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119-585: Between 1190 and 1215, Philip Augustus built the Wall of Philip II Augustus around Paris to protect the capital from the English. To reinforce this enclosure on the western side, he built the first incarnation of the Louvre , a large fortress with four high walls protected by a moat, towers, and a dungeon. Under King Charles V of France (1364-1380), with the population of Paris increasing, Paris spread well beyond

238-442: A Jesuit college, working for a Parisian banker; as well as working for the father of Jean Chapelain . Before the age of 20, Colbert had a post in the war office, a position generally attributed to the marriage of an uncle to the sister of Secretary of War Michel Le Tellier . Colbert spent some time as an inspector of troops, eventually becoming the personal secretary of Le Tellier. In 1647, through unknown means, Colbert acquired

357-544: A dowry . Philip met her at Amiens on 14 August 1193 and they were married that same day. At the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin, Archbishop Guillaume of Reims crowned both Philip and Ingeborg. During the ceremony, Philip was pale, nervous, and could not wait for the ceremony to end. Following the ceremony, he had Ingeborg sent to the convent of Saint-Maur-des-Fosses and asked Pope Celestine III for an annulment on

476-407: A cheerful face of ruddy complexion, and a temperament much inclined towards good-living, wine, and women. He was generous to his friends, stingy towards those who displeased him, well-versed in the art of stratagem, orthodox in belief, prudent and stubborn in his resolves. He made judgments with great speed and exactitude. Fortune's favourite, fearful for his life, easily excited and easily placated, he

595-871: A conference at Andely and then entertained him at Paris, and both times he committed to complying with the treaty. In 1202, disaffected patrons petitioned the French king to summon John to answer their charges in his capacity as John's feudal lord in France. John refused to appear, so Philip again took up Arthur of Brittany's claims to the English throne as well as betrothing him to his six-year-old daughter Marie . In retaliation, John crossed over into Normandy and his forces soon captured Arthur, presumably as well as Arthur's sister Eleanor. In 1203, Arthur disappeared, with most people believing that John had had him murdered. The outcry over Arthur's fate saw an increase in local opposition to John, which Philip used to his advantage. He took to

714-695: A conflict arose between Philip and Count Philip I of Flanders over the Vermandois , which King Philip claimed as his wife's dowry. Finally the Count of Flanders invaded France, ravaging the whole district between the Somme and the Oise before penetrating as far as Dammartin . Notified of Philip's approach with 2,000 knights, he headed back to Flanders. Philip chased him, and the two armies confronted each other near Amiens . By this stage, Philip had managed to counter

833-482: A counterattack in Vexin, while Mercadier led a raid on Abbeville . By autumn 1198, Richard had regained almost all that had been lost in 1193. With the warring sides in a deadlock, Philip offered a truce so that discussions could begin towards a more permanent peace, with the offer that he would return all of the territories except for Gisors. In mid-January 1199, the two kings met for a final meeting, Richard standing on

952-490: A key ally, Baldwin of Flanders , in 1197. The same year, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI died and was succeeded by Otto IV , Richard's nephew, who put additional pressure on Philip. Finally, many Norman lords were switching sides and returning to Richard's camp. This was the state of affairs when Philip launched his campaign of 1198 with an attack on Vexin that was pushed back and then compounded by

1071-474: A long procession, as his grateful subjects came out to greet the victorious king. In the aftermath of the battle, Otto retreated to his castle of Harzburg and was soon overthrown as Holy Roman Emperor , to be replaced by Frederick II . Count Ferdinand remained imprisoned following his defeat, while King John's attempt to rebuild the Angevin Empire ended in complete failure. Philip's decisive victory

1190-484: A major battle, Philip retreated, only to have his rear guard caught at Fréteval on 3 July. This Battle of Fréteval turned into a general encounter in which Philip barely managed to avoid capture as his army was put to flight. Fleeing back to Normandy, Philip avenged himself on the English by attacking the forces of John and the Earl of Arundel , seizing their baggage train. By now both sides were tiring, and they agreed to

1309-462: A member of the Académie française ; and proposed one very characteristic rule with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary , in which he had a great interest: no one could count as present at any meeting unless he arrived before the hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving. In 1673 Colbert presided over the first exhibition of the works of living painters; and he enriched

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1428-644: A new bride. Initial agreement had been reached for him to marry Margaret , daughter of Count William I of Geneva , but the young bride's journey to Paris was interrupted by Thomas, Count of Savoy , who kidnapped Philip's intended new wife and married her instead, claiming that Philip was already bound in marriage. Philip finally achieved a third marriage in June 1196, when he was married to Agnes of Merania from Dalmatia. Their children were Marie and Philip , Count of Clermont . Pope Innocent III declared Philip Augustus' marriage to Agnes of Merania null and void, as he

1547-489: A part of Normandy. Returning to France in late 1191, Philip began plotting to find a way to have those territories restored to him. He was in a difficult situation, as he had taken an oath not to attack Richard's lands while he was away on a crusade. The Third Crusade ordained territory under the protection of the Church in any event. Philip was unsuccessful in requesting a release from his oath from Pope Celestine III , so he

1666-458: A patron, however highly ranked, but had to agree in this case for reasons of diplomacy between France and the Holy See . While in France, Bernini also sculpted a marble portrait bust of Louis XIV (Versailles palace). However the relations between the two strong-willed men, Colbert and Bernini, proved melodramatically stormy. Bernini's Louvre design was ultimately rejected. Colbert himself became

1785-568: A policy focusing on the unification of French trade. His régime improved roads and canals. Pierre Paul Riquet (1604–1680) planned and constructed the Canal du Midi under Colbert's patronage. To encourage overseas trade with the Levant , Senegal , Guinea and other places, Colbert granted privileges to companies, but, like the noted French East India Company , all proved unsuccessful. Colbert took much interest in art and literature. He possessed

