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127-719: The Société Générale Algérienne (SGA) was created in Paris on 18 May 1865, at a time of ambitious outward-oriented French business initiatives such as the Suez Company (est. 1858) or Imperial Ottoman Bank (est. 1863 with British partners). The SGA's founders included prominent French and international financiers such as Edward Charles Blount , Louis Frémy , Édouard Hentsch  [ fr ] , and Paulin Talabot , as well as landowning French colonists in Algeria. Louis Frémy,

254-555: A water supply , natural gas and electricity networks, public transport services, and other public infrastructure. Under French rule, a substantial number of Europeans settled (like the Tunisian Italians ); half of the population was European in origin. The city expanded and created new boulevards and neighborhoods. Tunis was quiet during the First World War. After the war, the city faced new transformations as

381-798: A branch in Beirut , from which it developed operations in Lebanon and Syria then under French administration. In Paris, the Compagnie Algérienne's head office was successively established at 11-13 rue des Capucines (1877-1908), the former seat of the SGA; 22, rue Louis-Le-Grand (1908-1916); and 48-50, rue d'Anjou (1916-1960). In Algiers, it moved to a new building in 1910. In Marseille, it built an opulent branch at 17, rue Saint-Ferréol in 1919, and in Lyon, an art deco building at 5, rue du Bât-d'Argent in

508-433: A brief shower. The highest temperature of 49.0 °C (120.2 °F) was recorded at Tunis-Carthage International Airport on July 24, 2023. In autumn, it begins to rain, often with short thunderstorms, which can sometimes cause flash floods or even flood some parts of the city. The month of November marks a break in the general heat with average temperatures ranging from 11 to 20 °C (52 to 68 °F). Tunis has been

635-563: A change that was reversed in 1972. It was nationalized in 1982, then privatized in 1987. It acquired control of the Société Générale de Belgique in 1988, and changed name again to Compagnie de Suez in 1990. In 1997, it merged with water utility and construction conglomerate Lyonnaise des eaux  [ fr ] to form Suez-Lyonnaise des eaux . The merged entity renamed itself as Suez in 2001 and underwent several subsequent mergers, spin-offs, and restructurings that led to

762-509: A diversified investment firm. In 1959, it established a banking subsidiary, the Banque de la Compagnie Financière de Suez , renamed Banque de Suez et de l'Union des mines in 1966 following Suez's combination with financier Jack Francès  [ fr ] 's conglomerate, Union des mines La Hénin . That bank merged in 1975 with the Banque de l'Indochine to form Banque Indosuez , which

889-433: A large expenses-paid festivity took place including: a riding exhibition, a rifle competition, tight-rope walking, an Armenian with a dancing bear, an Italian with a hurdy-gurdy, Arab sword dancing, glassblowing, flame eating, snake charming, juggling, dancing darvishes, belly dancers, Koran recitations, Arabic poetry recitations, prostitution, food, and drink. On 19 November, the flotilla proceeded south to Suez. In summary,

1016-699: A large part of the country was set to the torch, the Zirid capital Kairouan was razed in 1057, and only a few coastal towns, including Tunis and Mahdia , escaped destruction. Exposed to violence from the hostile tribes that settled around the city, the population of Tunis repudiated the authority of the Zirids and swore allegiance to the Hammadid prince El Nacer ibn Alennas , who was based in Béjaïa , in 1059. The governor appointed by Béjaïa, having reestablished order in

1143-495: A machine to dredge ports in Russia. Railroad tracks were laid along the canal route to accommodate some of the machines, whereas others were mounted on barges . The varying soil type necessitated more than a dozen different types of excavation machinery. Nearly 300 of these machines were used in this 5 year dredging period. Their subcontractor excavation price was determined on a price-per-unit basis – francs per cubic meter – which

