Chungcheong ( Chungcheong-do ; Korean pronunciation: [tɕʰuŋ.tɕʰʌ̹ŋ.do̞] ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty . Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju , which had been the capital of the kingdom of Baekje from 475 to 538.
186-595: Chungcheong Province was formed in 1356—during the Goryeo Dynasty—;from the southern portion of the former province of Yanggwang . Its name derived from the names of the principal cities of Chungju (충주; 忠州) and Cheongju (청주; 淸州). In 1895, the province was replaced by the Districts of Chungju ( Chungju-bu; 충주부; 忠州府) in the east, Gongju ( Gongju-bu; 공주부; 公州府) in the centre, and Hongju ( Hongju-bu; 홍주부; 洪州府; modern-day Hongseong County ) in
372-460: A coup d'état and succeeded. King Uijong went into exile and King Myeongjong was placed on the throne. Effective power, however, lay with a succession of generals who used an elite guard unit known as the Tobang to control the throne: military rule of Goryeo had begun. In 1179, the young general Kyŏng Tae-sŭng rose to power and began an attempt to restore the full power of the monarch and purge
558-675: A name for China by Turkic peoples , such as the Uyghurs in China's Xinjiang region and the Kazakhs of Kazakhstan and areas adjoining it, and by some Slavic peoples, such as the Russians and Bulgarians . There is no consensus among historians regarding the etymology of "Liao". Some believe that "Liao" was derived from the word for "iron" in the Khitan language , while others believe that
744-504: A Jin vassal (tributary). However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable. The Inju Yi clan married women to the kings from
930-673: A Liao princess. As the Khitan Empire expanded and became more powerful, it demanded that Goryeo cede the Six Garrison Settlements, but Goryeo refused. In 1009, Kang Cho staged a coup d'état , assassinating Mokjong and installing Hyeonjong on the throne. Goryeo sent an envoy to the Khitans telling them that the previous king had died and a new king had ascended the throne. In the following year, some Jurchen tribesmen who had been in conflict with Goryeo fled to
1116-477: A Northern Administration overseeing steppe and tribal affairs and a Southern Establishment overseeing the settled and Han population. The two institutions were headed by chancellors, the northern one appointed by the Xiao consort clan, and the southern one appointed by the ruling Yelü clan. In 917, Abaoji received naphtha as a gift from the state of Wuyue : The ruler of Wu State (Li Bian) sent to Abaoji, ruler of
1302-588: A century before being conquered by the Mongol Empire . Although cultural achievements associated with the Liao dynasty are considerable, and a number of various statuary and other artifacts exist in museums and other collections, major questions remain over the exact nature and extent of the influence of the Liao culture upon subsequent developments, such as the musical and theatrical arts. The "Great Khitan State" ( Chinese : 大契丹 ; pinyin : Dà Qìdān )
1488-402: A concubine) and general Ch'oe Yŏng planned a campaign to invade now Liaoning of China. King U put the general Yi Sŏng-gye (later Taejo ) in charge, but he stopped at the border and rebelled. Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty ( / l j aʊ / ; Khitan : Mos Jælud ; traditional Chinese : 遼朝 ; simplified Chinese : 辽朝 ; pinyin : Liáo cháo ), also known as
1674-551: A coup by general Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn , who assassinated Yi Ui-min and took supreme power in 1197. For the next 61 years, the Ch'oe house ruled as military dictators, maintaining the Kings as puppet monarchs; Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was succeeded in turn by his son Ch'oe U , his grandson Ch'oe Hang and his great-grandson Ch'oe Ŭi . When he took control, Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn forced Myeongjong off the throne and replaced him with King Sinjong . What
1860-757: A defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345, the Yuwen split into three tribes, one of which was called the Kumo Xi . In 388 the Kumo Xi itself split, with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans. This view is partially backed up by the Book of Wei , which describes the Khitans being of Xianbei origins. Beginning in the Song dynasty, some Chinese scholars suggested that
2046-587: A defining feature of the dynasty. This tension led to a series of succession crises; Liao emperors favored the Han concept of primogeniture , while much of the rest of the Khitan elite supported the traditional method of succession by the strongest candidate. In addition, the adoption of Han systems and the push to reform Khitan practices led Abaoji to set up two parallel governments. The Northern Administration governed Khitan areas following traditional Khitan practices, while
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#17327657087342232-518: A famine occurred in Khitan territory and Zhao failed to provide relief, sparking a rebellion. The Dahe leader, Li Jinzhong, captured Yingzhou and declared himself "Wushang Khagan" (paramount khagan). The Tang sent 28 generals against the Khitans but were defeated at Xiashi Gorge ( Lulong County ). The Tang troops continued to suffer defeat until Li Jinzhong died of disease. Qapaghan Qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate offered to aid
2418-632: A history of the Jin dynasty (266–420) , refers to the Khitans in the section covering the reign of Murong Sheng (398–401). Samguk Sagi (1145), a history of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378. According to sinologists Denis C. Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze, it is generally held that the Khitans emerged from the Yuwen branch of the Xianbei people. Following
2604-616: A military operation, the chieftains discussed it together. In mobilizing troops, tallies needed to be matched". In the early 7th century, the Dahe clan unified the Khitan tribes in a federation that was able to raise 34,000 troops. The tribal composition of the Dahe Confederation is listed as Daji, Hebian, Duhuo, Fenwen, Tubian, Ruixi, Zhuijin, and Fu. The Hedahe were the leading tribe of the Confederation, from which its name
2790-402: A move towards Han-style emperorship. Abaoji's rule went unchallenged until 910, when he disregarded Khitan calls for another member of the family to assume the position of Khagan. In 912 and 913, members of Abaoji's family attempted armed insurrections. After the first insurrection was discovered and defeated, Abaoji pardoned the conspirators. After the second, only his brothers were pardoned, with
2976-573: A naturalized Chinese official from the Later Zhou dynasty, Gwangjong implemented the gwageo civil service examinations, based primarily on the imperial examination of the Tang dynasty . This, too, was to consolidate monarchical authority. The gwageo remained an important institution in Korea until its abolition in 1894. In contrast to Goryeo's traditional "dual royal/imperial structure under which
3162-504: A new Later Han (Five Dynasties) dynasty. The occupation of Kaifeng lasted three months before Taizong withdrew. Shortly before reaching Liao territory, Taizong suddenly fell ill and died near modern-day Shijiazhuang at the age of 45 on 18 May 947. Yelü Ruan, posthumously Emperor Shizong of Liao , was the son of Yelü Bei , and not the designated heir of Emperor Taizong of Liao , who was Yelü Lihu , Taizong's younger brother. However Taizong had raised Ruan after Bei's departure in 930 and
3348-444: A plot with one of his uncles to defect to Later Zhou . He was executed when the plot was discovered. In 953, a son of Yelü Lihu named Wan also conspired against the emperor. Wan was spared but his co-conspirators were executed. In 959, Dilie, one of Louguo's co-conspirators, plotted rebellion. The next year, Wan's older brother, Xiyin, was arrested for plotting rebellion. Lihu was implicated and died in prison. During Muzong's reign,
3534-403: A potential threat and, with tensions rising, invaded in 993. The Jurchens warned Goryeo of the invasion twice. At first Goryeo did not believe the information but came around upon the second warning and took up a defensive strategy. The Koreans were defeated in their first encounter with the Khitans, but successfully halted their advance at Anyung-jin (in modern Anju , South Pyongan Province ) at
3720-483: A powerful governor, Shi Jingtang, to be transferred for closer supervision by the court, leading to his rebellion. Hard pressed by Li Congke, Shi Jingtang sought aid from the Khitans. Taizong led a 50,000 strong cavalry force to his aid and defeated the Later Tang army near Taiyuan . On 28 November 936, Shi Jingtang was invested as emperor of Later Jin by the Khitans. In 938, the puppet emperor of Later Jin transferred
3906-592: A proposal by the Confucian scholar Ch'oe Sŭng-no , the separation of government and religion. In addition, Seongjong laid the foundation for Goryeo's educational system: he founded the Gukjagam national university in 992, supplementing the schools already established in Kaesong and Pyongyang by Taejo, and national libraries and archives in Kaesong and Pyongyang that contained tens of thousands of books. Following
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#17327657087344092-624: A series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens. In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by