1904-657: A remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe and the Near East where France had placed a consul. He employed Pierre de Carcavi and Étienne Baluze as librarians. Colbert's grandson sold the manuscript collection in 1732 to the Bibliothèque Royale . Colbert founded a number of institutions: He reorganised the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Mazarin had established. Wishing to increase

2023-493: A result, the imperial crown was given to his rival Otto IV, the nephew of King John. Otto, prior to his accession, had promised to help John recover his lost possessions in France, but circumstances prevented him from making good on his promise. By 1212, both John and Otto were engaged in power struggles against Pope Innocent III : John over his refusal to accept the papal nomination for the archbishop of Canterbury , and Otto over his attempt to strip King Frederick II of Germany of

2142-491: A significant role in one of the greatest centuries of innovation in construction and education in France. With Paris as his capital, he had the main thoroughfares paved, built a central market, Les Halles , continued the construction begun in 1163 of Notre-Dame de Paris , constructed the first incarnation of the Louvre as a fortress, and gave a charter to the University of Paris in 1200. Under his guidance, Paris became

2261-791: A struggle. Philip then penetrated deep into Normandy, reaching as far as Dieppe . To keep the duplicitous John on his side, Philip entrusted him with the defence of the town of Évreux . Meanwhile, Philip was joined by Count Baldwin IX of Flanders , and together they laid siege to Rouen , the ducal capital of Normandy. Here, Philip's advance was halted by a defence led by the Earl of Leicester . Unable to penetrate this defence, Philip moved on. At Mantes on 9 July 1193, Philip came to terms with Richard's ministers, who agreed that Philip could keep his gains and would be given some extra territories if he ceased all further aggressive actions in Normandy, along with

2380-430: A wide variety of fields. The authorities established new industries, protected inventors, invited in workmen from foreign countries, and prohibited French workmen from emigrating. To maintain the character of French goods in foreign markets as well as to afford a guarantee to the domestic consumer, Colbert had the quality and quantity of each article fixed by law, punishing breaches of the regulations by public exposure of

2499-691: Is the example of the first window on the left of the second floor of the Lemercier wing on the Pavillon de l'Horloge. Above the window, is an allegorical figure of Law. Then, at window level from left to right: Moses with the Ten Commandments ; the Egyptian goddess Isis with a sistrum ; the Inca emperor Manco Cápac with the sun representing his father, the sun god Inti ; and Numa Pompilius ,

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2618-612: The Battle of Bouvines . Philip was unhorsed by the Flemish pikemen in the heat of battle, and were it not for his mail armor he would have probably been killed. When Otto was carried off the field by his wounded and terrified horse, and the Count of Flanders was severely wounded and taken prisoner, the Flemish and Imperial troops saw that the battle was lost, turned, and fled the field. The French did not pursue. Philip returned to Paris triumphant, marching his captive prisoners behind him in

2737-501: The Duchy of Brittany . To seal the treaty, a marriage between Blanche of Castile , John's niece, and Louis the Lion , Philip's son, was contracted. This agreement did not bring warfare to an end in France, however, since John's mismanagement of Aquitaine led the province to rebel later in 1200, a disturbance that Philip secretly encouraged. To disguise his ambitions, Philip invited John to

2856-658: The First Barons' War . The military actions surrounding the Albigensian Crusade helped prepare the expansion of France southward. Philip did not participate directly in these actions, but he allowed his vassals and knights to help carry them out. Philip transformed France into the most prosperous and powerful country in Europe. He checked the power of the nobles and helped the towns free themselves from seigneurial authority, granting privileges and liberties to

2975-647: The French East India Company had access to foreign markets, so that they could always obtain coffee , cotton , dyewoods , fur , pepper , and sugar . He acted to create a favorable balance of trade and increase colonial holdings . As there was slavery in the colonies, in 1682, Colbert commissioned the beginning of a project that would become the Code Noir in 1685, two years after his death. In addition, he founded France's merchant navy ( marine marchande ), becoming Secretary of State of

3094-620: The House of Plantagenet , Philip succeeded in putting an end to the Angevin Empire by defeating a coalition of his rivals at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. This victory would have a lasting impact on western European politics: the authority of the French king became unchallenged, while the English King John was forced by his barons to assent to Magna Carta and deal with a rebellion against him aided by Philip's son Louis ,

3213-547: The Lordship of Ireland as papal fiefs, which John would rule as the pope's vassal, and for which John would do homage to the pope. No sooner had the treaty between John and the pope been ratified in May 1213 than Verraccio announced to Philip that he would have to abandon his expedition against John, since to attack a faithful vassal of the Holy See would be a mortal sin . Philip argued in vain that his plans had been drawn up with

3332-512: The Louvre with hundreds of pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters, among whom we find Molière , Corneille , Racine , Boileau , P D Huet (1630–1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626–1696); and even foreigners, as Huygens , Carlo Roberto Dati the Dellacruscan . Evidence exists to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly does not account for all

3451-644: The Low Countries . On 27 July 1214, the opposing armies suddenly discovered that they were in close proximity to one another, on the banks of a little tributary of the River Lys , near the bridge at Bouvines . It being a Sunday, Philip did not expect the allied army to attack, as it was considered unholy to fight on the Sabbath. Philip's army numbered some 7,000, while the allied forces possessed around 9,000 troops. The armies clashed at what became known as

3570-603: The Palace of Versailles after 1674. Louis XIV also decided to double the width of the south wing in 1668. This is why today there are two series of rooms: on the courtyard side, the rooms of the Charles X Museum; on the side near the river, the rooms of the Campana Gallery for the display of Greek pottery. The river side of the south wing was not completed until a century later. After the royal court moved to Versailles,

