two more sons with Soseono , Onjo and Biryu . When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him

2850-453: A so-called “ landlord deity ” (地主; jinushi ). These two roles are closely connected: it has been noted that a close functional connection between sea and mountain deities is well attested through Japanese history, and prayers made to mountain deities to guarantee safe passage through the sea are well documented in Tendai tradition. In the eleventh century, Shinra Myōjin developed the role of

3000-510: A strong military force. Silla helped Baekje drive Goguryeo out of the Han River ( Seoul ) area, and then wrested control of the entire central western Korea region from Baekje in 553, breaching the 120-year Baekje-Silla alliance. Also, King Jinheung established the Hwarang . The early period ended with the death of Jindeok of Silla and the demise of the "hallowed bone" ( 성골 ; seonggol ) rank system. The royal title Maripgan ( 마립간 )

3150-549: A well known statue representing him is kept in Mii-dera , where it is enshrined in the Shinra Zenshindō (新羅善神捨堂). It is hidden due to being one of the so-called "secret buddhas " (秘仏, hibutsu ), statues which cannot be in public view due to the powers attributed to them. It is agreed that it was originally carved no later than in the twelfth century, but the precise date is a matter of debate. 1052 has been proposed. It

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3300-418: Is also regarded as a deity of pestilence. Historical sources indicate that he was believed to both cause epidemics and cure illnesses. In has been noted that in a number of accounts, he displays the traits of a tatarigami  [ ja ] (祟り神), a deity capable of bestowing both blessings and curses. According to Jimon denki horoku , in 1184 during an epidemic prayers to Shinra Myōjin were performed in

3450-460: Is analyzed into two elements in many popular explanations, with the first element alleged to be from the Korean root or from a word related to Middle Korean marh meaning "stake, post, pile, picket, peg, pin (of a tent)". The second element, gan ( Hangul : 간), is a likely cognate to han ( Hangul : 한) and the word for "big, great" keun, first attested as Late Old Korean 黑根 *hùkú-n. Both carry

3600-456: Is characterized by the rising power of the monarchy at the expense of the jingol nobility. This was made possible by the new wealth and prestige garnered as a result of Silla's unification of the peninsula, as well as the monarchy's successful suppression of several armed aristocratic revolts following early upon unification, which afforded the king the opportunity of purging the most powerful families and rivals to central authority. Further, for

3750-554: Is dominant. Other historians, such as those who collaborated on 'Paekche of Korea and the Origin of Yamato Japan' and Jonathan W. Best, who helped translate what was left of the Baekje annals, have noted that these princes set up schools in Yamato Japan and took control of the Japanese naval forces during the war with Goguryeo, taking this as evidence of them being more along the lines of diplomats with some kind of familial tie to

3900-568: Is in danger and started to pray, prompting Shinra Myōjin to appear to him as an old man in a boat and inform him that he is a deity of Silla who will protect his practice of Buddhism "until the Buddha Maitreya comes into this world". A variant from the Taiheiki has him encounter both Shinra Myōjin and Fudō Myōō . Similar narratives about two other deities of similar character, Matarajin and Sekizan Myōjin , are also known. Most likely,

4050-411: Is instead described as female and as the second daughter of the same deity. Shinra Myōjin could also be identified with astral figures, such as Kokuzo or Myōken . He was closely associated with Sonjōō (尊星王). According to Keiran shūyōshū , Shinra Myōjin was the "trace" of Sonjōō, in this context identified with Dakiniten , and as a result "divine foxes" ( shinko ) were his messengers. Elsewhere Sonjōō

4200-609: Is known of Baekje music, but local musicians were sent with tribute missions to China in the 7th century, indicating that a distinctive musical tradition had developed by that time. In 372, King Geunchogo paid tribute to the Jin dynasty of China , located in the basin of the Yangtze River . After the fall of Jin and the establishment of Song dynasty in 420, Baekje sent envoys seeking cultural goods and technologies. Baekje sent an envoy to Northern Wei of Northern Dynasties for

4350-474: Is no other evidence supporting this notion. The oldest reference to him occurs in a document from 971. The first known priest of his shrine was a certain Kiyomura (淸村) from the Ōtomo clan, who lived in the tenth century. Various rituals were held in his honor regularly between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. One of them was known simply as the "Shinra Myōjin festival " (新羅明神祭礼, Shinra Myōjin sairei ), and

4500-490: Is pronounced Silla . According to the Samguk sagi , the name of 新羅 ( Silla ), consisting of the components sin ( 新 ), as in deogeobilsin ( 德業日新 ) and ra , as in mangnasabang ( 網羅四方 ) is thought to be a later Confucian interpretation. The modern Seoul is a shortened form of Seorabeol, meaning "capital city", and was continuously used throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods even in official documents, despite

4650-564: Is regarded as the protective deity of Onjō-ji (Mii-dera). It has been pointed out that the historical Ōmi Province , where the temple is located, had a close connection with Silla, and therefore the presence of Shinra Myōjin might be related to the settlement of Korean immigrants . The Ōtomo clan in particular was involved in promoting the veneration of this deity early on. However, it is not certain if its members originally arrived in Japan from Silla , as textual sources preserve traditions about

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4800-654: Is still worshiped today, and while due to rearrangements made after World War II, the shrine dedicated to him is now separate from the rest of the Onjō-ji complex, services dedicated to him still follow the Instructions for the Buddhist Ritual of the Three Shrines (三社法会法則, Sansha hōe hōsoku ), originally compiled in 1367 and subsequently copied by the monk Enshin (圓親) in 1615. They start with "a recitation of

4950-437: Is that of a protector of people partaking in sea journeys. Christine Guth suggests that his role as a protective deity of sailors might reflect his original character. However, despite being a protector of sea routes, he is chiefly worshiped inland. With time, he developed into a mountain god as well. He is the protective deity of Mount Nagara (長等), located close to Onjō-ji . He is considered the surrounding area's genius loci ,

5100-534: Is the oldest surviving depiction of a gohōjin , and has been designated as one of the National Treasures . It can be considered a typical example of a Heian statue utilizing the single wood block technique ( ichiboku-zukuri ). The face is exaggerated, with the eyes in particular being disproportionately large and slanted in a manner meant to mimic the Chinese numeral 八 (8), but at the same time with

5250-514: The Samguk Yusa , during the Sabi period, the chief minister ( Jaesang ) of Baekje was chosen by a unique system. The names of several candidates were placed under a rock (Cheonjeongdae) near Hoamsa temple. After a few days, the rock was moved and the candidate whose name had a certain mark was chosen as the new chief minister. Whether this was a form of selection by lot or a covert selection by