1270-1071: A major provider of rural and urban mortgages. It expanded the SGA's previous commercial banking operations and opened new branches between 1878 and 1906 in Blida , Bougie , Mascara , Médéa , Sétif , Sidi Bel Abbès , and Souk Ahras .. By 1920, its Algerian branch network extended to Affreville (now Khemis Miliana ), Aïn Beïda , Aïn Témouchent , Algiers , Aumale (now Sour El-Ghozlane ), Batna , Blida , Boghari , Bône (now Annaba ), Bordj Bou Arréridj , Bordj Bouira , Bordj Menaïel , Boufarik , Bougie , Colea , Constantine , Djidjelli , Guelma , Jemmapes (now Azzaba ), Khenchela , Maison-Carrée (now El Harrach ), Marengo (now Hadjout ), Mascara , Médéa , Mostaganem , Orléansville (now Chlef ), Palikao (now Tighennif ), Philippeville (now Skikda ), Relizane , Rio-Salado (now El Malah ), Saïda , Saint-Arnaud (now El Eulma ), Saint-Denis-de-Sig , Sétif , Sidi Bel Abbès , Soukahra , Tiaret , Tlemcen , and Vialar (now Tissemsilt ). The Compagnie soon expanded in

1397-517: A price of 500 francs each would be publicly offered beginning 5 November 1858. In the notification, Lesseps estimated an annual revenue of 30 million francs based on freight fees, and a construction period lasting 6 years. In preparation for the offering, shares were sent to brokerage houses across Europe and in the United States. At the close of offering on 30 November 1858, about half of the shares (around 200,000) belonged to French citizens with

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1524-556: A right to defend the canal and stationed troops there for that purpose into the 1930s. The company's profits rose greatly during the 1920s and 1930s. In 1938, Benito Mussolini demanded that Italy have a sphere of influence in the Suez Canal, specifically demanding that an Italian representative be placed on the company's board of directors . Italy opposed the French monopoly over the Suez Canal because under French domination of

1651-459: A significant portion of the city's income. Because of the concentration of political authority (headquarters of the central government, presidency, parliament, ministries, and central government) and culture (festivals and mainstream media), Tunis is the only nationally ranking metropolis. Tunis is the heartland of the Tunisian economy and is the industrial and economic hub of the country, home to

1778-416: A similar latitude as the southernmost points of Europe. The city of Tunis is built on a hill slope down to the lake of Tunis. These hills contain places such as Notre-Dame de Tunis, Ras Tabia, La Rabta, La Kasbah, Montfleury, and La Manoubia with altitudes just above 50 metres (160 feet). The city is located at the crossroads of a narrow strip of land between Lake Tunis and Séjoumi. The isthmus between them

1905-514: A statutory reserve of 430 million francs, a special reserve of 7 billion francs, a contingency fund of 1.72 billion francs, and a pension fund of 7.81 billion francs. After Jacques Georges-Picot's arrival to the company in the 1940s, the board started to hire investment advisors, and by the late 1940s, the company had investments in Air France , Air Liquide , colonial sugar refineries, coal mining companies, railroad companies, electric companies,

2032-531: A third of Tunisian companies—including almost all the head offices of companies with more than fifty employees, with the exception of the Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa , headquartered in Gafsa —and produces a third of the national gross domestic product. Tunis attracts foreign investors (33% of companies, 26% of investments and 27% of employment), excluding several areas due to economic imbalances. According to

2159-532: A £4 million loan from Lionel de Rothschild to purchase the 177,000 shares from Ismail on behalf of the British government. This offer was slightly greater than the French offer, and Ismail physically delivered his share certificates to the British consulate. By December 1875 Britain became the largest shareholder of the Suez Canal Company, owning 44 percent of the shares. However, the remaining 56% of

2286-474: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Suez Company (1858%E2%80%931997) The Suez Company or Suez Canal Company , full initial name Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez (Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez), sometimes colloquially referred to in French as Le Suez ("The Suez"), was a company formed by Ferdinand de Lesseps in 1858 to operate

2413-461: Is almost completely absent and the sunlight is at a maximum. The average temperatures in the summer months of June, July, August, and September are very high. Sea breezes may mitigate the heat, but sometimes the sirocco winds reverse the trend. Occasional thunderstorms in the afternoon can develop quickly, especially after the periods of extremely hot weather. They usually do not produce precipitation (see dry thunderstorm ), but may be accompanied by

2540-848: Is problematic. Because its culture and records were destroyed by the Romans at the end of the Third Punic War , very few Carthaginian primary historical sources survive. While there are a few ancient translations of Punic texts into Greek and Latin , as well as inscriptions on monuments and buildings discovered in Northwest Africa , the main sources are Greek and Roman historians, including Livy , Polybius , Appian , Cornelius Nepos , Silius Italicus , Plutarch , Dio Cassius , and Herodotus . These writers belonged to peoples in competition, and often in conflict, with Carthage. Greek cities contended with Carthage over Sicily , and