3689-537: The Seine , while remaining within striking distance of Rouen. His next objective was the castle of Verneuil , which had withstood an earlier siege. Once Richard arrived at Barfleur , he soon marched towards Verneuil. As his forces neared the castle, Philip, who had been unable to break through, decided to strike camp. Leaving a large force behind to prosecute the siege, he moved off towards Évreux, which John had handed over to his brother to prove his loyalty. Philip retook

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3808-455: The corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of certain privileged bourgeois ; while the lower classes found opportunities of advancement closed. He did, however, wisely consult the interests of internal commerce. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods from province to province , he did what he could to induce the provinces to equalize them. Currency exchange rates still remained between these provinces despite

3927-479: The economy back from the brink of bankruptcy . Nevertheless, despite his best efforts, France grew increasingly impoverished because of the King's excessive spending on wars. Having introduced a measure of order and economy into the workings of the government, Colbert called for the enrichment of the country by means of commerce. Through Colbert's dirigiste policies, France fostered manufacturing enterprises in

4046-604: The guilds . The Académie des sciences was founded in 1666 at his suggestion; he was a member of the Académie française from 1 March 1667 to his death, where he occupied the 24th seat, to which Jean de La Fontaine was later elected. His son Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay (1651–1690), succeeded him as Navy Secretary. Colbert's father and grandfather were merchants in his birthplace of Reims , France . He claimed to have Scottish ancestry. A widespread (but unconfirmed) belief exists that he spent his early youth at

4165-476: The papal legate , who was encouraging Philip to pursue his objective. Verraccio however was also holding secret discussions with King John. Advising the English king of his precarious predicament, he persuaded John to abandon his opposition to papal investiture and agreed to accept the papal legate's decision in any ecclesiastical disputes as final. In return, the pope agreed to accept the Kingdom of England and

4284-644: The Cathars did not end until 1244, when their last strongholds were finally captured. The fruits of the victory, the submission of the south of France to the crown, were to be reaped by Philip's son Louis VIII and grandson Louis IX . From 1216 to 1222, Philip also arbitrated in the War of the Succession of Champagne and finally helped the military efforts of Duke Odo III of Burgundy and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II to bring it to an end. Philip II Augustus played

4403-403: The Church, thereby justifying his attack as motivated solely by religious scruples. He summoned an assembly of French barons at Soissons , which was well attended. The only exception was Count Ferdinand of Flanders , who refused out of anger over the loss of the towns of Aire and Saint-Omer that had been captured by Philip's son Louis the Lion. He would not participate in any campaign until he

4522-655: The Court of the Twelve Peers of France to answer for Arthur's murder. John requested safe conduct, but Philip only agreed to allow him to come in peace, while providing for his return only if it were allowed after the judgment of his peers. Not willing to risk his life on such a guarantee, John refused to appear, so Philip summarily dispossessed the English of all lands. Pushed by his barons, John eventually launched an invasion of northern France in 1206, disembarking with his army at La Rochelle during one of Philip's absences, but

4641-433: The Flemish invasion of Artois which diverted his attention elsewhere. On 27 September, Richard entered Vexin, taking Courcelles-sur-Seine and Boury-en-Vexin before returning to Dangu . Philip, believing that Courcelles was still holding out, went to its relief. Discovering what was happening, Richard decided to attack the French king's forces, catching Philip by surprise. Philip's forces withdrew and attempted to reach

4760-505: The Franco-English war. The Angevin kings of England (the line of rulers to which Henry II belonged), were Philip's most powerful and dangerous vassals as Dukes of Normandy and Aquitaine and Counts of Anjou. Philip made it his life's work to destroy Angevin's power in France. One of his most effective tools was to befriend all of Henry's sons and use them to foment rebellion against their father. He maintained friendships with Henry

4879-561: The French and English crusaders travelled together, but the armies split at Lyon after Richard decided to go by sea from Marseille , whereas Philip took the overland route through the Alps to Genoa . The French and English armies were reunited in Messina , where they wintered together. On 30 March 1191, the French set sail for the Holy Land and on 20 April Philip arrived at Acre , which

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4998-705: The French crown, he expelled all Jews from the demesne and confiscated their goods. Philip expelled them from the royal demesne in July 1182 and had Jewish houses in Paris demolished to make way for the Les Halles market. The measures were profitable in the short-term, the ransoms alone bringing in 15,000 marks and enriching Christians at the expense of Jews. Ninety-nine Jews were burned alive in Brie-Comte-Robert . In 1198 Philip allowed Jews to return. In 1181,

5117-583: The Kingdom of Sicily. Philip decided to take advantage of this situation, first in Germany, where he aided the German noble rebellion in support of the young Frederick. John immediately threw England's weight behind Otto, and Philip now saw his chance to launch a successful invasion of England. In order to secure the cooperation of all his vassals in his plans for the invasion, Philip denounced John as an enemy of

5236-702: The Louvre and the Tuileries. He also planned to quadruple the size of the courtyard of the Louvre Castle by demolishing the old walls and extending the existing Renaissance wings. Louis XIII demolished the north wall of the castle in 1624. Since the Lescot Wing had been built for the small courtyard of the original castle, it was not easy to integrate it into a courtyard with sides twice as long. The new architect, Jacques Lemercier , duplicated this wing to

5355-613: The Navy in 1669. His effective market reforms included the foundation of the Manufacture royale de glaces de miroirs in 1665 to supplant the importation of Venetian glass , which was forbidden in 1672 as soon as the national glass manufacturing industry was on sound footing. Also encouraging the technical expertise of Flemish cloth manufacturing in France, he founded royal tapestry works at Gobelins and supported those at Beauvais . He issued more than 150 edicts to regulate