5400-517: The Shinsen Shōjiroku , Inahi no Mikoto the brother of the mythological Emperor Jimmu was the ancestor to the kings of Silla. Another source found in Samguk sagi claims that a Japanese man named, Hogong helped build the kingdom of Silla. In its early days, Silla started off as a city-state by the name of Saro ( 사로국 ; 斯盧國 ), initially founded by Yemaek refugees from Gojoseon . It has also accepted dispersed people fleeing from

5550-535: The Former Nine Years' War , within Minamoto no Yoriyoshi 's lifetime (988-1075). Reportedly he swore that if victorious in this conflict, he would dedicate one of his sons to Onjō-ji. Subsequently the shrine of Shinra Myōjin served as the site of the coming of age ceremony of Minamoto no Yoshimitsu , his third son. As a result the sobriquet Shinra Saburō (新羅三郎) was often used to refer to him. Thanks to

5700-461: The Gwanggaeto Stele , erected in 414 by King Jangsu of Goguryeo , as describing a Japanese invasion in the southern portion of the Korean peninsula. However, Mohan claims that Goguryeo fabricated the Japanese invasion in order to justify its conquest of Baekje. If this stele was a dedication to a Korean king, it can be argued that it would logically highlight Korea's conquests and not dedicate it to

5850-594: The Heart Sutra as an offering to the deity" and additionally focus on "the deity’s connection with Enchin; reciting the title of the Lotus Sutra ; a vow to attain enlightenment; Shinra Myōjin’s acolytes;" a prayer for "various kinds of blessings from the deity" serves as the ending. Silla Silla ( Korean pronunciation: [ɕiɭ.ɭa] ; Old Korean : 徐羅伐 , Yale : Syerapel, RR : Seorabeol ; IPA : Korean pronunciation: [sʌɾabʌɭ] )

6000-515: The Kumano area. Historically Shinra Myōjin was worshiped in Onjō-ji alongside Mio Myōjin (三尾明神), who according to Konjaku Monogatarishū was a deity who appeared to Enchin in the form of an old man eating fish when he first arrived in this area. Furthermore, Shinra Myōjin's two servants, Hannya Dōji (般若童子; depicted with red skin) and Shukuō Dōji (宿王童子; depicted with blue skin), who were venerated as

6150-713: The Nakdong River basin attacked the Silla-friendly Aragaya , the prince of Aragaya asked Silla for a rescue army, and the king ordered Crown Prince Seok Uro to gather his troops and attack the eight kingdoms. Crown Prince SeokUro saved Aragaya and rescued 6,000 of the pro-Silla Gaya people who had been captured and returned to their homeland. Three years later, three among the eight countries (浦上八國), Golpo-guk, Chilpo-guk, and Gosapo-guk, will launch counterattacks against Silla. A battle took place in Yeomhae ,

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6300-595: The Samhan . Silla began as "Saro-guk", a statelet within the 12-member confederacy known as Jinhan . Saro-guk consisted of six clans later known as the Six Clans of Jinhan ( 진한 6부 ; 辰韓六部 ) from Gojoseon. According to Korean records, Silla was founded by Bak Hyeokgeose of Silla in 57 BCE, around present-day Gyeongju . Hyeokgeose is said to have been hatched from an egg laid from a white horse, and when he turned 13, six clans submitted to him as king and established

6450-650: The Tamna Kingdom on modern-day Jeju before the arrival of Koreanic, noting the presence of a Japonic substratum in the Jeju language . Buddhism , a religion originating in what is now India , was transmitted to Korea via China in the late 4th century. The Samguk yusa records the following 3 monks among first to bring the Buddhist teaching, or Dharma , to Korea : Malananta (late 4th century) – an Indian Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Baekje in

6600-901: The Tang dynasty during the Silla–Tang War . The pike unit, called Changchangdang that would later be known as the Bigeum Legion ( 비금서당 ) as part of the Nine Legions ( 구서당 ) and which was consisted of Silla folks, had a special purpose to counter the Göktürks cavalries operated by the Tang army during the Silla-Tang War . In addition, Silla's central army, the Nine Legions ( 구서당 ), were consisted of Silla, Goguryeo , Baekje , and Mohe people. These nine legions aimed at defending

6750-594: The Thirty Lectures of the Shinra (新羅三十講, Shinra sanjūkō ), possibly a series of lectures focused on the Lotus Sutra , first held in 1202; the Shinra nenbutsu (新羅念仏), first held in 1109 and most likely focused on the recitation of Shinra Myōjin's name to invoke him for the sake of healing and securing longevity, as well as a variety of ennen (延年) celebrations, similarly focused on guaranteeing longevity. Up to

6900-497: The capital became complete in formation and compilation after Silla unified the Three Kingdoms . Each Legions were known for their representative colors marked on their collars and were constituted by different groups. The Golden, Red, and Dark Blue Legion employed Goguryeoans while the Blue and White Legion accepted Baekje folks into their ranks. The Bigeum (also Red in color), Green, and Purple Legion were formed by Sillan people whilst

7050-488: The imperial court . Bernard Faure argues that the aspect of his character related to pestilence developed early on. However, Sujung Kim concludes that it was derived from a link between Silla and epidemics in Japanese imagination, which is not yet documented in Heian sources, and only became a common view in the thirteenth century. Shinra Myōjin is typically depicted as an old man dressed in three-pronged Chinese headwear and

7200-462: The "Inariyama sword, as well as some other swords discovered in Japan, utilized the Korean ' Idu ' system of writing". The swords "originated in Paekche and that the kings named in their inscriptions represent Paekche kings rather than Japanese kings". The techniques for making these swords were the apparently similar to styles from Korea, specifically from Baekje. In Japan, the hostage interpretation

7350-532: The "king of Mount Song ". Another proposal is that while he did originate in Korea, China served as an intermediary in his transmission to Japan. Sujung Kim argues that the historical Ōmi Province in Japan should be considered his "birthplace", but states he cannot be easily described as either a Japanese or Korean deity. Regardless of the precise origin of Shinra Myōjin, it is agreed that his early development in Japan

7500-568: The 4th century, Baekje controlled most of the western Korean peninsula, as far north as Pyongyang , and may have even held territories in China , such as in Liaoxi , though this view is controversial. It became a significant regional sea power, with political and trade relations with China and Japan . Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia,