2667-702: Is that it was derived from the Berber verbal root ens which means "to lie down" or "to pass the night". The term Tunis can possibly mean "camp at night", "camp", or "stop", or may have referred to as "the last stop before Carthage" by people who were journeying to Carthage by land. There are also some mentions in ancient Roman sources of such names of nearby towns as Tuniza (now El Kala ), Thunusuda (now Sidi-Meskin ), Thinissut (now Bir Bouregba), and Thunisa (now Ras Jebel ). As all of these Berber villages were situated on Roman roads, they undoubtedly served as rest-stations or stops. The historical study of Carthage

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2794-789: Is the third-largest city in the Maghreb region (after Casablanca and Algiers ) and the eleventh-largest in the Arab world . Situated on the Gulf of Tunis , behind the Lake of Tunis and the port of La Goulette (Ḥalq il-Wād), the city extends along the coastal plain and the hills that surround it. At its core lies the Medina , a World Heritage Site . East of the Medina, through the Sea Gate (also known as

2921-726: Is what geologists call the "Tunis dome", which includes hills of limestone and sediments. It forms a natural bridge and since ancient times several major roads linking to Egypt and elsewhere in Tunisia have branched out from it. The roads also connect with Carthage, emphasizing its political and economic importance not only in Tunisia but more widely in North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea in ancient times. The Greater Tunis area has an area of 300,000 hectares (1,200 sq mi; 3,000 km ), 10% of which are urbanized,

3048-593: The Bab el Bhar and the Porte de France ), begins the modern part of the city called "Ville Nouvelle", traversed by the grand Avenue Habib Bourguiba (often referred to by media and travel guides as "the Tunisian Champs-Élysées "), where the colonial-era buildings provide a clear contrast to smaller, older structures. Further east by the sea lie the suburbs of Carthage , La Marsa , and Sidi Bou Said . As

3175-755: The Barbary pirates , then in their golden age. Profits obtained from the trade in Christian slaves allowed the rulers to build sumptuous structures that revived the architectural heritage of the Middle Ages. In April 1655 the English admiral Robert Blake was sent to the Mediterranean to extract compensation from states that had been attacking English shipping. Only the Bey of Tunis refused to comply, with

3302-799: The Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Spanish under John of Austria succeeded in retaking the city and re-establishing the Hafsid sovereign in October 1573. Following these conflicts, the city finally fell into Ottoman hands in August 1574. Having become an Ottoman province governed by a Pasha who was appointed by the Sultan based in Constantinople , the country attained a degree of autonomy. After 1591,

3429-581: The Cape of Good Hope , half would pass through the canal. After some complaints, a figure of 10 francs per ton and 10 francs per passenger was announced. Politically during this period, company workers experienced a cholera outbreak in 1865 that caused the deaths of several hundred Europeans, including Voisin's wife, and more than 1,500 Arabs and Egyptians. The Ottoman Sultan approved of the French reconciliation framework in 1866. By 1866 there were about 8,000 Europeans and 10,000 Arab and Egyptians that had settled in

3556-711: The Crédit populaire d'Algérie  [ fr ] . The CFCB's Beirut branch was subsidiarized in 1967 as the Banque Libano-Française , which in 1992 became majority-owned by Banque Indosuez . The CFCB's Tunisian operations were acquired in 1968 by the Banque de Tunisie . The CFCB's Moroccan subsidiary, the SMCB, was acquired by Moroccan investors in 1968. It was renamed Wafabank in 1985, and in 2003 merged with Banque Commerciale du Maroc to form Attijariwafa Bank . This bank and insurance -related article

3683-753: The Egyptian granted concession of the Suez Canal , which the company built between 1859 and 1869. Initially, French investors held half of the Company's stock , with Egypt's ruler Sa'id Pasha holding most of the balance. In 1875, financial distress forced Sa'id's successor Isma'il Pasha to sell the country's shares to the government of the United Kingdom . The Suez Company operated the canal until Egypt's new president Gamal Abdel Nasser revoked its concession in 1956 and transferred canal operation to

3810-522: The French protectorate in 1881 was a turning point in Tunis's history, leading to rapid redevelopment of the city in the span of two to three decades. The city quickly spread out of its fortifications: it divided into a traditional Arab-populated old city, and a new city populated by immigrants, with a different structure from that of the traditional medina . Tunis also benefited from the French construction of