5474-440: The Navy ; he also gained appointments as minister of commerce , of the colonies , and of the palace . In short, Colbert acquired power in every department except that of war. A great financial and fiscal reform now claimed all his energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; the bulk of the burden fell on the rural poor. Supported by the young king Louis XIV , Colbert aimed

5593-582: The Philip Augustus wall. The king built a new enclosure encompassing the new quarters. With the Louvre Castle now inside the new city walls, it lost much of its military value. The King renovated the castle to make it more comfortable, installing numerous windows, adding chimneys, statues, turrets and gardens. After returning from a two-year captivity in Italy and Spain following his defeat at Pavia in 1524, King Francis I of France wanted to transform

5712-738: The White Hands . Philip was married on 28 April 1180 to Isabella of Hainault , the daughter of Count Baldwin V of Hainaut and Countess Margaret I of Flanders . Isabella brought the County of Artois as her dowry. The marriage was held at Bapaume , with the bishops of Senlis and Laon in attendance. From the time of his coronation, all real power was transferred to Philip, as his father's health slowly declined. The great nobles were dissatified with Philip's advantageous marriage. His mother and four uncles, all of whom exercised enormous influence over Louis, were extremely unhappy with his attainment of

5831-658: The Young King and Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany until their deaths. Indeed, at Geoffrey's funeral, he was so overcome with grief that he had to be forcibly restrained from casting himself into the grave. He broke off his friendships with Henry's other sons Richard and John as each ascended to the English throne. Philip travelled to the Holy Land to participate in the Third Crusade of 1189–1192 with King Richard I of England and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa , leaving Vézelay with his army on 4 July 1190. At first,

5950-651: The advice of his physician. The journey proved too much for him and he died en route the next day, in Mantes-la-Jolie , at the age of 57. His body was carried to Paris on a bier . He was interred in the Basilica of St Denis in the presence of his son and successor, Louis VIII, as well as his illegitimate son Philip I, Count of Boulogne and John of Brienne , the King of Jerusalem. Jean-Baptiste Colbert Jean-Baptiste Colbert ( French: [ʒɑ̃.ba.tist kɔl.bɛʁ] ; 29 August 1619 – 6 September 1683)

6069-446: The advice, and quickly marched at the head of his troops into the territory of Flanders. The French fleet proceeded first to Gravelines and then to the port of Damme. Meanwhile, the army marched by Cassel , Ypres , and Bruges before laying siege to Ghent . Hardly had the siege begun when Philip learnt that the English fleet had captured a number of his ships at Damme and that the rest were so closely blockaded in its harbour that it

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6188-522: The ambitions of the count by breaking his alliances with Duke Henry I of Brabant and the Archbishop of Cologne , Philipp von Heinsberg . This, together with an uncertain outcome were he to engage the French in battle, forced the Count to conclude a peace. In July 1185, the Treaty of Boves left the disputed territory partitioned, with Amiénois , Artois, and numerous other places passing to the king, and

6307-658: The business that brought him hither. But still, if he finds himself in bad health, or is afraid lest he should die here, his will be done." On 31 July 1191, the French army of 10,000 men (along with 5,000 silver marks to pay the soldiers) remained in Outremer under the command of Duke Hugh III of Burgundy . Philip and his cousin Peter of Courtenay , Count of Nevers , made their way to Rome, where Philip protested to Pope Celestine III (to no avail) of Richard's abusive manner, and from there returned to France. The decision to return

6426-400: The campaign ended in disaster. After backing out of a conference that he himself had demanded, John eventually bargained at Thouars for a two-year truce, the price of which was his agreement to the chief provisions of the judgment of the Court of Peers, including a loss of his patrimony. In 1208, Philip of Swabia , the successful candidate to become Holy Roman Emperor , was assassinated. As

6545-564: The castle. After Francis I's death, his son Henry II (1547–1559) continued the work and oversaw demolition of the west wall, which he replaced with a Renaissance palace of the same length between December 1546 and March 1549. This area, the current Lescot Wing , hosted the Salle des Gardes (Hall of the Guards), today known as the Salle des Caryatides, a room for events which also serves as a ballroom. Many historical events took place there, such as

6664-462: The city and county of Alençon . Philip's eldest son, Louis , inherited the County of Artois in 1190 when Queen Isabella died. The main source of funding for Philip's army was the royal demesne. In times of conflict, he could immediately call up 250 knights, 250 horse sergeants, 100 mounted crossbowmen, 133 crossbowmen on foot, 2,000-foot sergeants, and 300 mercenaries. Towards the end of his reign,

6783-604: The condition that Philip would hand back the captured territory if Richard would pay homage. To prevent Richard from spoiling their plans, Philip and John attempted to bribe Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI in order to keep the English king captive for a little while longer. Henry refused, and Richard was released from captivity on 4 February 1194. By 13 March Richard had returned to England, and by 12 May he had set sail for Normandy with some 300 ships, eager to engage Philip in war. Philip had spent this time consolidating his territorial gains and by now controlled much of Normandy east of

6902-514: The confiscated goods of an uncle, Pussort. In 1648, he and his wife Marie Charron, received 40,000 crowns from an unknown source; and in 1649 Colbert became the councilor of state, i.e. a political minister. In 1657, he purchased the Barony of Seignelay . Colbert was recommended to King Louis XIV by Mazarin. While Cardinal Mazarin was in exile, Louis's trust in Colbert grew. In 1652 Colbert