7650-489: The 6th century, when Silla acquired a detailed system of law and governance, social status and official advancement were dictated by the bone rank system . This rigid lineage-based system also dictated clothing, house size, and the permitted range of marriage. Since its emergence as a centralized polity Silla society had been characterized by its strict aristocratic makeup. Silla had two royal classes: "sacred bone" ( seonggol , 성골, 聖骨) and "true bone" ( jingol , 진골, 眞骨). Up until

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7800-548: The Black Legion took dispersed Mohe refugees into their fold that came along with Goguryeo refugees after the Fall of Goguryeo . Silla is also known for its maritime prowess shown by the navy backed with master shipbuilding and seamanship. The boats employed were usually called Sillaseon ( 신라선 ), which had an international reputation for its solid durability and effective capabilities that were said to 'enable men surf across

7950-505: The Buyeo clan replaced them, and both clans appear descended from the lineage of Buyeo and Goguryeo . The " Great Eight Families " (Sa, Yeon, Hyeop, Hae, Jin , Guk, Mok, and Baek) were powerful nobles in the Sabi era, recorded in Chinese records such as Tongdian . Central government officials were divided into sixteen ranks, the six members of the top rank forming a type of cabinet, with

8100-459: The Chinese writing system, Buddhism, iron processing for weapons, and various other technologies. In exchange, Japan provided military support. According to mythical accounts in the controversial Nihon Shoki , Empress Jingū extracted tribute and pledges of allegiance from the kings of Baekje, Silla , and Goguryeo . At the height of Japanese nationalism in the early 20th century, Japanese historians used these mythical accounts along with

8250-643: The Japanese imperial family and as evidence against any hostage status. As is with many long-past histories and competing records, very little can be definitively concluded. Further research has been difficult, in part due to the 1976 restriction on the study of royal tombs in Japan (to include tombs such as the Gosashi tomb, which is allegedly the resting place of Empress Jingū ). Prior to 1976, foreign researchers did have access, and some found Korean artifacts in Japanese dig sites. Recently in 2008, Japan has allowed controlled limited access to foreign archaeologists, but

8400-572: The Kim clan established a hereditary monarchy and took the royal title of Maripgan (麻立干; 마립간). However, in the Samguk sagi , Naemul of Silla still appears as a title of Isageum (泥師今; 이사금). He is considered by many historians as the starting point of the Gyeongju Kim period, which lasted more than 550 years. However, even when the Kim monopolized the throne for more than 500 years, the veneration of

8550-567: The Korean chronicle Samguk sagi , Baekje and Silla sent some princes to the Japanese court as hostages. Whether the princes sent to Japan should be interpreted as diplomats as part of an embassy or literal hostages is debated. Due to the confusion on the exact nature of this relationship (the question of whether the Baekje Koreans were family or at least close to the Japanese Imperial line or whether they were hostages) and

8700-551: The Lelang Commandery after Goguryeo's invasion, while later on incorporating native Jin people in the vicinity and Ye people to the North. Talhae of Silla (57 CE–80 CE) was the son-in-law of Namhae of Silla (4 CE–24 CE). According to the Samguk sagi , Seoktalhae was the prince of Yongseongguk (龍成國) or Dapana (多婆那國), located 1,000- ri (里), northeast of Japan (?). Following the will of Namhae of Silla, he became

8850-538: The Miidera statue is slender, a painting portraying Shinra Myōjin as corpulent is known from Shōgo-in in Kyoto . Yet another depiction of Shinra Myōjin is a painting from the reign of Ashikaga Takauji from Onjō-ji, which portrays him in the garb of a Chinese literatus and shows influence from Chan portraits. The similarities between them might have resulted from the influence of Jimon tradition of Tendai on Shugendō in

9000-472: The Mongolian word solgoi "left, east"; (7) It comes from the name of the medieval kingdom of Goryeo (via * Hoɾyo > * Solo(n)- ). The authors of this paper have ended up supporting the sixth hypothesis, i.e. that Mongolian Solongos "Korea, Koreans" ultimately should be cognate with Mongolian soluγai > solγoi "left, wrong side of the body, left-handed, enemy to the east (from the perspective of

9150-582: The Mongols)"." Silla was also referred to as Gyerim ( 계림 ; 鷄林 ), literally "rooster forest", a name that has its origins in the forest near the Silla capital. Legend has it that the state's founder was born in the same forest, hatched from the egg of a cockatrice ( 계룡 ; 雞龍 ; gyeryong ; lit.  rooster-dragon). During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period, central and southern Korea consisted of three confederacies called

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9300-416: The Old Korean names of 居西干 Geoseogan (1st century BCE), 次次雄 Chachaung (1st century CE), 泥師今 Isageum (Old Korean: *nisokum) and 麻立干 Maripkan (5th-6th century) instead. It began as a chiefdom in the Jinhan confederacy, part of the Samhan , and after consolidating its power in the immediate area, conquered the Gaya confederacy. Eventually allying with Sui China and then Tang China , it conquered

9450-425: The Shinra Myōjin version served as their prototype. In another narrative, Enchin visited a shrine on Mount Song and during a storm encountered a being with an old man's head and a snake's body, identified as a manifestation of Shinra Myōjin. Surviving sources from Enchin's times, including his fragmentary journal and an iconographic scroll he brought from China ( Gobu shinkan ) do not allude to Shinra Myōjin. Most likely

9600-406: The Siljikgok and Apdok, which were frightened by Silla, also surrendered. Six years later, it entered the inland area and attacked and merged Dabulguk , Bijigukuk, and Chopalguk. During the Naehae of Silla period (196–230), the Eight Port Kingdoms War (浦上八國 亂) broke out to determine hegemony in the southern part of the peninsula. In 209, when the "eight upper countries (of the estuary)" (浦上八國) in

9750-456: The Silla king is descended from Xiongnu. Nonetheless, this hypothesis in respect to the origins of Silla royalty are not accepted in mainstream academia, but rather stand as a minor opinion. Considering the situation of the era when the Monument of King Munmu was created, it is presumed to be propaganda created for friendship with China and northerners and the legitimacy of the dynasty. Nihon Shoki and Kojiki also mentions Silla as

9900-403: The Silla kingship was fixed in the house of Wonseong of Silla (785–798), though the office itself was continually contested among various branches of the Kim lineage. Nevertheless, the middle period of Silla witnessed the state at its zenith, the brief consolidation of royal power, and the attempt to institute a Chinese style bureaucratic system. The final century and a half of the Silla state