3937-476: The Mercenary War , it is possible that the town served as a center for the native population of the area, and that its population was mainly composed of peasants, fishermen, and craftsmen. Compared to the ancient ruins of Carthage, the town's ancient ruins are not as large. According to Strabo , it was destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC during the Third Punic War . Both the town and Carthage were destroyed;

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4064-500: The Romans fought three wars against Carthage . Not surprisingly, their accounts of Carthage are extremely hostile; while there are a few Greek authors who took a favourable view, these works have been lost. The area was originally a Berber settlement. The existence of settlements in and around the area of Tunis is attested by sources dating from the 4th century BC. Situated on a hill, its location served as an excellent point from which

4191-683: The Sublime Porte to make his case to the Grand Vizier of the Sultan , Ali Pasha . The Ottoman Empire, although neutral to the idea, were greatly under the influence of the British at that time . Since Britain – through the policy of Lord Palmerston – was largely opposed to the canal project, and its citizens owned a potentially competing project in form of a railroad from Alexandria to Cairo , not to mention various merchant warehouses along

4318-722: The Sunni population tolerated Shi'ite rule less and less, and carried out massacres against the Shi'ite community. In 1048 the Zirid ruler Al-Muizz ibn Badis rejected his city's obedience to the Fatimids and re-established Sunni rites throughout all of Ifriqiya. This decision infuriated the Fatimid Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah . To punish the Zirids, he unleashed the Banu Hilal Arab tribe on Ifriqiya;

4445-468: The Tunis Governorate into parts of the governorates of Ben Arous , Ariana and Manouba . The municipality of Tunis is divided into 15 municipal districts: These include El Bab Bhar, Bab Souika, Cité El Khadra, Jelloud Jebel El Kabaria, El Menzah, El Ouardia, Ettahrir, Ezzouhour, Hraïria, Medina, El Omrane, El Omrane Higher Séjoumi and Sidi El-Bashir. In the years following independence,

4572-524: The kasbah of Tunis. The Almohad conquest marked the beginning of the dominance of the city in Tunisia. Having previously played a minor role behind Kairouan and Mahdia , Tunis was promoted to the rank of provincial capital. In 1228, Governor Abu Zakariya seized power and, a year later, took the title of Emir and founded the Hafsid dynasty . The city became the capital of a Hafsid kingdom stretching towards Tripoli and Fez . Walls were built to protect

4699-566: The 1856 concession as a binding contract, ended the use of corvée labor, placed the land grants back into the hands of the Egyptian government, but called for remuneration of 84 million francs to the Suez Canal Company for violation of the labor and land agreements. Ismail received a loan from the Oppenheim brothers for nearly 100 million francs. Meanwhile, the progress of the canal construction proceeded slowly from 1863–1864. By February 1864,

4826-445: The 2004 census, 9.9% of the total population of Tunisia. As in the rest of Tunisia, literacy in the region of Tunis evolved rapidly during the second half of the 20th century and has reached a level slightly higher than the national average. The education level is only exceeded by the neighboring governorate of Ariana which has many institutions of education. Products include textiles, carpets , and olive oil . Tourism also provides

4953-639: The African forest and agriculture Society, and the Lyonnaise de Madagascar. King Farouk of the Muhammad Ali line was overthrown in a military coup in 1952 and Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser eventually emerged as the leader of Egypt. By the mid-1950s, canal traffic reached 122 million tons annually, over half of which was oil shipments. In response to the World Bank denying a loan to build a dam across

5080-483: The African sea route, Lesseps made several trips to Britain between 1854 and 1858 to persuade Palmerston and the British public. Lesseps also had to fight back against Robert Stephenson 's and even Enfantin's expert opinions on the feasibility of the canal. Lesseps formed an organization of international engineers (the International Commission for the piercing of the isthmus of Suez ) to again study

5207-548: The Allies held a victory parade on Avenue Maréchal Galliéni, and Avenue Jules Ferry, to signal the end of fighting in North Africa. Having succeeded in driving the Axis powers out of Tunisia, the Allies used Tunis as a base of operations from which to stage amphibious assaults first against the island of Pantelleria , and then Sicily , and finally the mainland of Italy . After independence in 1956, Tunis consolidated its role as