7021-482: The consent of Rome, that his expedition was in support of papal authority that he only undertook on the understanding that he would gain a plenary indulgence ; he had spent a fortune preparing for the expedition. The papal legate remained unmoved, but Verraccio did suggest an alternative. The Count of Flanders had denied Philip's right to declare war on England while King John was still excommunicated , and that his disobedience needed to be punished. Philip eagerly accepted

7140-432: The conspiracy to overthrow the legitimate king of England. At the start of 1193, John visited Philip in Paris, where he paid homage for Richard's continental lands. When word reached Philip that Richard had finished crusading and had been captured on his way back from the Holy Land, he promptly invaded Vexin. His first target was the fortress of Gisors, commanded by Gilbert de Vascoeuil , which surrendered without putting up

7259-529: The construction of the Grand Louvre , basement-level galleries were created for exhibiting the artefacts and architectural remnants of the Medieval Louvre . Louis XIV also had the length of the south wing doubled and built the north wing. Three sides of the courtyard were then in place. The yet to be built east wing was very important as it faced the city with other buildings nearby. This would be

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7378-477: The death of Philip, Count of Flanders, who held the county of Vermandois proper. His death threatened to derail the Treaty of Gisors that Philip had orchestrated to isolate the powerful Blois-Champagne faction. Philip decided to return to France to settle the issue of succession in Flanders, a decision that displeased Richard, who said, "It is a shame and a disgrace on my lord if he goes away without having finished

7497-550: The deck of a boat, and Philip standing on the banks of the Seine River. Shouting terms at each other, they could not reach an agreement on the terms of a permanent truce, but they did agree to further mediation, which resulted in a five-year truce that held. Later in 1199, Richard was killed during a siege involving one of his vassals. In May 1200, Philip signed the Treaty of Le Goulet with Richard's successor John . The treaty

7616-411: The delinquent and destruction of the goods concerned, and, on the third offense, by the pillory . Colbert prohibited the production of certain products that might have suited consumers, and the time-consuming supervision he imposed on commercial enterprises may have acted as a hindrance to improvement. Other parts of Colbert's schemes have met with less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of

7735-430: The duchy for his unborn grandson Arthur I, Duke of Brittany . Philip, as Henry's liege lord, objected, stating that he should be the rightful guardian until the birth of the child. Philip then raised the issue of his other sister, Alys, Countess of Vexin , and her delayed betrothal to Henry's son Richard I of England , nicknamed Richard the Lionheart. With these grievances, two years of combat followed (1186–1188), but

7854-412: The east to discredit the English king in the eyes of his subjects. Among the stories Philip invented included Richard being involved in treacherous communication with Saladin , alleging he had conspired to cause the fall of Gaza , Jaffa , and Ascalon , and that he had participated in the murder of Conrad of Montferrat . Finally, Philip made contact with John, Richard's brother, whom he convinced to join

7973-459: The emergent bourgeoisie . He built a great wall around Paris ("the Wall of Philip II Augustus "), re-organised the French government, and brought financial stability to his country. Philip was born in Gonesse on 21 August 1165, the son of Louis VII and Adela of Champagne . He was nicknamed "Dieudonné" (God-given) being the first born son, arriving late in his father's life. Louis intended to make Philip co-ruler with him, in accordance with

8092-440: The first French monarch to style himself "King of France" ( rex Francie ). The son of King Louis VII and his third wife, Adela of Champagne , he was originally nicknamed ' God-given ' ( Dieudonné ) because he was a first son and born late in his father's life. Philip was given the epithet " Augustus " by the chronicler Rigord for having extended the crown lands of France so remarkably. After decades of conflicts with

8211-411: The first blow at the man accused of being the greatest of the royal embezzlers, the superintendent Nicolas Fouquet . Fouquet's fall secured Colbert's own advancement. After the abolition of the office of superintendent and of many other offices dependent upon it, control of France's finances fell to a royal council. The sovereign functioned as its president, but Colbert, though only an intendant for

8330-550: The first city of teachers the medieval world knew. In 1224, the French poet Henry d'Andeli wrote of the great wine-tasting competition that Philip II Augustus commissioned, the Battle of the Wines . Philip II fell ill in September 1222 and had a will made, but carried on with his itinerary, but travelling in hot weather the next summer resulted in a fever. The king recovered and felt well enough to resume his restless activity of touring his kingdom. The partial return of his health prompted him to travel to Paris on 13 July 1223, against

8449-503: The first four years, operated as its ruling spirit, enjoying as he did king's favor and confidence. His ruthlessness in the execution of his functions may have set a dangerous precedent, but it probably struck him necessary in that the council could not defer to individual interests. This way of administering his policies was particularly in evidence in his preparation and enforcement of his forestry ordinance of 1669 . When he had severely punished guilty officials, he turned his attention to

8568-624: The fortress of Gisors. Bunched together, the French knights with king Philip attempted to cross the Epte River on a bridge that promptly collapsed under their weight, almost drowning Philip in the process. He was dragged out of the river and shut himself up in Gisors, having successfully evaded Richard and reinforced the fortress. Philip soon planned a new offensive, launching destructive raids into Normandy and again targeting Évreux which he captured and sacked. Richard countered Philip's thrust with

8687-429: The government's fraudulent creditors. Here he had a simple way of operating. He repudiated some of the public loans and reduced the interest rate on others. The amount of the reduction was initially his own decision but ultimately that of a council he established to examine all claims against the state. Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in taxation among the various classes. Cutting back

8806-465: The grounds of non-consummation. Philip had not reckoned with Ingeborg, however; she insisted that the marriage had been consummated, and that she was his wife and the rightful queen of France. The Franco-Danish churchman William of Æbelholt intervened on Ingeborg's side, drawing up a genealogy of the Danish kings to disprove the alleged impediment of consanguinity . In the meantime, Philip had sought