4278-605: A single agenda in terms of identity amongst its people. During the time of its existence, Goryeo also accepted a large amount of skilled workers from Medieval China and Tamna as well. Although Goryeo had unified the Korean Peninsula , the hojok regional lords remained quasi-independent within their walled domains and posed a threat to the monarchy. To secure political alliances, Taejo married 29 women from prominent hojok families, siring 25 sons and 9 daughters. His fourth son, Gwangjong , came to power in 949 to become
4464-479: A strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country", and protected the Balhae refugees. This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae. Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved
4650-461: A teenager but An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died after losing multiple pints of blood. An revived him by smearing ashes on his injury. Li Zhuer was highly trusted by An Lushan, and he and two other men served as his personal attendants. Li Zhuer was approached by conspirators who wanted to kill An when he became ill and started abusing his subordinates. An was hacked to death by Li Zhuer and another conspirator, Yan Zhuang, who
4836-533: A threat, ordered in 929 that the capital of Dongdan and all its inhabitants be moved to the Eastern Capital ( Dongjing ). Dongdan lost its semi-autonomous status. In 930, Bei fled by sea to the Later Tang court and was received by Li Siyuan as an honored guest. In 937, he was killed by Shi Jingtang , who overthrew Later Tang and ruled Later Jin (Five Dynasties) as a puppet of the Khitans. In 929,
5022-404: A victory against the Liao. The Liao decided to split up their forces with one part heading south. The Goryeo army under the leadership of Kang Cho lost the second battle and suffered heavy casualties. The army was dispersed and many commanders were captured or killed, including Kang Cho himself. Later, Pyongyang was successfully defended, but the Liao army marched toward Kaesong. Hyeonjong, upon
5208-593: Is claimed that one of Goryeo monarchs was the most beloved grandson of Kublai Khan . The Goryeo dynasty survived under the Yuan until King Gongmin began to push the Mongolian garrisons of the Yuan back in the 1350s. By 1356 Goryeo regained its lost northern territories. When King Gongmin ascended to the throne, Goryeo was under the influence of the Mongol Yuan China. He was forced to spend many years at
5394-537: Is not a Chinese teaching." Then Prince Bei spoke: "Confucius is the great sage, revered for myriad generations. He should rank first." Abaoji was delighted. Thereupon he ordered that a Confucian temple be constructed and decreed that the heir himself should conduct the spring and autumn ritual offerings. Bei was still ruler of the Dongdan Kingdom in former Balhae , given to him by his father after participating in its conquest. Taizong, who still regarded him as
5580-406: Is taken from. Other tribes mentioned are: Danjieli, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, and Xiwa. The component tribes were largely autonomous and the Dahe were only responsible for foreign affairs. After the Dahe united the Khitans, the system of rotating leadership was replaced by "Shixuan", electing a leader based on their talent and ability from the Dahe lineage. The other clans had
5766-740: Is that true?" During his reign, Abaoji attacked numerous neighboring peoples and expanded Liao territory exponentially. Against the steppe nomads, he led campaigns in 908 against the Shiwei , in 910 the Kumo Xi, in 912 the Zubu , in 915 the Khongirad , and again in 919 to subdue the Khongirad. From 922 to 923, he raided the Jin and its successor, Later Tang . A year later he attacked the Tatars . His campaigns continued right up until his death in 926 with
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5952-549: The Gukjagam . In the early 12th century, local schools called hyanghak were established. Goryeo's reverence for learning is attested to in the Gaoli tujing , or Goryeo dogyeong , a book by an envoy from the Song dynasty who visited Goryeo in 1123. The reign of Munjong, from 1046 to 1083, was called a "Reign of Peace" ( 태평성대 ; 太平聖代 ) and is considered the most prosperous and peaceful period in Goryeo history. Munjong
6138-650: The Khitan State ( Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur ), officially the Great Liao ( Chinese : 大遼 ; pinyin : Dà Liáo ), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü clan of the Khitan people . Founded around the time of the collapse of the Tang dynasty , at its greatest extent it ruled over Northeast China , the Mongolian Plateau , the northern part of
6324-514: The Khitan large script . While superficially similar to Chinese writing, it arbitrarily adds and reduces strokes to Chinese characters to compose words, making it completely unrecognizable to Han readers. In 925, the arrival of a Uyghur delegation led Abaoji to order his younger brother, Yelü Diela , to study the Old Uyghur language. Uyghur influence led to the development of a Khitan small script with more phonetic elements. The Khitan script
6510-469: The Khongirad rebelled. In the same year, Taizong sent his younger brother, Yelü Lihu , to attack the Later Tang at Datong . In 933, Taizong led a campaign against some Tangut tribes. The most important expansion of Khitan territory during this period, however, came from political instability in the south. In 933, the Later Tang emperor died. His son, Li Conghou , lasted only five months before his adoptive brother, Li Congke , killed him. Li Congke ordered
6696-693: The Korean Peninsula , southern portions of the Russian Far East , and the northern tip of the North China Plain . The dynasty rose from the consolidation of power among the Khitans in the 8th century and their expansionist campaigns in the latter half of the 9th century. Eventually the Yila chieftain, Abaoji , became the leader of the Khitans and proclaimed a Chinese-style dynastic state in 916. The Liao dynasty launched multiple military campaigns against neighboring states and peoples including
6882-604: The Kumo Xi , Shiwei , Tatars , Zubu , Khongirad , Balhae , Goryeo , Later Tang , and the Song dynasty . Its conquests include the Sixteen Prefectures (including present-day Beijing and part of Hebei) by fueling a proxy war that led to the collapse of the Later Tang (923–936). In 1004, the Liao launched an expedition against the Northern Song dynasty . After heavy fighting and large casualties between
7068-558: The Later Three Kingdoms . Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions of Later Silla, which, along with its capital located in modern-day Kaesong , North Korea, were the strongholds of the Goguryeo refugees. Among the Goguryeo refugees was Wang Kŏn , a member of a prominent maritime hojok based in Kaesong, who traced his ancestry to a great clan of Goguryeo. Wang Kŏn entered military service under Kung Ye at
7254-504: The Sixteen Prefectures over to the Khitans, granting them access to the strategic fortifications of northern China and the Central Plains . A new "Southern Capital" ( Nanjing ) was constructed at modern Beijing . Shi Jingtang behaved as a vassal and even allowed Khitan envoys to cross his territory to contact Southern Tang , his geopolitical rival. Shi Jingtang died in 942. His nephew and successor, Shi Chonggui , came under
7440-459: The Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region. As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed
7626-561: The Xar Moron River , south of the Supreme Capital, for several days. The deadlock was resolved by a royal cousin named Yelü Wuzhi and ultimately Lihu, who the Khitan nobility viewed as cruel and spoiled, was unable to gain enough support to further challenge Shizong. After a peace was brokered, Ruan formally assumed the role of emperor and the title of emperor. Shizong promptly exiled both Empress Shulü Ping and Yelü Lihu from
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7812-477: The Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918-943), who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje . The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain
7998-576: The "Manbu Bridge Incident" of 942, Goryeo prepared itself for a conflict with the Khitan Empire: Jeongjong established a military reserve force of 300,000 soldiers called the "Resplendent Army" in 947, and Gwangjong built fortresses north of the Chongchon River , expanding toward the Yalu River . However an attempt to control the Yalu River basin in 984 failed due to conflict with the Jurchens. The Khitans considered Goryeo
8184-688: The "Unification of the Samhan ", referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Silla organized a new central army called the Guseodang ( 구서당 ; 九誓幢 ) that was divided into 3 units of Silla people, 3 units of Goguryeo people, 2 units of Baekje people, and 1 unit of Mohe people. However, the Baekje and Goguryeo refugees retained their respective collective consciousnesses and maintained a deep-seated resentment and hostility toward Silla. Later Silla
8370-401: The "Western Capital", and before he died, he placed great importance on it in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants. In contrast to Kung Ye, who had harbored vengeful animosity toward Silla, Taejo (Wang Kŏn) was magnanimous toward the weakened kingdom. In 927, Kyŏn Hwŏn, who had vowed to avenge the last king of Baekje when he founded Later Baekje, sacked the capital of Later Silla, forced
8556-431: The 1030s. There were developments in printing and publishing, spreading the knowledge of philosophy, literature, religion, and science. Goryeo prolifically published and imported books, and by the late 11th century, exported books to China; the Song dynasty transcribed thousands of Korean books. The first Tripitaka Koreana , amounting to about 6,000 volumes, was completed in 1087. The Munheon gongdo private academy