10050-414: The Silla monarchy stressed Buddhism, and the Silla monarch's role as a "Buddha-king". Another salient factor in post-unification politics were the increasing tensions between the Korean monarchy and aristocracy. The early Silla military was built around a small number of Silla royal guards designed to protect royalty and nobility and in times of war served as the primary military force if needed. Due to

10200-408: The Silla–Tang alliance conquered Goguryeo to its north after the Goguryeo–Tang War . Silla then fought against the Tang dynasty for nearly a decade to expel Chinese forces on the peninsula intent on creating Tang colonies there to finally establish a unified kingdom as far north as modern Pyongyang. The northern region of the defunct Goguryeo state later reemerged as Balhae . Silla's middle period

10350-454: The South Korean government. Since the tombs were harder to break into than those of Baekje, a larger number of objects has been preserved. Notable amongst these are Silla's elaborate gold crowns and jewelry. The massive Bronze Bell of King Seongdeok the Great of Silla is known to produce a distinctive sound. Cheomseongdae near Gyeongju is the oldest extant astronomical observatory in East Asia but some disagree on its exact functions. It

10500-503: The Three Kingdoms of Korea were fully developed centralized powers with modern iron weapons and were already utilizing horses for warfare. It is very unlikely that a developing state such as Yamato had the capacity to cross the sea and engage in battles with Baekje and Silla. The Nihon Shoki is widely regarded to be an unreliable and biased source of information on early relations with Korea, as it mixes heavy amounts of supposition and legend with facts. Some Japanese scholars interpret

10650-432: The Western knights or chevaliers). Originally a social group, due to the continuous military rivalry between the Three Kingdoms of Korea , they eventually transformed from a group of elite male aristocratic youth into soldiers and military leaders. Hwarang were key in the fall of Goguryeo (which resulted in the unification of the Korean Peninsula under Unified Silla ) and the Silla–Tang Wars , which expelled Tang forces in

10800-492: The ancestor of Gyeongju Kim , was adopted by Talhae of Silla. The territory outside the capital was greatly conquered during the period of Pasa of Silla (80–112). As soon as he ascended the throne, he ordered officials to encourage agriculture, silkworm farming and train soldiers. There was a territorial dispute between the Eumjipbeol and Siljikgok , and the two countries first asked Pasa of Silla to mediate, Pasa of Silla

10950-537: The ancient Japanese text Nihonshoki , Baekje's expansion reached the Gaya confederacy to its east, around the Nakdong River valley. Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in 345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367 (According to the Nihon Shoki : 247). King Geunchogo (346–375) expanded Baekje's territory to the north through war against Goguryeo , while annexing

11100-403: The architect of Silla's unification of the peninsula. Hyegong's demise was a bloody one, the culmination of an extended civil war involving most of the kingdom's high–ranking noble families. With Hyegong's death, during the remaining years of Silla, the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead as powerful aristocratic families became increasingly independent of central control. Thereafter

11250-821: The biggest of waves' amongst the Chinese and Japanese according to the Shoku Nihon Koki . During the Silla-Tang War, the Silla navy under the command of general Sideuk defeated the Tang Navy 22 times out of 23 engagements in Gibeolpo, today's Seocheon County . Jang Bogo, a prominent maritime figure of Silla, was also famous for his navy based on the Cheonghaejin Garrison. A significant number of Silla tombs can still be found in Gyeongju,

11400-565: The capital from the south to the north of the Han river, and then south again, probably all within present Seoul, under pressure from other Mahan states. King Gaeru is believed to have moved the capital north of the river to Bukhansanseong in 132, probably in present-day Goyang to the northwest of Seoul. Through the early centuries of the Common Era , sometimes called the Proto–Three Kingdoms period , early Baekje gradually gained control over

11550-476: The capital of Silla. Silla tombs consist of a stone chamber surrounded by a soil mound. The historic area around Gyeongju was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2000. Much of it is also protected as part of Gyeongju National Park . Additionally, two villages near Gyeongju named Hahoe and Yangdong Folk Village were submitted for UNESCO heritages in 2008 or later by related cities and

11700-464: The clan's arrival from Paekche or alternatively about its descent from Chinese emperor Xian of Han . Reconstruction of the early history of Shinra Myōjin is complicated by the small number of surviving records from Onjō-ji predating the Muromachi and Edo periods. While according to the temple's tradition a statue representing Shinra Myōjin was already made by Enchin in the ninth century, there

11850-448: The construction of a new ordination platform, to which the god responded by killing the latter. This tradition about Go-Sanjō's death is also documented in the Jimon denki horoku . Another emperor whose death was attributed to Shinra Myōjin was Nijō , who reportedly supported the monks of Mount Hiei over Mii-dera, which prompted the god associated with the latter location to send two acolytes to inflict him with smallpox . Shinra Myōjin

12000-497: The country as the Nambuyeo ( 남부여 ; 南扶餘 ; Korean pronunciation: [na̠m.pu.jʌ̹] ; lit. "Southern Buyeo "), a reference to Buyeo to which Baekje traced its origins. The Sabi period witnessed the flowering of Baekje culture, alongside the growth of Buddhism . Under pressure from Goguryeo to the north and Silla to the east, Seong sought to strengthen Baekje's relationship with China. The location of Sabi, on

12150-576: The crown prince. Realizing Yuri would become the next king, Soseono left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms with their people, along with ten vassals. She is remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje. Onjo settled in Wiryeseong (present-day Hanam ), and called his country Sipje (십제, 十濟, meaning "Ten Vassals"), while Biryu settled in Michuhol (present-day Incheon ), against

12300-537: The elite is not clear. This Council was called the Jeongsaamhoeui (政事巖會議, The council of rocks with state affairs). The town leaders and its subjects participated in the military of Baekje on a local level, and loot and captives were distributed among them. The subjects usually worked in the supply division. The position of Jwajang led the military. Geunchogo established the division of central military and local militaries. The people of Baekje usually served in

12450-665: The etymology of the Mongolian word Solongos "Korea, Koreans," the following seven etymological hypotheses regarding the origin of Solongos have been enumerated: (1) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning "rainbow"; (2) It comes from the Mongolian word solongo meaning " weasel "; (3) It comes from the Mongolian/Manchurian ethnonym Solon ; (4) It comes from the name of the ancient kingdom of Silla; (5) It comes from Jurchen * Solgo(r) ~ Solho which in turn stems from Old Korean 수릿골 suɾiskol > 솔골 solkol " Goguryeo "; (later) Korea, Korean"; (6) It comes from