8925-576: The king could muster some 3,000 knights, 9,000 sergeants, 6,000 urban militiamen, and thousands of foot sergeants. Using his increased revenues, Philip was the first Capetian king to build a French navy actively. By 1215, his fleet could carry a total of 7,000 men. Within two years, his fleet included 10 large ships and many smaller ones. Reversing his father's tolerance and protection of Jews, Philip in 1180 ordered French Jews to be stripped of their valuables, ransomed and converted to Christianity on pain of further taxation. In April 1182, partially to enrich

9044-598: The merchant classes. When the king resolved to make all France Roman Catholic and revoked the Edict of Nantes , he followed him and urged his subordinates to do all they could to promote conversions . Colbert had nine children, including : His policies inspired those of Alexander Hamilton , the first treasury secretary of the United States. Six ships of the French Navy bore his name: In literature,

9163-477: The new main entrance to the Louvre. After a contest launched by Jean-Baptiste Colbert , the King decided in 1665 to have the Louvre Colonnade built outside on the east by Claude Perrault and Louis le Vau. As the King did not have the power of expropriation , the work dragged on because it was necessary to buy the land and the houses in front of the future colonnade to clear the view. The King moved to

9282-476: The north, the present Lemercier Wing (1636), and installed a taller pavilion between the two, the Pavillon de l'Horloge . Louis XIV had the east wall demolished and renovated by architect Louis Le Vau . These last two walls to be demolished, on the north and east, were simply razed and the ditches filled. Their foundations remained intact and were rediscovered during excavations of the courtyard in 1866. During

9401-566: The northwest corner and going clockwise, the names of the eight pavilions are: The two wings on either side of the Sully Pavilion are named: At the center of the Cour Carrée, there is a fountain. Although the buildings were built over a period of 250 years, they show great homogeneity. The ground floor and the two floors have successions of windows, bas-reliefs , and statues in niches. The French sovereigns left their monograms on

9520-446: The number of the privileged proved impossible, but Colbert firmly resisted false claims for exemption and lightened direct taxation by increasing indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not escape. At the same time, he undertook improvements to the way taxes were collected. Colbert's relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing

9639-605: The offensive and, apart from a five-month siege of Andely, swept all before him. After Andely surrendered, John fled to England. By the end of 1204, most of Normandy and the Angevin lands, including much of Aquitaine , had fallen into Philip's hands. Philip requested John release Eleanor of Brittany, claiming that she was to be his daughter-in-law, but to no avail. What Philip had gained through victory in war, he sought to confirm by legal means. Philip, again acting as John's liege lord over his French lands, summoned him to appear before

9758-464: The old castle of the Louvre into a Renaissance style palace, like those he encountered during his captivity. In 1528, he ordered the demolition of the Grosse Tour (Great Tower), which had served as a keep . This took four months and the tower was replaced by a moat serving the main court of the castle. In 1546, the King asked architect Pierre Lescot and sculptor Jean Goujon to further renovate

9877-406: The parts they built. Those of Henry II, Charles IX , Henry IV, Louis XIII and Louis XIV can easily be identified and they help track the history of construction. The Republic did not want to be outdone and installed a rooster in the pediment of the west façade of the central pavilion of the east wing. All the reliefs and statues in the Cour Carrée represent specific allegories or figures. Here

9996-484: The power struggle between Colbert and Fouquet is one of the main plotlines of Alexandre Dumas, père 's novel The Vicomte of Bragelonne , the second sequel to The Three Musketeers . Dumas paints Colbert as an uncouth and ruthless schemer who stops at little, in contrast to the more refined Fouquet, counselled by Aramis , but also as a visionary patriot. Colbert's statue stands outside the Assemblée nationale . It

10115-439: The prestige of the image of France and the French royal family, Colbert played an active role in bringing the great Italian architect-sculptor, Gian Lorenzo Bernini , to Paris (June–October 1665), in order to design the new East Facade of the Louvre. This was a striking coup and caused a sensation because Bernini, the most famous artist in all of Europe, had never before (or after) consented to travel any significant distance to meet

10234-400: The process, before forcing him to acknowledge Richard as his heir. Finally, by the Treaty of Azay-le-Rideau (4 July 1189), Henry was forced to renew his own homage, confirm the cession of Issoudun to Philip (along with Graçay ), and renounce his claim to suzerainty over Auvergne . Henry died two days later. His death and the news of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin , diverted attention from

10353-523: The proposal that suggested seizing part of the wealth of the clergy . In his hatred of idleness, he ventured to suppress no less than seventeen fêtes , and he had a project for reducing the number of persons devoted to clerical and monastic life by increasing the age for taking vows . He showed himself initially unwilling to interfere with heresy , for he realised the commercial value of the Huguenots (French Protestants), who were well represented among

10472-572: The remainder, with the county of Vermandois proper, left provisionally to the Count of Flanders. It was during this time that Philip II was nicknamed "Augustus" by the monk Rigord for augmenting French lands. Meanwhile, in 1184, Stephen I, Count of Sancerre and his Brabançon mercenaries ravaged the Orléanais. Philip defeated him with the aid of the Confrères de la Paix . A disagreement arose between Philip and King Henry II of England , who

10591-520: The same time. Philip now marched southward into the Berry region. His primary objective was the fortress of Issoudun , which had just been captured by Richard's mercenary commander, Mercadier . The French king took the town and was besieging the castle when Richard stormed through French lines and made his way in to reinforce the garrison, while at the same time, another army was approaching Philip's supply lines. Philip called off his attack, and another truce