8742-463: The 11th century, Goryeo was viewed as "the state that could give either the Song or Liao military ascendancy". When imperial envoys, who represented the emperors of Liao and Song, went to Goryeo, they were received as peers, not suzerains. Goryeo's international reputation was greatly enhanced. Beginning in 1034, merchants from Song and envoys from various Jurchen tribes and the Tamna kingdom attended
8928-475: The 14th century. A final proposed attack against the Ming dynasty resulted in a coup d'état led by General Yi Sŏng-gye that ended the Goryeo dynasty. The name "Goryeo" ( 고려 ; 高麗 ; Koryŏ ), which is the source of the name "Korea", was originally used by Goguryeo ( 고구려 ; 高句麗 ; Koguryŏ ) of the Three Kingdoms of Korea beginning in the early 5th century. Other attested variants of
9114-544: The 730s, the Yila became a tribe independent of the Yaonian. Under the influence of Han culture, Yundeshi (820s–860s?), Abaoji's grandfather, became the first Khitan to practice and teach settled agriculture. Shulan, Abaoji's uncle, was the first Khitan to practice masonry and build walled cities. To their south, the Han people of Youzhou Jiedushi fled the rule of Liu Rengong , most of them ending up in Yila territory. Han farmers were resettled by Abaoji and Han craftsman taught
9300-540: The 922–923 and 924–925 campaigns. Toward the end of 927, Bei approached his mother and formally withdrew his claim. Deguang succeeded the throne. "The ruler who has received the Mandate of Heaven should be attentive to Heaven and respectful to the great spirits. To those of greatest merit I should offer my veneration. Which among them ranks first?" All present replied that it should be the Buddha. Abaoji responded: "Buddhism
9486-475: The Balhae crown prince in the Goryeo royal family, unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo and, according to Korean historians, achieving a "true national unification" of Korea. According to the Goryeosa jeolyo , the Balhae refugees who accompanied the crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households. As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related. Taejo felt
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#17327657087349672-522: The Chongchon River. Negotiations began between the Goryeo commander, Sŏ Hŭi , and the Liao commander, Xiao Sunning. In conclusion, Goryeo entered a nominal tributary relationship with Liao, severing relations with Song , and Liao recognized Goryeo sovereignty to the land east of the Yalu River. Goryeo was left free to deal with the Jurchens south of the Yalu and in 994-996, Sŏ Hŭi led an army into
9858-577: The Dahe Confederation, which was why Abaoji had them swear allegiance to Yelü Bei when he announced him as heir apparent. Bei's mother, Shulü Ping, who was exceptionally powerful in her own right, commanding thousands of horsemen and leading troops on campaign, took control of all military and civil affairs as regent, after having cut off her right hand to be buried with her husband. Shulü Ping herself disproved of her first son as heir due to his Chinese leanings and used all her influence to have Bei set aside for his younger brother, Deguang, who had participated in
10044-526: The Goryeo–Khitan War, a balance of power was established in East Asia between Goryeo, Liao, and Song. With its victory over Liao, Goryeo was confident in its military ability and no longer worried about a Khitan military threat. Fu Bi, a grand councilor of the Song dynasty, had a high estimate of Goryeo's military ability and said that Liao was afraid of Goryeo. Furthermore, regarding the attitude of
10230-787: The Jade Seal of State Transmission (chuanguo yuxi). Ideologically, the Liao therefore regarded itself as the legitimate successor of the Later Jin, and the ruler of China. It hence chose the Water element, the element that follows the Metal element, the dynastic element of the Later Jin, according to the sequence of creation of the Five Elements (wuxing). It also chose the Water element's corresponding color black as its dynastic color. His victory did not last. Having brought inadequate supplies,
10416-401: The Jin forces, and in 946, the Jin commander in chief, Du Chongwei, surrendered. In early 947, Taizong entered Kaifeng unopposed. The Jin emperor and his family were exiled to the Supreme Capital. The Jin army was disarmed and disbanded, their horses confiscated. With this great victory, Taizong formally adopted a dynastic name, the "Great Liao". With the conquest of Later Jin, the Liao acquired
10602-521: The Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ". The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty . The Jin went on to conquer
10788-436: The Khitan khan as Prince Guishan. The Khitans also regularly presented tribute to the Northern Wei (386–534) court in the form of horses and animal skins. Trade occurred on the border in Helong (modern Chaoyang ) and Miyun. In 553, the Khitans suffered a defeat to the armies of Northern Qi (550–577) and lost a large portion of their population as well as cattle. For a time they resided in Goguryeo . In 584, they submitted to
10974-410: The Khitans and told them of the coup. Under the pretext of avenging Mokjong, Emperor Shengzong of Liao led an invasion of Goryeo with an army of 400,000 soldiers. Meanwhile, Goryeo tried to establish relations with Song but was ignored, as Song had agreed to the Chanyuan Treaty in 1005. Goryeo gathered a 300,000 strong army under Kang Cho. In the first battle, the Goryeo forces led by Yang Kyu won
11160-469: The Khitans failed to account for the Türks sacking their capital, Xincheng, and the defection of the Kumo Xi from their ranks. Sun Wanrong was killed by his servant. Although the rebellion was defeated, it took over fifteen years from 700 to 714 before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans. In 720 the military chief ( Yaguan ) Ketuyu attacked the reigning Khitan ruler, Suogu. Suogu fled to Yingzhou seeking Chinese protection. General Xue Tai
11346-407: The Khitans how to spin and weave. The adoption of agrarian culture, Han refugees, and more advanced labor organization made the Yila tribe far richer than other Khitans. Abaoji placed Han intellectuals such as Kang Moji, Han Yanhui, and Han Zhigu into his administration. Kang Moji was responsible for legal matters between Khitans and Han. Later he supervised the building of the capital city. Han Yanhui
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#173276570873411532-429: The Khitans in 1219. The royal court moved to Ganghwado in the Bay of Gyeonggi in 1232. The military ruler of the time, Ch'oe U , insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for about 30 years but finally sued for peace in 1259. Meanwhile, the Mongols began a campaign from 1231 to 1259 that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang and Jeolla . There were six major campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, 1253; between 1253 and 1258,
11718-437: The Khitans might have descended from the Xiongnu people. While modern historians have rejected the idea that the Khitan were solely Xiongnu in origin, there is some support for the claim that they are of mixed Xianbei and Xiongnu origin. Beginning with Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in the fourteenth century, several scholars have theorized that the Khitans were Mongolic in origin, and in the late 19th century, Western scholars made
11904-447: The Khitans wantonly looted the city and plundered the countryside provisions, and imposed harsh levies on the local populace, causing them to become resentful and attack them. Rather than stay and govern the conquered city, the Khitans decided to ship everything of value, from Jin officials and palace women to maps and music instruments, back to the Supreme Capital. Taizong also faced another threat from Taiyuan, where Liu Zhiyuan announced
12090-437: The Korean Peninsula. After 1270 Goryeo became a semi-autonomous client state of the Yuan dynasty . The Mongols and the Kingdom of Goryeo tied with marriages and Goryeo became khuda (marriage alliance) vassal of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years and monarchs of Goryeo were mainly imperial sons in-law ( khuregen ). The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and
12276-534: The Koreans, he said: "Among the many tribes and peoples which, depending on their power of resistance, have been either assimilated or made tributary to the Khitan, the Koreans alone do not bow their heads." Song regarded Goryeo as a potential military ally and maintained friendly relations as equal partners. Meanwhile, Liao sought to build closer ties with Goryeo and prevent a Song–Goryeo military alliance by appealing to Goryeo's infatuation with Buddhism, and offered Liao Buddhist knowledge and artifacts to Goryeo. During
12462-412: The Kumo Xi. Xianzhi captured 700 Xi households who were later settled as the Dieladieda tribe under Abaoji's reign. Saladi, Abaoji's father, captured 7,000 Xi households and moved them to Qinghe in the region of Raole (west of modern Ningcheng County ). During the Xiantong reign period (860–874), Xianzhi sent envoys to the Tang court twice. Towards the end of Xiantong period (860–874), when Xi'er became
12648-400: The Laoha. The Khitans then faced a joint invasion by the Rouran Khaganate and Goguryeo , which caused them to migrate south to the east of Bailang River (modern Daling River ). By the time the Book of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China's Jilin and Liaoning Provinces. The Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in