12600-403: The exception of unnaturally big headwear, the clothing is portrayed in a naturalistic manner, and follows the style typical for the eighth and ninth centuries. Christine Guth notes that the facial features of the statue might be comical to modern audiences, but most likely originally were a way to designate the "otherness" of the depicted deity and his transcendent powers. This artistic convention

12750-465: The fact that the Nihon Shoki , a primary source of material for this relationship, is a compilation of myth, makes it difficult to evaluate. The Samguk sagi , which also documents this, can also be interpreted in various ways and at any rate it was rewritten in the 13th century, easily seven or eight centuries after these particular events took place. Adding to the confusion is the discovery (in Japan) that

12900-524: The fifteenth century, members of the Ōtomo clan were the only people maintaining the shrine of Shinra Myōjin, and Shinra Myōjin ki (新羅明神記) credits them with the continuous transmission of his secret rites. However, from the eleventh century onward their power declined, and the Seiwa Genji (清和源氏) branch of the Minamoto clan came to be associated with the Jimon tradition of Tendai as well. Shinra Myōjin came to be regarded as their tutelary deity following

13050-490: The first time in 472, and King Gaero asked for military aid to attack Goguryeo . Kings Muryeong and Seong sent envoys to Liang several times and received titles of nobility. Tomb of King Muryeong is built with bricks according with Liang's tomb style. To confront the military pressure of Goguryeo to its north and Silla to its east, Baekje ( Kudara in Japanese) established close relations with Japan. According to

13200-515: The formal name having been Hanyang or Hanseong. The name of the Silla capital changed into its Late Middle Korean form Syeobeul ( 셔블 ), meaning "royal capital city," which changed to Syeoul ( 셔울 ) soon after, and finally resulted in Seoul ( 서울 ) in the Modern Korean language. The name of either Silla or its capital Seorabeol was widely used throughout Northeast Asia as the ethnonym for

13350-435: The former Baekje general Buyeo Boksin rose to try to revive Baekje. They welcomed the Baekje prince Buyeo Pung back from Japan to serve as king, with Juryu (주류, 周留, in modern Seocheon County , South Chungcheong ) as their headquarters. They put the Tang general Liu Renyuan (劉仁願) under siege in Sabi . Emperor Gaozong sent the general Liu Rengui , who had previously been demoted to commoner rank for offending Li Yifu, with

13500-502: The founder Bak Hyeokgeose continued. In 377, Silla sent emissaries to China and established relations with Goguryeo . Facing pressure from Baekje in the west and Japan in the south, in the later part of the 4th century, Silla allied with Goguryeo . However, after King Gwanggaeto's unification campaign , Silla lost its status as a sovereign country becoming a vassal of Goguryeo. When Goguryeo began to expand its territory southward, moving its capital to Pyongyang in 427, Nulji of Silla

13650-529: The fourth king of Silla. One day, he found a low peak next to Mt. Toham (吐含山) and packed it with his own house, and he buried charcoal next to the house of a Japonic official named Hogong (瓠公), who lived there, and deceived him that his ancestors were blacksmiths, but the Hogong family took their home. Hogong was tricked into handing over his house and property to the Seoktalhae. During this period, Kim Al-chi ,

13800-440: The frequency of conflicts between Baekje and Goguryeo as well as Yamato Japan, Silla created six local garrisons one for each district. The royal guards eventually morphed into "sworn banner" or Sodang units. In 625 another group of Sodang was created. Garrison soldiers were responsible for local defense and also served as a police force. A number of Silla's greatest generals and military leaders were Hwarang (equivalent to

13950-689: The gold crown ornaments, gold belts , and gold earrings. Mortuary practices also followed the unique tradition of Baekje. This tomb is seen as a representative tomb of the Ungjin period. Delicate lotus designs of the roof-tiles, intricate brick patterns, curves of the pottery style, and flowing and elegant epitaph writing characterize Baekje culture. The Buddhist sculptures and refined pagodas reflect religion-inspired creativity. A splendid gilt-bronze incense burner ( 백제금동대형노 Baekje Geumdong Daehyeongno ) excavated from an ancient Buddhist temple site at Neungsan-ri, Buyeo County , exemplifies Baekje art. Little

14100-487: The heartland of the country. In the 5th century, Baekje retreated under the southward military threat of Goguryeo, and in 475, the Seoul region fell to Goguryeo. Baekje's capital was located at Ungjin (present-day Gongju ) from 475 to 538. Isolated in mountainous terrain, the new capital was secure against the north but also disconnected from the outside world. It was closer to Silla than Wiryeseong had been, however, and

14250-591: The imperial court, Shugendō practitioners, and others. The veneration of Shinra Myōjin continued in the Edo period, but its scope declined. The Matsumae clan , who from the seventeenth century onward resided in Matsumae on Hokkaido, considered Minamoto no Yoshimitsu their ancestor, and as attested in Matsumae Kagehiro's Shinra no Kiroku (1646) similarly viewed Shinra Myōjin as their protective deity. He

14400-472: The influence of their family, the worship of Shinra Myōjin spread outside Ōmi, as far as Hokkaido . A further factor which made it possible to introduce him to new areas was the involvement of the Jimon tradition in the Kumano pilgrimages . Due to being transmitted through this route, he came to be incorporated into the practices of various religious groups in the Kii Peninsula , including pilgrims from

14550-452: The international community still has many unanswered questions. National Geographic has written that Japan " the agency has kept access to the tombs restricted, prompting rumors that officials fear excavation would reveal bloodline links between the "pure" imperial family and Korea – or that some tombs hold no royal remains at all. " In any case, these Koreans, diplomats and royal relatives or not, brought to Japan knowledge of

14700-537: The kingdom of "Saro (pronounced [si.raʔ] at the time)" which later became the kingdom of Silla. In various inscriptions on archaeological founding such as personal gravestones and monuments, it is recorded that Silla royals considered themselves having Xiongnu ancestry through the Xiongnu prince Kim Il-je, also known as Jin Midi in Chinese sources. According to several historians, it is possible that this unknown tribe

14850-422: The kingdom of Baekje was bilingual, with the gentry speaking a Puyŏ language and the common people a Han language . Historians and linguists, such as Juha Janhunen , also argue that Baekje had been predominantly Japonic-speaking (specifically Peninsular Japonic ), before it became linguistically 'koreanized'. A similar view was proposed by Alexander Vovin , who also noted that Japonic languages were spoken in

15000-402: The late 8th century, however, these royal initiatives had failed to check the power of the entrenched aristocracy. The mid to late 8th century saw renewed revolts led by branches of the Kim clan which effectively limited royal authority. Most prominent of these was a revolt led by Kim Daegong that persisted for three years. One key evidence of the erosion of kingly authority was the rescinding of