10710-497: The second king of Rome. 48°51′37″N 2°20′19″E  /  48.860399°N 2.338644°E  / 48.860399; 2.338644 Philip II of France Philip II (21 August 1165 – 14 July 1223), also known as Philip Augustus ( French : Philippe Auguste ), was King of France from 1180 to 1223. His predecessors had been known as kings of the Franks ( Latin : rex Francorum ), but from 1190 onward, Philip became

10829-624: The situation remained unchanged. Philip initially allied with Henry's young sons Richard the Lionheart and John , who were in rebellion against their father. The first attempt to seriously test Henry's resolve came when Philip II launched an attack on Berry in the summer of 1187 and captured the fortress of Issoudun , but by June made a truce with Henry, which left Issoudun in Philip's hands while also granting him Fréteval in Vendômois . Though

10948-446: The splendid, if in some cases specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and art. Colbert worked incessantly hard until his final hours. Work was his religion; he once pondered whether it was better to rise early and work or retire very late and work. He concluded that rising early and retiring late would be the ideal combination. Towards the end of his life he suffered from stomach aches, which caused him much distress. He

11067-579: The taxes paid by the people reached the King. The paper also contained an attack on Nicolas Fouquet . The postmaster of Paris, a spy of Fouquet's, read the letter, leading to a dispute which Mazarin attempted to suppress. In 1661, Mazarin died and Colbert "made sure of the King's favor" by revealing the location of some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. In January 1664 Colbert became the Superintendent of buildings ; in 1665 he became Controller-General of Finances ; in 1669, he became Secretary of State of

11186-408: The temporary Truce of Tillières. The war resumed in 1195 when Philip once again besieged Verneuil. He continued the siege in secret as Richard arrived to negotiate in person; when Richard found out, he swore revenge and left. Philip now pressed his advantage in northeastern Normandy, where he conducted a raid at Dieppe , burning the English ships in the harbor while repulsing an attack by Richard at

11305-461: The throne since Philip had taken the royal seal from his father. Louis died on 18 September 1180. The royal demesne had increased under Philip I and Louis VI , but had slightly diminished under Louis VII. The first major increase to the royal demesne came in 1185, when Philip acquired the County of Amiens . He purchased the County of Clermont-en-Beauvaisis in 1218, and following the death of Robert I, Count of Alençon in 1219, Philip obtained

11424-428: The town and sacked it, but during this time, his forces at Verneuil abandoned the siege, and Richard entered the castle unopposed on 30 May. Throughout June, while Philip's campaign ground to a halt in the north, Richard was taking a number of important fortresses to the south. Philip, eager to relieve the pressure off his allies in the south, marched to confront Richard's forces at Vendôme . Refusing to risk everything in

11543-561: The traditions of the House of Capet , but these plans were delayed when Philip became ill after a hunting trip. His father went on pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral to pray for Philip's recovery, and was told that his son had indeed recovered. However, on his way back to Paris, the king suffered a stroke. In declining health, Louis VII had 14-year-old Philip crowned and anointed as king at Reims on 1 November 1179 by Archbishop William of

11662-516: The truce was for two years, Philip found grounds for resuming hostilities in the summer of 1188 and succeeded in seizing Châteauroux . He skillfully exploited the estrangement between Henry and Richard, and Richard did homage to him voluntarily at Bonsmoulins in November 1188. In 1189, as Henry's health was failing, Richard openly joined forces with Philip to drive him into submission. They chased him from Le Mans to Saumur , capturing Tours in

11781-571: The unfinished buildings hosted artists. Heterogeneous constructions were erected in the courtyard. After its abandonment and degradation during the Revolution, Louis XVIII restored the Louvre and put his monogram (two L's of stick characters turning their backs) on the three exterior façades of the Cour Carrée (including the colonnade), despite only restoring them. The buildings form a square of about 160 meters on each side. It consists of eight wings punctuated with eight pavilions . Starting at

11900-455: The wedding of King Henry IV , an episode of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre , the funeral wake of Henry IV, and the first performance of a Molière play for King Louis XIV on October 16, 1658. Henry II then demolished the southern wall to pave the way for the construction of the Pavillon du Roi from 1553 to 1556, located at the junction of the south and west wings. At this stage, the building

12019-484: Was a French statesman who served as First Minister of State from 1661 until his death in 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV . His lasting impact on the organization of the country's politics and markets, known as Colbertism , a doctrine often characterized as a variant of mercantilism , earned him the nickname le Grand Colbert ( [lə ɡʁɑ̃ kɔl.bɛʁ] ; "the Great Colbert"). A native of Reims , he

12138-459: Was agreed; the Treaty of Louviers . The war slowly turned against Philip over the course of the next three years. Political and military conditions seemed promising at the start of 1196 when Richard's nephew Arthur I, Duke of Brittany ended up in Philip's hands, and he won the Siege of Aumale despite an attempt from Richard to relieve it, but Philip's good fortune did not last. Richard won over

12257-416: Was already under siege by a lesser contingent of crusaders, and he started to construct siege equipment before Richard arrived on 8 June. By the time Acre surrendered on 12 July, Philip was severely ill with dysentery , which reduced his zeal. Ties with Richard were further strained after the latter acted in a haughty manner after Acre fell to the crusaders. More importantly, the siege of Acre resulted in

12376-439: Was also Count of Anjou and Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine in France. The death of Henry's eldest son, Henry the Young King , in June 1183, began a dispute over the dowry of Philip's widowed sister Margaret . Philip insisted that the dowry should be returned to France as the marriage did not produce any children, per the betrothal agreement. The two kings would hold conferences at the foot of an elm tree near Gisors , which