12834-462: The Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo proceeded to incorporate a major portion of the Balhae people whose links to Goguryeo were shared with Goryeo, accepting most of their royalty and nobility in their fold. Following the destruction of Balhae by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 927, the last crown prince of Balhae and much of the ruling class sought refuge in Goryeo, where they were warmly welcomed and given land by Taejo. In addition, Taejo included
13020-399: The Liao assisted Northern Han in fending off an attack by Later Zhou in 952. The Zhou attacked Han again in 954, and the Khitans once again came to their aid. The Khitans captured some Han troops by mistake and handed them back. On some occasions, Han envoys would visit the Liao to discuss strategic matters. Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou believed that the Liao dynasty were poised to invade
13206-406: The Liao court was moved to the " Supreme Capital " (Shangjing), a newly built walled city with a grand park and imperial tents where the Chinese palaces would normally be located. Abaoji fostered the construction of 30 more walled cities for his captured ethnic Han subjects to inhabit. The Supreme Capital was joined by the "Eastern Capital" ( Dongjing ). Administration of the empire was divided between
13392-424: The Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 ( Jingkang incident ). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyŏm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself
13578-653: The Middle East. The capital in modern-day Kaesong , North Korea was a center of trade and industry. Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture. During its heyday, Goryeo constantly wrestled with northern empires such as the Liao ( Khitans ) and Jin ( Jurchens ). It was invaded by the Mongol Empire and became a vassal state of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th–14th centuries, but attacked
13764-542: The Mongolian Plateau in 924, but there is no indication whatsoever of any conflict with the Kyrgyz. The only information we have from Khitan (Liao) sources regarding the Kyrgyz indicates that the two powers maintained diplomatic relations. Scholars who write of a Kyrgyz "empire" from about 840 to about 924 are describing a fantasy. All available evidence suggests that despite some brief extensions of their power onto
13950-406: The Mongolian Plateau, the Kyrgyz did not maintain a significant political or military presence there after their victories in the 840s. Abaoji died of typhoid fever at the age of 54 on 6 September 926. Yelü Deguang, posthumously Emperor Taizong of Liao , was the second son of Shulü Ping and not the first in line for the Khitan throne. His elder brother, the 26-year old heir apparent Yelü Bei ,
14136-597: The Mongols ravaged the whole land, resulting in a weakened defense ability, and also the power of the military regime waned. Fleeing from the Mongols , in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and defeated the Korean armies multiple times, even reaching the gates of the capital and raiding deep into the south, but were defeated by Korean General Kim Ch'wi-ryŏ ( 김취려 ; 金就礪 ) who pushed them back north to Pyongan , where
14322-555: The Mongols under Möngke Khan 's general Jalairtai Qorchi launched four devastating invasions against Korea at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean peninsula. Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. The repeated Mongol invasions caused havoc, loss of human lives and famine in Korea. In 1236, Gojong ordered
14508-509: The Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan . It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of
14694-533: The Qidan (Liao), a quantity of furious fiery oil (meng huoyou) which on being set alight and coming in contact with water blazed all the more fiercely. It could be used in attacking cities. Tai Zu (Abaoji) was delighted, and at once got ready a cavalry force thirty thousand strong with the intention of attacking Youzhou. But his queen, Shulü laughed and said: 'Whoever heard of attacking a country with oil? Would it not be better to take three thousand horse and lie in wait on
14880-410: The Six Garrison Settlements. The only peace treaty stipulations formalized in 1022 were a "declaration of vassalage" and the release of a detained Liao envoy. A Liao envoy was sent in the same year to formally invest the Goryeo king and upon his death in 1031, his successor Wang Hŭm was also invested as king by the Liao. After 1022, Goryeo did not have diplomatic relations with the Song until 1070, with
15066-433: The Song concentrated all their forces on an invasion of Han. This time they intercepted Liao forces en route to Han and crushed them. In the summer of 979, Emperor Taizong of Song took Taiyuan and annexed Northern Han. Taizong then made the disastrous mistake of attempting to invade Liao. His already overextended and tired troops advanced on the Supreme Capital. Initial skirmishes ended in the Song army's favor but they lost
15252-546: The Song dynasty, and the Tripitaka Koreana , which was described by UNESCO as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world", with the original 81,258 engraved printing blocks still preserved at Haeinsa Temple . In the early 13th century, Goryeo developed movable type made of metal to print books, 200 years before Johannes Gutenberg in Europe. The Jurchens in
15438-712: The Southern Administration governed areas with large non-Khitan populations, adopting traditional Han governmental practices. The Liao dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty in 1125 with the capture of the Emperor Tianzuo of Liao . However, the remaining Liao loyalists, led by Yelü Dashi (who would become Emperor Dezong), established the Western Liao dynasty (or "Qara Khitai"), which ruled over parts of Central Asia for almost
15624-503: The Sui dynasty (581–618). In 605, they were attacked by the Türks and lost 40,000 men and women. The eight tribes of old dispersed. Only two Khitan leaders are known from this period: Hechen and Wuyu. The title of Khitan chieftains was Mofuhe or Mohefu. Sometime during the Sui dynasty, the military organization of the Khitans became more advanced. According to the Book of Sui , "In the case of
15810-521: The Tang in 619. Aocao's great-grandson Sun Wanrong was appointed prefect of Guicheng. Towards the turn of the century, however, Tang control of the north began to slip. The Governor-general of Yingzhou , Zhao Wenhui, regarded the Khitan chieftains as his servants. The Khitan chieftain Sun Wanrong and his brother-in-law, the governor of Songmo, Li Jinzhong , felt insulted and bullied by Zhao. In 696,
15996-450: The Tang in return for subdued Türkic households under Tang control. The Türks attacked the Khitans from the north while the Tang invaded from the south. The Khitans suffered a heavy defeat before Sun Wanrong rescued the situation and counterattacked, seizing Yingzhou and Youzhou . A 170,000 strong Tang army was sent against the Khitans and defeated. Another 200,000 soldiers were sent against the Khitans but failed to stop their advance. However
16182-478: The Tang. In 734, Ketuyu defeated a Tang army with the support of his Türkic allies and then lost another battle against Tang forces under the command of Zhang Shougui. The Tang convinced a Khitan military official, Li Guozhe, to murder Ketuyu and the Khitan ruler Qulie, who had been enthroned by Ketuyu. The rebellion of Ketuyu ended Dahe supremacy in 730. Li Guozhe, chief of the Yishihuo tribe, and Nieli, also from
16368-501: The Türks to the west, and destroyed the Xi ... All the northeastern barbarians surrendered to them. Abaoji , posthumously Emperor Taizu of Liao, was born in 872 to the Yila chieftain, Saladi. By the time of Abaoji, the Yila had become the largest and strongest of the Khitan tribes, even though the Yaonian khans still held overall power. The Yila tribe was descended from the Yishihuo, who settled closer to Han civilization than other Khitans. In
16554-577: The Yalu River and many drowned. Afterward, Hyeonjong did not fulfill his promise to pay homage in person to the Liao emperor, and when demanded to cede the Six Garrison Settlements, he refused. The Khitans built a bridge across the Yalu River in 1014 and attacked in 1015, 1016, and 1017: victory went to the Koreans in 1015, the Khitans in 1016, and the Koreans in 1017. Goryeo lost the Poju ( Uiju ) region. In 1018, Liao launched an invasion led by Xiao Paiya,
16740-599: The Yila, Abaoji raided the Tang dynasty , attacked the Jurchens , and established superiority over the Shiwei and Kumo Xi . In 903, Abaoji was named Yüyue, the supreme commander of all Khitans, second only to the Yaonian Khagan. Two years later, he led 70,000 cavalry to Datong to form a blood oath with the Shatuo warlord Li Keyong . Abaoji and Li Keyong had a conversation about the Khitan way of succession. Abaoji
16926-453: The Yishi, Pin, Chute, Wukui, Niela, Tulübu, and Tuju. The Tang governor An Lushan launched two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second. An then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. An had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhuer who worked for him as
17112-621: The Yishihuo tribe, founded a new confederation. Nieli enthroned Zuwu Khagan from the Yaonian clan as the supreme ruler of the Khitans, while Nieli became the military chief. Although there was a khagan, the military chief's power actually exceeded that of the khagan throughout the duration of the confederation. The ten tribes of the Yaonian Confederation consisted of the Danlijie, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, Xiwa, Yaonian, and Yila. Other tribes are also mentioned:
17298-529: The Yuan and reclaimed territories as the Yuan declined. This is considered by modern Korean scholars to be Goryeo's Northern Expansion Doctrine ( 북진 정책 ) to reclaim ancestral lands formerly owned by Goguryeo. As much as it valued education and culture, Goryeo was able to mobilize sizable military might during times of war. It fended off massive armies of the Red Turban Rebels from China and professional Japanese pirates in its twilight years of
17484-542: The Yuan court, being sent there in 1341 as a virtual prisoner before becoming king. He married the Mongol princess Princess Noguk (also known as Queen Indeok). But in the mid-14th century the Yuan was beginning to crumble, soon to be replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. King Gongmin began efforts to reform the Goryeo government and remove Mongolian influences. His first act was to remove all pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officers from their positions. Mongols had annexed
17670-452: The Zhou. In 958, the Han reported renewed attacks by the Zhou. In the following year, the Zhou invaded Liao territory, taking some border prefectures. Muzong headed south to confront the Zhou invasion but the Zhou emperor fell sick and had to return to Kaifeng . He died soon after and the Zhou invaders withdrew. In 960, the Zhou were replaced by the Song dynasty , which attacked Han in 963, and
17856-666: The Zhuijin, Pili for the Fu. The chieftains of the tribes were appointed as prefects. The Tang emperor bestowed the Chinese surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that was "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes". Some Khitan tribes such as the Songmo, Xuanzhou, Neiji, Yishige, and Yishihuo were not included in the Dahe Confederation. The Neiji tribe led by Sun Aocao submitted to
18042-496: The advice of Kang Kam-ch'an , evacuated south to Naju. Shortly afterward, the Liao won a pitched battle outside Kaesong and sacked the city. He then sent Ha Gong-jin and Go Yeong-gi to sue for peace, with a promise that he would pay homage in person to the Liao emperor. The Khitans, who were sustaining attacks from previously surrendered districts and the regrouped Korean army which disrupted their supply lines, accepted and began their withdrawal. The Liao army became bogged down in
18228-406: The age of 19 in 896, before Later Goguryeo had been established, and over the years accumulated a series of victories over Later Baekje and gained the public's confidence. In particular, using his maritime abilities, he persistently attacked the coast of Later Baekje and occupied key points, including modern-day Naju . Kung Ye was unstable and cruel: he moved the capital to Cheorwon in 905, changed
18414-424: The allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications. These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind
18600-555: The annual Palgwanhoe in Kaesong, the largest national celebration in Goryeo; the Song merchants attended as representatives of China while the Jurchen and Tamna envoys attended as members of Goryeo's tianxia . During the reign of Munjong , the Heishui Mohe and Japan, among many others, attended as well. The Tamna kingdom of Jeju Island was incorporated into Goryeo in 1105. Goryeo's golden age lasted about 100 years into
18786-454: The area and built forts. Afterward, Goryeo established the "Six Garrison Settlements East of the River" in its new territory. In 994, Goryeo proposed to Song a joint military attack on Liao, but was declined; previously, in 985, when Song had proposed a joint military attack on Liao, Goryeo had declined. For a time, Goryeo and Liao enjoyed an amicable relationship. In 996, Seongjong married
18972-409: The borders, laying waste the country, so that the city will be starved out? By that means they will be brought to straits infallibly, even though it takes a few years. So why all this haste? Take care lest you be worsted, so that the Han people mock at us, and our own people fall away.' Therefore he went no further in his design. In 920, Abaoji ordered the development of a Khitan writing system known as
19158-496: The camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident". Taejo proposed to Gaozu of Later Jin that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the Zizhi Tongjian . Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against. Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until
19344-450: The capital to Pyongyang and expanding into Manchuria . The other one, led by Kim Bu-sik (author of the Samguk sagi ), wanted to keep the status quo. Myocheong failed to persuade the king; he rebelled and established the state of Daebang, but it failed and he was killed. Although Goryeo was founded by the military, its authority was in decline. In 1014, a coup occurred but the effects of
19530-409: The capital, ending their political ambitions. Shizong hoped this would secure his position but he quickly became disillusioned as the internal situation of the Liao remained unstable. In 948, the second son of Taizong, Yelü Tiande, conspired to murder the emperor. The conspiracy failed and the conspirators' lives were spared. Among them, Xiao Han, a nephew of Shulü Ping, conspired against Shizong again in
19716-455: The claim that the Khitans were Tungusic in origin – modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim. After splitting from the Yuwen, the Khitans and Kumo Xi fled to the region of Songmo (modern southern Hexigten Banner and western Ongniud Banner ). According to the New Book of Tang , the territory of the Khitans rested on what is now the area south of Xar Moron River and east of
19902-430: The competing states except for Northern Han by 978. Realizing their precarious situation, the Han strengthened their ties to the Liao with monthly courtesy missions starting in 971. In 974, the Song began negotiations with Liao for a possible neutrality treaty. The diplomatic efforts ended in failure and the Song invaded Han in 976 and 977, both times being repelled by Liao intervention. With the conquest of Wuyue in 978,
20088-520: The conquest of Balhae and the creation of the puppet Kingdom of Dongdan . Most of Balhae's population was relocated to what is now Liaoning . The destruction of Balhae resulted in three independent groups beyond Khitan control: the northwestern Balhae people in modern Heilongjiang , the Balhae people west of the Yalu River , and the state of Jeongan in the upper valley of the Mudan River . The Khitan ruler Abaoji did extend his influence onto
20274-618: The corruption of the state. However, he died in 1183 and was succeeded by Yi Ŭi-min , who came from a nobi (slave) background. During this period, despite nearly three centuries of Goryeo rule, loyalty to the old Silla kingdom and Silla traditions remained latent in the Kyŏngju area. There were multiple rebellions by the Silla restoration movement to overthrow Goryeo's rule over the Sillan people. Yi's unrestrained corruption and cruelty led to
20460-536: The death of Gongmin's wife Noguk in 1365, he fell into depression. In the end, he became indifferent to politics and entrusted that great task to the Buddhist monk Sin Ton . But after six years, Sin Ton lost his position. In 1374, Gongmin was killed by Hong Ryun ( 홍륜 ), Ch'oe Man-saeng ( 최만생 ), and others. After his death, a high official Yi In-im assumed the helm of the government and enthroned eleven-year-old, King U,
20646-619: The dominance of the Khitans during the Liao dynasty in Northeast China and Mongolia and later the Qara Khitai in Central Asia where they were seen as Chinese, the term "Khitai" came to mean "China" to people near them in Central Asia, Russia and northwestern China. The name was then introduced to medieval Europe via Islamic and Russian sources, and became " Cathay ". In the modern era, words related to Khitay are still used as
20832-490: The dynastic name "Great Liao" and the title remained in official use until the dynasty's collapse. Both "Great Khitan" and "Great Liao" enjoyed about 100 years of usage each. In 1124, the successor state established by Yelü Dashi in the Western Regions also officially adopted the dynastic name "Great Liao". In historiography, however, this regime is more commonly called the "Western Liao" or "Qara Khitai". Due to
21018-427: The earlier Three Kingdoms of Korea . According to Korean historians, it was during the Goryeo period that the individual identities of Goguryeo , Baekje and Silla were successfully merged into a single entity that became the basis of the modern-day Korean identity. The name " Korea " is derived from the name of Goryeo, also romanized as Koryŏ , which was first used in the early 5th century by Goguryeo; Goryeo
21204-447: The early 12th century and was a period of commercial, intellectual, and artistic achievement. The capital was a center of trade and industry, and its merchants developed one of the earliest systems of double-entry bookkeeping in the world, called the sagae chibubeop , that was used until 1920. The Goryeosa records the arrival of merchants from Arabia in 1024, 1025, and 1040, and hundreds of merchants from Song each year, beginning in
21390-557: The early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong. Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeoic population in Goryeo is speculated to have become dominant in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. By the end of the Later Three Kingdoms, territories populated by