15150-601: The links between both of them and Sekizan Myōjin, Matarajin was never referred to as a myōjin himself. The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī (般若, Hannya ) is regarded as the honji of Shinra Myōjin. This connection is mentioned in Onjōji denki , which also states that he was a son of Sāgara . In the Shinra Myōjin ki , he is specifically described as his third son. However, no other deities are ever attributed to Sāgara as sons. In Ryōhen's Nihon shoki maki daiichi kikigaki , Shinra Myōjin

15300-553: The matter is that in the Nihongi a Korean named Amenohiboko is described in Nihon Shoki as a maternal predecessor of Tajima-no-morosuku ( 但馬諸助 ) , This is highly inconsistent and difficult to interpret correctly. Scholars believe that the Nihon Shoki gives the invasion date of Silla and Baekje as the late 4th century. However, by this time, Japan was a confederation of local tribes without sophisticated iron weapons, while

15450-660: The meaning of "great, leader", which was previously used by the princes of southern Korea, and is sometimes also speculated to have an external relationship with the Mongolic/Turkic title of Khan . In the 7th century, Silla allied itself with the Chinese Tang dynasty . In 660, under Muyeol of Silla (654–661), the Silla–Tang alliance subjugated Baekje after the Baekje–Tang War . In 668, under King Munmu of Silla (King Muyeol's successor) and General Kim Yu-sin ,

15600-475: The military for three years. As Baekje entered the Sabi period, the military was divided into the royal private guard, the capital central military and the local military. The royal private guard handled matters such as protecting the palace. The weapons available to the soldiers were diverse. The first ever bone remains of Baekje people were found in the eungpyeongri tombs in buyeo, which made possible reconstructions of appearances of Baekje people possible, and

15750-509: The name "Silla" to the world outside the traditional East Asian sphere through the Silk Road . Geographers of the Arab and Persian world, including ibn Khurdadhbih , al-Masudi , Dimashiki , Al-Nuwayri , and al-Maqrizi , left records about Silla. Paekche Baekje or Paekche ( Korean :  백제 ; Hanja :  百濟 ; Korean pronunciation: [pɛk̚.tɕ͈e] )

15900-409: The name was originally a generic designation, "Silla deity", and only later developed into a proper name. It has been proposed that Shinra Myōjin had Korean origin. However, he does not appear in any historical Korean sources. It has been suggested that he might have been the deification of Chang Pogo . Another possibility is that he originated in China , as evidenced by the fact he was referred to as

16050-521: The narrative about their encounter only developed in the late tenth or eleventh century. According to Sujung Kim, its precise origin and early development are difficult to study, but it might have reflected a preexisting folkloric motif. Christine Guth suggests that it might have initially been a way to acknowledge the role sailors from Silla played in Enchin's journey. After the Mongol invasions of Japan ,

16200-456: The navigable Geum River , made contact with China much easier, and both trade and diplomacy flourished during his reign and continuing on into the 7th century. In the 7th century, with the growing influence of Silla in the southern and central Korean peninsula, Baekje began its decline. In 660, the coalition troops of Silla and Tang of China attacked Baekje, which was then allied with Goguryeo. A heavily outmanned army led by General Gyebaek

16350-430: The network of deities associated with Gozu Tennō . The fact that both Gozu Tennō and Susanoo could be identified with him was also one of the factors leading to the identification between the former two of these deities. Bernard Faure argues that Sekizan Myōjin can be considered Shinra Myōjin’s " Hieizan counterpart". Sujung Kim outright suggests the two might have originally been the same deity. They were regarded as

16500-616: The nobility committed suicide by jumping off a cliff near Sabi rather than be captured by the Silla-Tang Alliance. To memoralize this tragic event in history, a pavilion stands at the so-called "Rock of the Falling Flowers" commemorating Baekje's defeat and the suicide of the kingdom's court ladies and concubines who jumped off the cliff. Baekje forces attempted a brief restoration movement but faced Silla–Tang joint forces. A Buddhist monk Dochim ( 도침 ; 道琛 ) and

16650-411: The nobility, and *k(j)ə-n kici ( 鞬吉支 ), as he would be called by the commoners. The queen consort was called *oluk ( 於陸 ) and pasɨkasɨ (벗〯갓) meaning "woman companion". The Hae clan and the Jin clan were the representative royal houses who had considerable power from the early period of Baekje, and they produced many queens over several generations. The Hae clan was probably the royal house before

16800-513: The office land system and the re-institution of the former tax village system as salary land for aristocratic officialdom in 757. In Jinjin and Silla, the king was referred to as Gan, and during the Unified Silla Period, the title "Gan" was also used as Chungji Jagan and Agan. The middle period of Silla came to an end with the assassination of Hyegong of Silla in 780, terminating the kingly line of succession of Muyeol of Silla ,

16950-531: The other Mahan tribes. The Baekje Kingdom, which initially belonged to the Mahan confederacy , first integrated the Han River (Korea) basin area, then overthrew Mokji state ( 목지국 ; 目支國 ), the dominant country, and then integrated Mahan as a territorial state. During the reign of King Goi (234–286), Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to

17100-596: The other two Korean kingdoms. Silla is known to have operated crossbows called the Cheonbono ( 천보노 ) that was said to have had a range of one thousand steps and a special pike unit called the Jangchang-Dang ( 장창당 ) to counter enemy cavalry. In particular, Silla's crossbows were prized by Tang China due to its excellent functions and durability. Silla would later employ special crossbow units against its Korean counterparts such as Goguryeo and Baekje , as well as

17250-457: The other two kingdoms, Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668. Thereafter, Unified Silla occupied most of the Korean Peninsula , while the northern part re-emerged as Balhae , a successor-state of Goguryeo . After nearly 1,000 years of rule, Silla fragmented into the brief Later Three Kingdoms of Silla, Later Baekje , and Taebong , handing over power to Goryeo in 935. Until the official adoption of Hanja names for its administration, Silla

17400-480: The people of Silla, appearing as Shiragi in Japanese and as Solgo or Solho in the language of the medieval Jurchens and their later descendants, the Manchus , respectively. Koreans are still known as Солонгос ( Solongos ) in Mongolian, which is according to popular folk etymology is believed to be derived from the Mongolian word for " rainbow " ( солонго solongo ). In a paper published in 2023 regarding