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5334-620: The Compagnie Algérienne, purchased the latter outright and merged it with its own parent entity. The banking subsidiary CACB was kept as a separate operation, and renamed Compagnie Française de Crédit et de Banque (CFCB) as of 1 January 1965 following Algerian independence. In 1964, the Moroccan operations were subsidiarized as the Compagnie Marocaine de Crédit et de Banque (CMCB), headquartered in Casablanca in line with

5461-903: The Crédit du Nord group (itself acquired in 1997 by Société Générale ), e.g. the Société Marseillaise de Crédit in Marseille, the Banque Courtois  [ fr ] in Bordeaux, or the Banque Nuger in Vichy. The Algerian operations, left in the "old" CFCB retained by Suez, were the matter of protracted negotiations between Suez and the Algerian authorities. They were eventually nationalized in 1972, and transferred to

5588-441: The French become increasingly active in the city and in the economy. Various sources estimate the 19th-century population to have ranged from 90,000 to 110,000 inhabitants. During the later 19th century, Tunis became increasingly populated by Europeans, particularly the French, and immigration dramatically increased the size of the city. This resulted in the first demolition of the old city walls, from 1860, to accommodate growth in

5715-697: The Hafsids maintained Christian mercenaries who lived in a neighbourhood closed off with a gate near the Hafsid palace complex. They worshipped in a church dedicated to Saint Francis of Assisi which visitors described as "very beautiful and great" and which was allowed to ring the bell, a practice forbidden by the so-called Pact of Umar and a privilege not granted to the Genoese and Venetian merchants who maintained chapels in their merchant quarters. When Jean Adorno visited Tunis in 1470, he described these Christians as assimilated culturally and linguistically into Tunisian society, though they remained Christians and would sing in Latin during mass. During this period, one of

5842-404: The Mercer 2017 Cost of Living Rankings, Tunis has the lowest cost of living for expatriates in the world. The urban unemployment rate of university graduates is increasing and the illiteracy rate remains high among the elderly (27% of women and 12% of men). The number of people living below the poverty line, falling at the national level, remains higher in urban areas. In addition, unemployment

5969-412: The National Assembly is to sit in Tunis (article 51) and that the Presidency is based there (article 73). Following the municipal elections of 6 May 2018, Ennahdha obtained 21 seats out of 60. Nidaa Tounes came second with 17 seats. On 3 July 2018, the head of the Ennahdha list Souad Abderrahim was elected by the council as the new mayor of the capital. Before 2011, unlike other mayors in Tunisia,

6096-438: The Nile at Aswan, Nasser declared on 26 July 1956 that Egypt was nationalizing the canal. In response, Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt and destroyed large portions of Port Said. The canal was returned to Egypt after the United States disapproved of the action. For the following ten years, the canal was operated by Egypt who paid an amount to the Suez Canal Company for its use. In 1967, another war with Israel arose and

6223-400: The Ottoman governors ( Beys ) were relatively independent, and both piracy and trade continued to flourish. Under the rule of deys and beys , the capital sprang into new life. Its population grew by additions from various ethnicities, among which were Moorish refugees from Spain, and economic activities diversified. To traditional industry and trade with distant lands was added the activity of

6350-437: The PLO's headquarters was bombed by Israeli Air Force F-15s, killing approximately 60 people. Many protests took place during the Arab Spring of 2011–12. On 18 March 2015, two gunmen attacked the Bardo National Museum and held hostages. Twenty civilians and one policeman were killed in the attack, while around 50 others were injured. Five Japanese, two Colombians, and visitors from Italy, Poland, and Spain were among

6477-431: The Red Sea with the aid of blasting. After the use of corvée labor was approved in 1861, work proceeded south from Lake Manzala with, at its height, 60,000 fellahin hand digging the canal. Guards were used to watch over the fellahin, although a large number of guards were not required due to the remote location and nearby hostile Bedouins . At the same time, the freshwater canal was being dug easterly to Lake Timsah. At

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6604-399: The Spring of 1869 shortly after the initial lake filling ceremony but while the lake was still filling and toured the canal zone. The prince of Wales stayed in a chalet in Ismailia while in the region. The southern dam in the rocky Chalufa ridge would not connect the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea until it was broken on 15 August 1869. Prior to that, hand digging was used to remove soil in