21576-508: The exception of an isolated embassy in 1030. The sole embassy was probably related to the rebellion of Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the Khitans, who returned to enforce Goryeo's tributary obligations. Goryeo adopted the reign title of the Liao in the fourth month of 1022. The History of Liao claims that Hyeonjong "surrendered" and Shengzong "pardoned" him, but according to Hans Bielenstein , "[s]horn of its dynastic language, this means no more than that
21762-458: The fall of the Uighurs in 840. There were 29 recorded tribute activities to the Tang from 756 to 841. From 840 until the rise of Abaoji, the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang dynasty. Towards the end of that period, the Khitans began a series of major conquests. Under the reign of Xianzhi Khagan (860?–882?), the Khitans subjugated the Kumo Xi and Shiwei. Two campaigns were launched against
21948-476: The following year. Despite being spared again, Xiao Han returned to his old ways a third time, resulting in his execution. In 947, a planned invasion of Goryeo was aborted when the Khitans realized that enemy defenses were more formidable than they had thought. From 949 to 950, Shizong invaded Later Han . In late 951, Shizong decided to invade Later Zhou . Before the army set off, Shizong and his entourage got drunk after making sacrifices to his father. Chage,
22134-454: The foundation for a centralized political order. Seongjong filled the bureaucracy with new bureaucrats, who as products of the gwageo civil service examinations were educated to be loyal to the state, and dispatched centrally-appointed officials to administrate the provinces. As a result, the monarch controlled much of the decision making, and his signature was required to implement important decisions. Seongjong supported Confucianism and, upon
22320-412: The fourth ruler of Goryeo and instituted reforms to consolidate monarchical authority. In 956, Gwangjong freed the prisoners of war and refugees who had been enslaved by the hojok during the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period, in effect decreasing the power and influence of the regional nobility and increasing the population liable for taxation by the central government. In 958, advised by Shuang Ji,
22506-418: The frigid and windy Northern Desert, the Khitan people made animal husbandry, hunting and fishing their occupations, which could provide them (meat, fish and milk) for food, wool and hides for clothing. They used the horsedrawn cart for their shelters throughout the seasonal migrations. In the ancient Khitan way of life their wealth consisted of horses and their strength of soldiers. The horses were released in
22692-458: The influence of an anti-Khitan court led by the army commander Jing Yanguang . In 943, Shi Chonggui revoked the trading privileges of the Khitans in Kaifeng and confiscated their property, sending their representative back to the Khitan court. Taizong invaded in the following year but suffered a defeat in 945, having to escape the battle on a camel. However, with persistence, the Khitans wore down
22878-572: The king (of the Khitan), their territory began to be expanded. Afterwards, when Qinde became the king, taking advantage of the turmoil in China, they frequently raided the borders. Up to the time of Abaoji who was more valiant, all of the five tribes of the Xi, the seven tribes of the Shiwei and the Tartar were subdued ... Furthermore, they invaded the Shiwei and Jurchen to the north, captured the old land of
23064-535: The king to commit suicide, and installed a puppet on the throne. Taejo came to Later Silla's aid but suffered a major defeat at the hand of Gyeon Hwon near modern-day Daegu ; Taejo barely escaped with his life thanks to the self-sacrifices of Generals Sin Sung-gyŏm and Kim Nak, and, thereafter, Later Baekje became the dominant military power of the Later Three Kingdoms. However, the balance of power shifted toward Goryeo with victories over Later Baekje in 930 and 934, and
23250-474: The last empress of the Yuan dynasty, Empress Gi , was a daughter of a Goryeo lower-ranked official; Empress Gi was sent to Yuan as one of the many kongnyŏ (貢女; lit. 'tribute women', who were in effects slaves sent over as a sign of Goryeo submission to the Mongols) and became empress in 1365. Empress Gi had great political influence both the Yuan and the Goryeo court, and even manage to significantly increase
23436-574: The modern-day Chungcheong region include Daejeon , Cheonan and Janghang . Historically, almost all transportation and communication routes between Seoul and the southern Honam (Jeolla) and Yeongnam (Gyeongsang) regions have gone through the Chungcheong region, and today Daejeon —the region's largest city—is a major railway and freeway junction. Goryeo Goryeo ( Korean : 고려 ; Hanja : 高麗 ; MR : Koryŏ ; [ko.ɾjʌ] )
23622-457: The mountains during the winter and had to abandon much of their armour. The Khitans were ceaselessly attacked during their withdrawal; Yang Kyu rescued from over 10,000 to over 30,000 prisoners of war, but died in battle. According to the Goryeosa , due to continued attacks and heavy rain, the Khitan army was devastated and lost its weapons crossing the Yalu. They were attacked while crossing
23808-510: The name "Goryeo". Their historiographical names were implemented in the Samguk sagi in the 12th century. Goryeo also used the names Samhan and Haedong , meaning "East of the Sea". In the late 7th century, the kingdom of Silla unified the Three Kingdoms of Korea and entered a period known in historiography as " Unified Silla " or "Later Silla". Later Silla implemented a national policy of integrating Baekje and Goguryeo refugees called
23994-569: The name came from the Liao River catchment which was the traditional homeland of the Khitan people . The earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in the Book of Wei , a history of the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) that was completed in 554. Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans being active during the late third and early fourth centuries. The Book of Jin (648),
24180-480: The name have also been recorded as Gori (高離/槀離/稾離) and Guryeo (句麗). There have been various speculations for the breakdown of Goguryeo as a name, the most common being go meaning "high", "noble" and guri meaning "castle", related to the word gol used during medieval Goryeo meaning "place". In 918, Goryeo was founded as the successor to Goguryeo and inherited its name. Historically, Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD), Later Goguryeo (901–918), and Goryeo (918–1392) all used
24366-416: The name of his kingdom back to "Goryeo", adopted the era name of "Heaven's Mandate", and moved the capital back to his home of Kaesong. Goryeo regarded itself as the successor to Goguryeo and laid claim to Manchuria as its rightful legacy. One of Taejo's first decrees was to repopulate and defend the ancient Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang , which had been in ruins for a long time; afterward, he renamed it
24552-490: The name of his kingdom to Majin in 904 then Taebong in 911, changed his era name multiple times, proclaimed himself the Maitreya Buddha, claimed to read minds, and executed numerous subordinates and family members out of paranoia. In 918, Kung Ye was deposed by his own generals, and Wang Kŏn was raised to the throne. Wang Kŏn, who would posthumously be known by his temple name of Taejo or "Grand Progenitor", changed
24738-542: The northern provinces of Goryeo after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire as the Ssangseong and Dongnyeong Prefectures . The Goryeo army retook these provinces partly thanks to defection from Yi Jachun , a minor Korean official in service of Mongols in Ssangseong, and his son Yi Sŏng-gye . In addition, Generals Yi Sŏng-gye and Chi Yong-su ( 지용수 ; 池龍壽 ) led a campaign into Liaoyang . After
24924-525: The older brother of Xiao Sunning, with an army of 100,000 soldiers. The Liao army tried to head straight for Kaesong. Goryeo gathered an army of 208,000 under Kang Kam-ch'an and ambushed and Liao army, which suffered heavy casualties. The Goryeo commander Kang Kam-ch'an had dammed a large tributary of the Yalu River and released the water on the unsuspecting Khitan soldiers, who were then charged by 12,000 elite cavalry. The Liao army pushed on toward Kaesong under constant enemy harassment. After arriving within
25110-448: The open country and the soldiers were demobilized among the people. Whenever a military campaign occurred, they were called to arms. The mounted archers and armed soldiers received their orders at the hour mao and assembled at the hour chen . The horses went after water and grass and men depended on kumiss. They bent the powerful bow and shot living animals in order to provide for their daily needs. They also had dried food and fodder. Such
25296-501: The original Silla people and considered that of "Silla proper" (原新羅) were reduced to Gyeongju and bits of the vicinity. Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of the three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the Paeseo Region ( 패서 ; 浿西 ) and Balhae. Nonetheless, Goryeo proceeded to peacefully absorbing
25482-425: The other conspirators suffering violent deaths. The brothers plotted rebellions in 917 and 918, both of which were easily crushed. In 916, Abaoji assumed the title of Celestial Emperor , proclaimed a Chinese era name , and built a Confucian temple . He named his eldest son, Yelü Bei , from his primary consort, Shulü Ping , as heir apparent and demanded the entire nobility to swear fealty to him. Two years later,