17550-494: The place where the Japanese god, Susanoo first descended from the heavens after his banishment in a place called "Soshimori" ( 曽尸茂梨 ). Up until the liberation of Korea in 1945, Meiji era Japanese historians claimed that Susanoo had ruled over Silla and that the Koreans were the descendants of him, thus finding justification and legitimizing the Japanese occupation of Korea through the use of Nissen dōsoron . According to

17700-695: The protective deities of two rival branches of Tendai, respectively Jimon and Sanmon. The rivalry between the schools was also transferred to corresponding deities: disagreements existed over whether one of them was a servant on the other, while in a narrative about emperor Go-Sanjō both of them appear in his dreams and give contradictory instructions regarding whether an ordination platform should be built in Mii-dera. A number of connections also existed between Shinra Myōjin and Matarajin (摩多羅神), including similar symbolism of their portrayal as old men ( okina ) in art and shared association with Mañjuśrī . However, despite

17850-530: The protectors of children entrusted by their parents to the temple, had small shrines (祠, hokora ) in the proximity of their master's own. According to Shinra ryakki (新羅略記), they were born from two parts of a halberd which was originally given by Amaterasu to Susanoo . However, other origin stories are recorded too: they could be alternatively believed to be manifestations of Shinra Myōjin, or servants who came with him from Silla . Shinra Myōjin at some point came to be identified with Susanoo. This connection

18000-570: The reign of Geunchogo (肖古王) was it renamed as Baekje. It is also attested as 居陀羅 Kudara, meaning "great place", which could have been a possible endonym that was later on borrowed into Old Japanese . Baekje was mainly composed of the native Han (Hanja: 韓人) and the Koreanic Yemaek (Hanja: 濊貊族) from Goguryeo and Buyeo. Those from the Lelang Commandery ( Korean : Nakrang, Hanja : 樂浪) came in through trade and conquest, and

18150-463: The reign of King Muyeol this aristocracy had been divided into "sacred bone" and "true bone" aristocrats, with the former differentiated by their eligibility to attain the kingship. This duality had ended when Queen Jindeok, the last ruler from the "sacred bone" class, died in 654. The numbers of "sacred bone" aristocrats had been decreasing for generations, as the title was only conferred to those whose parents were both "sacred bones", whereas children of

18300-415: The remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogo's reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western Korean Peninsula (except the two Pyeongan provinces), and in 371, Baekje defeated Goguryeo at Pyongyang . Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted Chinese culture and technology. Buddhism became the official state religion in 384. Baekje also became

18450-571: The semi-mythological figure of Hyeokgeose of Silla (Old Korean: *pulkunae, "light of the world"), of the Park clan . The country was first ruled intermittently by the Miryang Park clan for 232 years and the Wolseong Seok clan for 172 years and beginning with the reign of Michu Isageum the Gyeongju Kim clan for 586 years. Park, Seok and Kim have no contemporary attestations and went by

18600-407: The southeastern part of the capital, and the war ended when the Silla king came out to fight against it, and the soldiers of the three kingdoms were defeated. By the 2nd century, Silla existed as its own distinct political entity in the southeastern area of the Korean peninsula . It expanded its influence over the neighboring Jinhan chiefdoms, but throughout the 3rd century was probably no more than

18750-417: The southern Korean peninsula , Sundo – a Chinese Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Goguryeo in northern Korea and Ado monk who brought Buddhism to Silla in central Korea. Baekje artists adopted many Chinese influences and synthesized them into a unique artistic tradition. Buddhist themes are extremely strong in Baekje artwork. The beatific Baekje smile found on many Buddhist sculptures expresses

18900-469: The strongest constituent in the Jinhan confederacy. To the west, Baekje had centralized into a kingdom by about 250 CE, overtaking the Mahan confederacy . To the southwest, Byeonhan was being replaced by the Gaya confederacy . In northern Korea, Goguryeo , founded around 50 CE, destroyed the last Chinese commandery in 313 CE and had grown into the largest regional power. Naemul of Silla (356–402) of

19050-406: The throne or declarations of war. The Hwabaek was headed by a person ( Sangdaedeung ) chosen from the "sacred bone" rank. One of the key decisions of this royal council was the adoption of Buddhism as state religion. Following unification Silla began to rely more upon Chinese models of bureaucracy to administer its greatly expanded territory. This was a marked change from pre-unification days when

19200-426: The tombs seem to have no sign of being looted. Baekje was established by immigrants from Goguryeo who spoke what could be a Buyeo language , a hypothetical group linking the languages of Gojoseon , Buyeo , Goguryeo , and Baekje. In a case of diglossia , the indigenous Samhan people, having migrated in an earlier wave from the same region, probably spoke a variety of the same language. Kōno Rokurō has argued that

19350-540: The top official being elected every three years. In the Sol rank, the first ( Jwapyeong ) through the sixth ( Naesol ) officials were political, administrative, and military commanders. In the Deok rank, the seventh ( Jangdeok ) through the eleventh ( Daedeok ) officials may have headed each field. Mundok , Mudok , Jwagun , Jinmu and Geuku from the twelfth to the sixteenth, may have been military administrators. According to

19500-430: The vassals' advice. The people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously, but the salty water and marshes in Michuhol made settlement difficult. Biryu then went to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje. When Onjo refused, Biryu declared war, but lost. In shame, Biryu committed suicide, and his people moved to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomed them and renamed his country Baekje ("Hundred Vassals"). King Onjo moved

19650-476: The warmth typical of Baekje art. Taoist influences are also widespread. Chinese artisans were sent to the kingdom by the Liang dynasty in 541, and this may have given rise to an increased Chinese influence in the Sabi period. The tomb of King Muryeong (501–523), although modeled on Chinese brick tombs and yielding some imported Chinese objects, also contained many funerary objects of the Baekje tradition, such as

19800-489: Was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BCE to 660 CE. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , together with Goguryeo and Silla . While the three kingdoms were in separate existence, Baekje had the highest population of approximately 3,800,000 people (760,000 households), which was much larger than that of Silla (850,000 people) and similar to that of Goguryeo (3,500,000 people). Baekje

19950-452: Was a Korean kingdom that existed between 57 BCE – 935 CE and was located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula . Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo , formed the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Silla had the lowest population of the three, approximately 850,000 people (170,000 households), significantly smaller than those of Baekje (3,800,000 people) and Goguryeo (3,500,000 people). Its foundation can be traced back to

20100-574: Was already present in Japan in the ninth century as a result of the conquest of its traditional ally Paekche in 660, piracy, epidemics brought from the peninsula and other factors, it later grew due to the Mongol invasions, which utilized the Korean navy, as the Koryŏ dynasty, while it did not initiate the conflict, was among the vassals of the Mongols. She suggests that due to fear inspired by these events,