6731-496: The Suez Company eventually sold to Crédit Agricole in 1996. Meanwhile, in 1972 the Suez Company acquired control of another bank, Crédit Industriel et Commercial , which it relinquished in the 1980s. Following its nationalization in 1982 and privatization in 1987, the Suez Company in 1988 successfully participated in a takeover battle for control of the Société Générale de Belgique , which significantly broadened its portfolio of activities. The opulent building at 1, rue d'Astorg

6858-687: The arabization of the population. Because of population pressure and the rate of migration to the capital, the city continued to grow, even with the creation of new districts in the suburbs. Old buildings have gradually been renovated and upgraded. New buildings have come to influence the urban landscape. At the same time, an active policy of industrialization is developing the municipal economy. The Arab League represents 22 Arab nations. It transferred its headquarters to Tunis in 1979 because of Egypt's peace with Israel. The Arab League returned to Egypt in 1990. The Palestine Liberation Organization also had its headquarters in Tunis, from 1982 to 2003. In 1985,

6985-407: The caliphate, and was briefly the national capital from the end of the reign of Ibrahim II , from 902 until 909, when control over Ifriqiya was handed to the newly founded Fatimid Caliphate . Local opposition to the authorities began to intensify in September 945, when Kharijite insurgents occupied Tunis, resulting in general pillaging. With the rise of the Fatimid-viceregal Zirid dynasty

7112-446: The canal a neutral zone under British protection. The agreement went into effect in 1904 , the same year as the Entente cordiale between Britain and France. The British assigned more than 100,000 troops to the canal during the first world war. The canal was used to help stage T.E. Lawrence and Faisal's Arab revolt during the war against the Ottomans. Egypt was declared an independent country in 1922, however, Britain still asserted

7239-502: The canal region. By 1867 and 1868 the total population in the canal region would grow to 26,000 and 34,000, respectively. As the diversity and number of settlers in the canal region rose, Ismail directed Nubar to begin his decade-long journey of revising the judicial system from a system of capitulations to a system of mixed tribunals. The company made an appeal at the 1867 Universal Exposition of Art and Industry to attempt to sell an additional 100 million francs (£4 million) worth of debt in

7366-428: The canal route in late 1855, and its results were released to the general public. In January 1856, Said granted a second concession to Lesseps' company which replaced the first concession. This concession defined the canal as a direct route, but also stipulated a freshwater canal from the Nile to Lake Timsah. Again, mining and land rights were included along with generous tax exemptions. A majority ( 4 ⁄ 5 ths) of

7493-419: The canal was made impassable with scuttled ships. The canal would not reopen until 1975 after the Camp David Accord . Traffic through the canal began to fall in the early 1980s after petroleum pipelines eroded ship traffic business. After the company became defunct in the late 1990s, the canal was generating $ 2 billion a year in revenue for Egypt. Following the Suez crisis, the Suez Company reinvented itself as

7620-429: The canal. Borel and Lavalley, like many of the engineers working on the project, were École Polytechnique alumni. These machines were powered by steam from coal in an era before the mass production of machines and machine tools. The men had prior railroad experience and Lavalley, in particular, had customised locomotives , designed lighthouses on the Black Sea, created a tunnel boring machine in Lithuania, and created

7747-469: The capital of Tunisia since 1159. Under Articles 43 and 24 of the Constitution of 1959 , Tunis and its suburbs host the national institutions: the Presidential Palace, which is known as Carthage Palace , residence of the President of Tunisia , the Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Advisors and parliament, the Constitutional Council and the main judicial institutions and public bodies. The revised Tunisian Constitution of 2014 similarly provides that

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7874-466: The capital of the country, Tunis is the focus of Tunisian political and administrative life and also the center of the country's commercial and cultural activities. Tunis is the transcription of the Arabic name تونس which can be pronounced as "Tūnus", "Tūnas", or "Tūnis". All three variations were mentioned by the 12th-century Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi in his Mu'jam al-Bûldan ( Dictionary of Countries ). Different explanations exist for

8001-442: The capital, first with the establishment of a constitution stating that the Chamber of Deputies and the Presidency of the Republic must have their headquarters in Tunis and its suburbs. In a very short time, the colonial city transformed rapidly. As the city has grown and native Tunisians gradually began to replace the extensive European population, the conflict between the Arab city and the European city has gradually decreased with

8128-422: The chambers of commerce of Lyon and Venice. Following the granting of the first concession in 1854, Lesseps was in near constant travel to assemble diplomatic approvals perceived as necessary to build the canal from other foreign governments involved. Although the first concession was granted by Egypt, at the time Egypt was an administrative subdivision of the Ottoman Empire , and so Lesseps traveled frequently to