25668-526: The peaceful annexation of Later Silla in 935. Taejo graciously accepted the capitulation of the last king of Silla and incorporated the ruling class of Later Silla. In 935, Kyŏn Hwŏn was removed from his throne by his eldest son over a succession dispute and imprisoned at Geumsansa Temple , but he escaped to Goryeo three months later and was deferentially received by his former archrival. In 936, upon Kyŏn Hwŏn's request, Taejo and Kyŏn Hwŏn conquered Later Baekje with an army of 87,500 soldiers, bringing an end to
25854-634: The presence of other Khitans, because he feared that they would emulate the Han and grow soft. After arriving, I was granted an audience. Abaoji invited me into his great tent. Abaoji was nine chi tall [very tall!]. He was wearing a long gown of brocade with a wide sash tied at the back. He and his consort sat on facing couches. I was led forth and presented. Before I could deliver my message, Abaoji [mockingly] asked: "I have heard that in your Chinese land you now have one Son of Heaven in Henan and another in Hebei;
26040-535: The previous histories the persons who took turns to be the supreme leader. This event was known from Zhao Zhizhong who had been an official historian of the Khitan, so that it must be true ... (Zhizhong) was asked which dynasty the Central Plain was in, when the leadership rotated among the eight (Khitan) men. Zhizhong could not answer, but he said that it probably was in the Qin/Han period. (I) am afraid that it
26226-490: The rebellion did not last long, only making generals discontent with the current supremacy of the civilian officers. In addition, under the reign of King Uijong , military officers were prohibited from entering the Security Council, and even at times of state emergency, they were not allowed to assume commands. After political chaos, Uijong started to enjoy traveling to local temples and studying sutra , while he
26412-422: The recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship. Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens. The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of
26598-480: The recreation of the Tripitaka Koreana , which was destroyed during the 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on some 81,000 wooden blocks, and is preserved to this day. In March 1258, the dictator Ch'oe Ŭi was assassinated by Kim Chun . Thus, dictatorship by his military group was ended, and the scholars who had insisted on peace with Mongolia gained power. Goryeo
26784-433: The region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju ( Uiju ), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain. Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . When
26970-548: The region, as well as to the Chinese Northern Qi (550–577) and Sui (589–618) dynasties. Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of Turkic tribes such as the Uighurs and Chinese dynasties such as the Sui and Tang . In the Book of Sui (Volume 84), the Khitan are described as "bellicose in plundering and raiding borders" and "the most uncourteous and arrogant among all barbarians". Living in
27156-438: The relationship between them was as close as father and son. Ruan participated in the invasion of Later Jin , earning himself as a capable warrior and commander. Upon Taizong's death, Ruan declared himself emperor before "his father's coffin". Lihu attacked Ruan while he was on his way back to the Supreme Capital but was defeated. His mother, Shulü Ping , then led her own army to confront Ruan. The two armies faced each other on
27342-485: The remaining Khitans were finished off by allied Mongol-Goryeo forces in 1219. Tension continued through the 12th century and into the 13th century, when the Mongol invasions started. After nearly 30 years of warfare, Goryeo swore allegiance to the Mongols, with the direct dynastic rule of Goryeo monarchy. In 1231, Mongols under Ögedei Khan invaded Goryeo following the aftermath of joint Goryeo-Mongol forces against
27528-508: The right to vote but not to be elected. Brothers, cousins, and nephews often succeeded rather than the son of the previous leader. No internal conflicts among the Khitan tribes are recorded after the unification of the Dahe. In the early history of the Khitan, there was a man riding a white horse and a woman riding a cart drawn by a gray ox. They met on the Liao River and then became husband and wife. They had eight sons who were called by
27714-551: The rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Im Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Im Gan
27900-465: The ruler was at once king, emperor and Son of Heaven", according to Remco E. Breuker, Gwangjong used a "full-blown imperial system". All those who opposed or resisted his reforms were summarily purged. Gwangjong's successor, Gyeongjong , instituted the "Stipend Land Law" in 976 to support the new central government bureaucracy established on the foundation of Gwangjong's reforms. The next ruler, Seongjong , secured centralization of government and laid
28086-452: The ruling class of both countries and incorporated them under its bureaucracy; conducting political marriages and distributing positions according to their previous status in their respective countries. In contrast to Silla's bone-rank system, these open policies implemented by Wang Geon enabled Goryeo to enjoy a larger pool of highly skilled bureaucrats and technicians with the addition of those coming from Silla and Baekje; later on instilling
28272-410: The son of Abaoji 's younger brother, Anduan, took advantage of the situation to kill Shizong. Chage was executed. Shizong died at the age of 33 and had not produced a son of age to inherit the throne. Shizong's rule was characterized by a series of rebellions from within his extended family. Although ruling for only four years, Shizong oversaw the formalization of the dual government system, which brought
28458-626: The son of King Gongmin. During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Ch'oe Yŏng defeated an invading Mongol tumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou menace and used naval artillery created by Ch'oe Mu-sŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships. In 1388, King U (son of King Gongmin and
28644-567: The south by North Jeolla Province, and on the west by the Yellow Sea . The region is mountainous in the east (the North province) and somewhat lower and flatter in the west (the South province). The regional name for Chungcheong is Hoseo (호서; 湖西), although this name is used less than the current administrative name. Apart from Cheongju, Chungju, and Gongju, other large or notable cities in
28830-421: The status and influence of her family members, including her father who was formally made into a king in the Yuan and her brother Gi Cheol who at some point manage to get more authority than the Goryeo king. In 1356, King Gongmin purged the family of Empress Gi. The kings of Goryeo held an important status like other important families of Mardin, the Uyghurs and Mongols ( Oirats , Khongirad , and Ikeres). It
29016-524: The structure of the Southern Establishment closer to the model used by the Tang dynasty. Yelü Jing, posthumously Emperor Muzong of Liao , succeeded his cousin, Emperor Shizong of Liao . Muzong was a heavy drinker and spent most of his time either hunting or sleeping. The Chinese called him the "Sleeping Prince". The first half of his reign was marred by continued instability within his family. A younger brother of Shizong, Louguo, hatched
29202-500: The time of Munjong to the 17th King, Injong . Eventually the Inju Yi clan gained more power than the monarch himself. This led to the coup of Yi Cha-gyŏm in 1126. It failed, but the power of the monarch was weakened; Goryeo underwent a civil war among the nobility. In 1135, Myocheong argued in favor of moving the capital to Seogyeong (now Pyongyang ). This proposal divided the nobles. One faction, led by Myocheong, believed in moving
29388-425: The title of Dama Yueshali, the commander of the khagan's personal guard, in the late 9th century. In 901, Abaoji was elected Yilijin (chieftain) of the Yila by the triennial council. None of the Khitans except the Yaonian used surnames at the time, but later in the 930s, Abaoji's clan adopted Yelü as their surname. At the same time their consort clan also began using the surname Xiao. After his accession as leader of
29574-529: The two empires, both sides worked out the Chanyuan Treaty . Through the treaty, the Liao forced the Northern Song to recognize them as peers and heralded an era of peace and stability between the two powers that lasted approximately 120 years. It was the first state to control all of Manchuria. Tension between traditional Khitan social and political practices and Han influence and customs was
29760-606: The two states concluded peace as equal partners (formalized in 1022)". Bielenstein claims that Hyeonjong kept his reign title and maintained diplomatic relations with the Song dynasty. Kaesong was rebuilt, grander than before, and, from 1033 to 1044, the Cheolli Jangseong , a wall stretching from the mouth of the Yalu River to the east coast of the Korean Peninsula, was built for defense against future invasions. Liao never invaded Goryeo again. Following
29946-443: The vicinity of the well-defended capital, a contingent of 300 cavalry sent as scouts was annihilated, upon which the Liao army decided to withdraw. The Liao troops soldiered on and headed toward the capital, but were met with stiff resistance and constant attacks, and were forced to retreat back north. During the retreat, 10,000 Liao army troops were annihilated by the Goryeo army under Kang Min-cheom of Goryeo. The retreating Liao army