12495-546: Was also fuelled by the realization that with Richard campaigning in the Holy Land, English possessions in northern France would be open to attack. After Richard's delayed return home, the war between England and France would ensue over the possession of English-controlled territories. The immediate cause of Philip's conflict with Richard the Lionheart stemmed from Richard's decision to break his betrothal with Philip's sister Alys at Messina in 1191. Some of Alys's dowry that had been given over to Richard during their engagement

12614-425: Was appointed Intendant of Finances on 4 May 1661. Colbert took over as Controller-General of Finances , a newly created position, in the aftermath of the arrest of Nicolas Fouquet for embezzlement, an event that led to the abolishment of the office of Superintendent of Finances . He worked to develop the domestic economy by raising tariffs and encouraging major public works projects, as well as to ensure that

12733-483: Was asked to manage the affairs of the Cardinal while he was away. This new responsibility would detach Colbert from his other responsibility as commissaire des guerres . Although Colbert was not a supporter of Mazarin in principle, he would defend the cardinal's interests with unflagging devotion. Colbert's earliest recorded attempt at tax reform came in the form of a mémoire to Mazarin, showing that less than half of

12852-561: Was crucial in shaping Western European politics in both England and France. In England, the defeated John was so weakened that he was soon required to submit to the demands of his barons and sign Magna Carta, which limited the power of the crown and established the basis for common law. The Battle of Bouvines marked the end of the Angevin Empire. After the early death of Isabella of Hainault in childbirth in 1190, Philip decided to marry again. He decided on Ingeborg , daughter of King Valdemar I of Denmark , who received 10,000 marks of silver as

12971-540: Was forced to build his own casus belli . On 20 January 1192, Philip met William FitzRalph , Richard's seneschal for Normandy. Presenting some documents purporting to be from Richard, Philip claimed that the English king had agreed at Messina to hand disputed lands over to France. Not having heard anything directly from their sovereign, FitzRalph and the Norman barons rejected Philip's claim to Vexin. Philip at this time also began spreading rumours about Richard's action in

13090-451: Was impossible for them to escape. He ordered the fleet to be burned to prevent it from falling into enemy hands. The destruction of the French fleet had once again raised John's hopes, so he began preparing for an invasion of France and a reconquest of his lost provinces. The English barons were initially unenthusiastic about the expedition, which delayed his departure, so it was not until February 1214 that he disembarked at La Rochelle. John

13209-499: Was meant to bring peace to Normandy by settling the issue of its much-reduced boundaries. The terms of John's vassalage were not only for Normandy, but also for Anjou , Maine, and Touraine . John agreed to heavy terms, including the abandonment of all the English possessions in Berry and 20,000 marks of silver, while Philip in turn recognized John as king of England, formally abandoning Arthur of Brittany's candidacy, whom he had hitherto supported, recognizing instead John's suzerainty over

13328-518: Was part of the territory of Vexin . This should have reverted to Philip upon the end of the betrothal, but Philip, to prevent the collapse of the Crusade, agreed that this territory was to remain in Richard's hands and would be inherited by his male descendants. Should Richard die without an heir, the territory would return to Philip, and if Philip died without an heir, those lands would be considered

13447-479: Was reduced to eating moist bread dipped in chicken broth for his meals. By 64 he was bedridden and died seven days after his birthday. The surgeons who examined him found that he had been suffering from kidney stones . A huge stone was found in his urinary tract , which would explain his pain. Colbert played a subordinate role in the struggle between the king and the papacy over royal rights concerning vacant bishoprics , and he seems to have sympathised with

13566-480: Was restored to his ancient lands. Philip was eager to prove his loyalty to Rome and thus secure papal support for his planned invasion, announced at Soissons a reconciliation with his estranged wife Ingeborg of Denmark , which the popes had been promoting. The barons fully supported his plan, and they all gathered their forces and prepared to join with Philip at the agreed rendezvous. Through all of this, Philip remained in constant communication with Pandulf Verraccio ,

13685-412: Was so positioned that it would overshadow each monarch's territory, but to no avail. Philip pushed the case further when King Béla III of Hungary asked for the widow's hand in marriage, and thus her dowry had to be returned, to which Henry finally agreed. The death of Henry's fourth son, Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany , began a new round of disputes, as Henry insisted that he retain the guardianship of

13804-520: Was still married to Ingeborg. He ordered the king to part from Agnes, and when he did not, the pope placed France under an interdict in 1199. This continued until 7 September 1200. Due to pressure from the pope, Ingeborg's brother King Valdemar II of Denmark and ultimately Agnes' death in 1201, Philip finally took Ingeborg back as his wife, but it would not be until 1213 that she would be recognized at court as queen. The only known description of Philip describes him as "a handsome, strapping fellow, with

13923-524: Was to advance from the Loire , while his ally Otto IV made a simultaneous attack from Flanders, together with the Count of Flanders. The three armies did not coordinate their efforts effectively. It was not until John had been disappointed in his hope for an easy victory after being driven from Roche-au-Moine and had retreated to his transports that the Imperial Army, with Otto at its head, assembled in

14042-693: Was very heterogeneous since two wings were in the style of a Renaissance palace, while the other two remained in the style of a medieval castle with walls, battlements, and towers. Construction on this court paused as Queen Catherine de' Medici focused on the Tuileries Palace , while Henry IV built the Grande Galerie along the River Seine , also known as the Grande Galerie du Bord de l'Eau (Grand Waterside Gallery), which linked

14161-549: Was very tough with powerful men who resisted him, and took pleasure in provoking discord among them. Never, however, did he cause an adversary to die in prison. He liked to employ humble men, to be the subduer of the proud, the defender of the Church, and feeder of the poor". When Pope Innocent III called for a crusade against the "Albigensians", or Cathars , in Languedoc in 1208, Philip did nothing to support it, though he did not stop his nobles from joining in. The war against

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