20250-465: Was already well established among the monks from Onjō-ji in 1210. It is an example of the phenomenon of shinbutsu-shūgō (神仏習合). It developed through the theological speculation of Tendai monks and Shinto scholars from the Urabe clan  [ ja ] . However, while the connection is well documented in sources related to the Jimon tradition, it is absent from texts pertaining to Saimon, and Susanoo

20400-503: Was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632–647). It was from Silla that Korea's oldest extant genre of poems, known as hyangga , developed and were recorded. Additionally, among the three kingdoms, Silla has the best preserved ancient Korean literature written in Classical Chinese , which includes the hanshi poetry of Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn , as well as the travelogue of Buddhist monk Hyecho . Muslim traders brought

20550-472: Was defeated in the Battle of Hwangsanbeol near Nonsan. The capital Sabi fell almost immediately thereafter, resulting in the annexation of Baekje by Silla . King Uija and his son Buyeo Yung were sent into exile in China while at least some of the ruling class fled to Japan . The fall of Sabi resulted in one of the infamous episodes in Korean history, as countless Baekje court ladies, concubines and women of

20700-462: Was first held by Myōson in 1052. Shinra Myōjin reportedly revealed to this monk through an oracle that he will act as the protector of the local clergy. While initially only monks took part in his festival, it eventually became one of the largest public celebrations held in Onjō-ji, with a particularly well documented parade involving eleven portable shrines (神輿, mikoshi ) taking place in 1210. Other examples of rituals focused on Shinra Myōjin include

20850-521: Was forced to ally with Baekje. By the time of Beopheung of Silla (514–540), Silla was a full-fledged kingdom, with Buddhism as state religion, and its own Korean era name . Silla absorbed the Gaya confederacy during the Gaya–Silla Wars , annexing Geumgwan Gaya in 532 and conquering Daegaya in 562, thereby expanding its borders to the Nakdong River basin. Jinheung of Silla (540–576) established

21000-404: Was founded by Onjo , the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jumong and Soseono , at Wiryeseong (present-day southern Seoul ). Baekje, like Goguryeo, claimed to succeed Buyeo , a state established in present-day Manchuria around the time of Gojoseon 's fall. Baekje alternately battled and allied with Goguryeo and Silla as the three kingdoms expanded control over the peninsula. At its peak in

21150-492: Was handed over to King Suro of Gimhae , who was the local leader at the time. King Suro instead resolved the territorial issue and ruled in favor of Eumjipbeol. However, King Suro sent an assassin to kill the head of the six Silla divisions, who hid in the Eumjipbeol while the assassin was escaping, and King Tachugan (陀鄒干) protected the assassin. In response, Pasa of Silla invaded Eumjipbeol in 102 and Tachugan surrendered, and

21300-470: Was instead closely associated with Myōken, and according to Keihan (慶範; 1155–1221) the two names referred to the same deity respectively in heaven and on earth. The spirit of Raigō , a historical priest from Onjō-ji, traditionally regarded as an onryō , could also be identified with Shinra Myōjin. A connection between them is mentioned in Onjōji denki , according to which Raigō implored Shinra Myōjin to punish emperor Go-Sanjō for deciding not to authorize

21450-416: Was instead linked with Matarajin in a similar capacity in the latter context. Most likely identification between Shinra Myōjin and Susanoo was facilitated by the existence of a tradition according to which the latter at some point traveled through the Korean Peninsula . A shared connection with waka was likely another factor. The fact that Shinra Myōjin received swords as offerings during festivals likely

21600-410: Was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan. In 660, it was defeated by the Tang dynasty and Silla , and ultimately submitted to Unified Silla . The most common name used by most historians is Baekje ( 백제 ), meaning "hundred counties", but was originally founded by Onjo as 十濟, which figuratively means "tens of counties". Only during

21750-585: Was one of nearly constant upheaval and civil war as the king was reduced to little more than a figurehead and powerful aristocratic families rose to actual dominance outside the capital and royal court. The tail end of this period, called the Later Three Kingdoms period, briefly saw the emergence of the kingdoms of Later Baekje and Taebong , which were really composed of military forces capitalizing on their respective region's historical background, and Silla's submission to Goryeo . From at least

21900-438: Was originally of Koreanic origin in the Korean peninsula and joined the Xiongnu confederation. Later the tribe's ruling family returned to Korea from Liaodong peninsula where they thrive, and after coming back to the peninsula they got married into the royal family of Silla. There are also some Korean researchers that point out that the grave goods of Silla and of the eastern Xiongnu are alike, and some researchers insist that

22050-491: Was recorded using the Hundok reading of Hanja to phonetically approximate its native Korean name, including 斯盧 ( 사로 ; Saro ), 斯羅 ( 사라 ; Sara ), 徐那 (伐) ( 서나[벌] ; Seona[beol] ), 徐耶 (伐) ( 서야[벌] ; Seoya[beol] ), 徐羅 (伐) ( 서라[벌] ; Seora[beol] ), and 徐伐 ( 서벌 ; Seobeol ). In 504, Jijeung of Silla standardized the characters into 新羅 ( 신라 ), which in Modern Korean

22200-493: Was related to the connection between him and Susanoo too, though it is possible this custom was initially derived from a tradition from Silla. The connection between him and Susanoo was promoted during festivals held in Onjō-ji. Multiple variant names of Shinra Myōjin enumerated in the Onjōji denki (園城寺伝記) are phonetic variants of Susanoo. They include Sūgoku (崧嶽), Sūshisu (菘崧), Shusan’ō (朱山王), Shitenfujin (四天夫人 or 天夫人), and Suhatsu Hoshikashi (素髮ホシカシ; according to Sujung Kim "possibly

22350-499: Was tied to the activities of groups of Korean immigrants . Early sources portray Shinra Myōjin as a deity who arrived in Japan to protect Tendai monks and their monasteries . According to Sujung Kim, the oldest reference to him in such a context occurs in a narrative from Onjōji ryūge-e engi (園城寺龍華会縁起) from 1062. Reportedly when the Tendai patriarch Enchin was returning from his five-year stay in China in 858, he sensed that he

22500-590: Was widespread in East Asia especially in the late first millennium, and the individual elements of the statue's face and clothing can be compared to Chinese depictions of foreign disciples of the historical Buddha meant to highlight the universality of his teachings and masks used in Bugaku drama. A depiction of a Daoist sage in the Sangoku soshi ei scroll dated to 1150 is considered another close parallel. While

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