30132-422: The weakening of the central government and the rise of the "hojok" ( 호족 ; 豪族 ) regional lords. The military officer Kyŏn Hwŏn revived Baekje in 892 with the descendants of the Baekje refugees, and the Buddhist monk Kung Ye revived Goguryeo in 901 with the descendants of the Goguryeo refugees; these states are called Later Baekje and Later Goguryeo in historiography, and together with Later Silla form
30318-407: The west. In 1896, Chungju and eastern Gongju Districts were reorganized into North Chungcheong Province, and Hongju and western Gongju Districts were reorganized into South Chungcheong Province. North and South Chungcheong are today part of South Korea . Historic Chungcheong was bordered on the north by Gyeonggi Province, on the north east by Gangwon , the east by Gyeongsang Provinces, on
30504-462: Was 37 years old. Muzong was the second and last Liao emperor to succeed Abaoji who was not a direct descendant of Yelü Bei. Yelü Xian, posthumously Emperor Jingzong of Liao , was the son of Emperor Shizong of Liao . During his reign, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period came to an end with the rise of the Song dynasty , which replaced Later Zhou in 960. The Song had defeated all
30690-513: Was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unification" by Korean historians as it not only unified the Later Three Kingdoms but also incorporated much of the ruling class of the northern kingdom of Balhae , who had origins in Goguryeo of
30876-400: Was a successor state to Later Goguryeo and Goguryeo . Throughout its existence, Goryeo, alongside Unified Silla, was known to be the "Golden Age of Buddhism" in Korea. As the state religion , Buddhism achieved its highest level of influence in Korean history, with 70 temples in the capital alone in the 11th century. Commerce flourished in Goryeo, with merchants coming from as far as
31062-476: Was almost always accompanied by a large group of civilian officers. The military officers were largely ignored and were even mobilized to construct temples and ponds. Beginning in 1170, the government of Goryeo was de facto controlled by a succession of powerful families from the warrior class, most notably the Ch'oe family, in a military dictatorship akin to a shogunate . In 1170, a group of army officers led by Chŏng Chung-bu , Yi Ŭi-bang and Yi Ko launched
31248-484: Was beaten by An before. An screamed "this is a thief of my own household" as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself. The An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang dynasty. Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs while simultaneously paying tribute to the Tang, a situation that lasted from 755 until
31434-435: Was concerned that he would be replaced in three years and Keyong noted that there was also a practice of replacement for his post. He told Abaoji that he could just refuse to be replaced. In 907, Abaoji demanded that he be made Khagan, and ascended as supreme leader of the Khitans with support from seven other tribes. Abaoji then slaughtered the other Khitan chieftains, alarming the Khitan elite, many of whom saw his action as
31620-453: Was different from former military leaders was the active involvement of scholars in Ch'oe's control, notably Prime Minister Yi Kyu-bo who was a Confucian scholar-official. After Sinjong died, Ch'oe forced his son to the throne as Huijong . After 7 years, Huijong led a revolt but failed. Then, Ch'oe found the pliable King Gojong instead. Although the House of Ch'oe established strong private individuals loyal to it, continuous invasion by
31806-409: Was disliked by the conservative Khitan elites for his intellectual pursuits. As a polymath , Yelü Bei was skilled in painting, writing in both Khitan and Chinese languages, and possessed a large personal library. He also had a taste for Chinese culture, music, medicine, and prognostication. Chinese-style primogeniture was also not a custom among the Khitans, who had elected their leader since the time of
31992-411: Was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Kwan , but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace. Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. It existed apart from the main army and
32178-400: Was established in 1055 by Ch'oe Ch'ung , who is known as the " Haedong Confucius", and soon afterward there were 12 private academies in Goryeo that rivaled the Gukjagam national university. In response, several Goryeo rulers reformed and revitalized the national education system, producing prominent scholars such as Kim Bu-sik . In 1101, the Seojeokpo printing bureau was established at
32364-477: Was founded in 907 by Abaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao). In 947, Abaoji's successor, Emperor Taizong of Liao , officially renamed the dynasty as " Great Liao " ( Chinese : 大遼 ; pinyin : Dà Liáo ). This was probably due to the inclusion of non-Khitan peoples in the state. The name was changed back to "Great Khitan" in 983 during the reign of the Emperor Shengzong of Liao due to a reassertion of Khitan identity. In 1066, Emperor Daozong of Liao reintroduced
32550-411: Was highly praised and described as "benevolent" and "holy" (賢聖之君) in the Goryeosa . In addition, he achieved the epitome of cultural blossoming in Goryeo. Munjong had 13 sons: the three eldest succeeded him on the throne, and the fourth was the prominent Buddhist monk Uicheon . Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture, such as Koryŏ celadon , which was highly praised in
32736-400: Was initially a period of peace, without a single foreign invasion for 200 years, and commerce, as it engaged in international trade from as distant as the Middle East and maintained maritime leadership in East Asia. Beginning in the late 8th century, Later Silla was undermined by instability because of political turbulence in the capital and class rigidity in the bone-rank system , leading to
32922-415: Was intercepted by Kang Kam-ch'an in modern-day Kusong and suffered a major defeat, with only a few thousand soldiers escaping. Shengzong intended to invade again and amassed another large expeditionary army in 1019 but faced internal opposition. In 1020, Goryeo sent tribute and Liao accepted, thus resuming nominal tributary relations. Shengzong did not demand that Hyeonjong pay homage in person or cede
33108-412: Was made an official in charge of military affairs and oversaw the subdued Han population, settling them and making sure they did not flee. Han Zhigu participated in strategy and decision making. He later took charge of the department handling Han affairs and managed protocols of foreign affairs. He also combined Han institutions and Khitan customs to make them easier to understand for Khitans. Abaoji held
33294-427: Was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch'on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue,
33480-415: Was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent Crown Prince Wonjong to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Khubilai, who became khan of the Mongols and emperor of China in 1260, did not impose direct rule over most of Goryeo. Goryeo Korea, in contrast to Song China,
33666-404: Was not true. In 628, the Dahe Confederation led by Mohui submitted to the Tang. In 648, they submitted to the Tang again under the leadership of Kuge . Kuge was appointed the Governor-general of Songmo and several prefectures were set up for Khitan tribes: Qiaoluo for the Daji, Tanhan for the Hebian, Wufeng for the Duhuo, Yuling for the Fenwen, Rilian for the Tubian, Tuhe for the Ruixi, Wandan for
33852-425: Was ordered to punish Ketuyu but he failed and was captured along with Suogu and the Kumo Xi king Li Dapu. Ketuyu enthroned Suogu's cousin Yuyu as the new Khitan ruler. Ketuyu sent tribute to the Tang court but the official in charge treated him with rudeness. Ketuyu murdered the Khitan ruler Shaogu and defected to the Türks. Ketuyu suffered a defeat against the Tang in 732 and fled while his Kumo Xi allies surrendered to
34038-435: Was repelled with the aid of the Khitans. Border skirmishes occurred between the Liao and Song in 963 and 967. There were minor troubles with the Shiwei and Khongirad in 965, but otherwise the northern frontier remained calm for the Liao. In 969, Muzong spent an entire month drinking and began to act violently and irrationally, butchering some of his bodyguards. On 12 March, six of his personal attendants murdered him. He
34224-445: Was their way of living. On account of this, they hold the upper hand and encountered no opposition whenever they went. There were eight Khitan tribes: the Xiwandan, Hedahe (Adahe), Fufuyu (Jufufu), Yuling (Yuyuling), Rilian, Piqie (Pilier), Li (black), and Tuliuhan (Tuliuyu). The eight tribes shared power by rotating leadership triennially. The Khitan federation presented tribute to the Northern Yan (409–436), which in return invested
34410-406: Was treated more like an Inner Asian power. The dynasty was allowed to survive, and intermarriage with Mongols was encouraged, even with the Mongol imperial family, while the marriage between Chinese and Mongols was strictly forbidden when the Song dynasty was ended. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of
34596-450: Was used for memorial inscriptions on wood and stone and record keeping in the Northern Administration. Almost no extensive documents written in Khitan script have survived, suggesting that few were ever produced. In the Southern Establishment, Chinese was the administrative language, which many Khitans learned, including Abaoji's sons. In a conversation with Yao Kun, an envoy from Later Tang, Abaoji said he spoke Chinese but did not speak it in
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