8255-416: The city and its buildings. During this period, the city prospered as a center of commerce. Taking advantage of divisions within the ruling house, Algerians captured Tunis in 1756 and put the country under supervision. Hammouda Bey faced bombardment by the Venetian fleet, and the city experienced a rebellion in 1811. Under the reign of Hussein Bey II , naval defeats by the British (1826) and French (1827) saw

8382-419: The comings and goings of naval and caravan traffic to and from Carthage could be observed. It was one of the first towns in the region to fall under Carthaginian control, and in the centuries that followed the settlement was mentioned in the military histories associated with Carthage . Thus, during Agathocles' expedition, which landed at Cape Bon in 310 BC, the town changed hands on various occasions. During

8509-448: The company all Italian merchant traffic to its colony of Italian East Africa was forced to pay tolls upon entering the canal. Britain secured the canal against the Germans and their Afrika Korps during the second world war. Immediately following the end of the second World War, company profits rose greatly due to petroleum shipments and the company reserved much of this income. By 1952, the company held four different reserves accounts:

8636-404: The company as being officially formed on 15 December 1858. Prior to the existence of the Suez Canal, Port Said and Lake Timsah had few residents, the Great Bitter Lake was a dry basin, and drinking water was difficult to find. In addition to infrastructure challenges, Said would not allow the use of massive corvée labour until 1861, when Napoleon III publicly backed the canal project. In

8763-404: The company's power. Ismail would soon issue a clarification that corvée labor could still be used for public works essential for the common good (though not on the Suez Canal project). The British also commented on the use of forced labor by the company. Ismail issued declarations upholding much of the previous concessions, with exceptions including the labor issue. Aziz favored the end of the use of

8890-408: The company's shares remained under the ownership of French shareholders. In 1876, Ismail again faced government debt payment issues and was forced to join an international commission which would govern Egypt's finances known as Dual Control . As a condition of joining the commission, the khedive's right to 15 percent of the commissions from Suez Canal traffic was sold. The buyer was a French bank and

9017-412: The corvée and the return of land from the company to Egypt. The problem was referred during 1864 to the arbitration of Napoleon III . Ismail authorised Boghos Nubar Nubarian to negotiate on behalf of Egypt, and Nubar in turn allied with Emile Ollivier and Morny against Lesseps and the company. It wasn't until July 1864 that Napoleon III released a ruling for the framework for resolution which accepted

9144-536: The corvée had finished the access canal from Lake Timsah to the Red Sea. After Napoleon III's decree in Summer of 1864, the use of corvée labor was restricted. The use of large mechanical dredging machines began to excavate the main canal. In December 1863, Voisin hired Paul Borel and Alexandre Lavalley 's company, Borel, Lavalley, and Company, to design, build, and operate the dredging and excavation machines to finish

9271-661: The cost of the canal) to continue building other infrastructure in Egypt. By 1875, the Egyptian treasury was £100 million in debt, and no lender would issue Ismail money to pay for the December debt instalment of several million pounds. Société Générale was interested in his shares of the Suez Canal Company in exchange for paying off the debt instalment, however, the British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli responded quickly and with permission from parliament and Queen Victoria received

9398-568: The country, did not hesitate to free himself from the Hammadids to found the Khurasanid dynasty with Tunis as its capital. This small independent kingdom picked up the threads of trade and commerce with other nations and brought the region back to peace and prosperity. In 1159, the Almohad ' Abd al-Mu'min took Tunis, overthrew the last Khurasanid leader, and installed a new government in

9525-409: The country. The population of the city of Tunis exceeds 2,000,000 inhabitants. After independence, the Tunisian government implemented a plan to cope with the population growth of the city and country, a system of family planning, to attempt to lower the rate of population growth. However, between 1994 and 2004, the population of the governorate of Tunis grew more than 1.03% per annum. It represents, in

9652-491: The creation of the energy company Engie and the water and waste-management utility also named Suez . The original concession assembled by Lesseps and granted by Said in 1854 included the following stipulations: 10 percent of the annual profits were reserved for the founders, 15 percent of the annual profits were reserved for the Government of Egypt, and 75 percent of the annual profits were reserved for shareholders. There

9779-416: The dead. Both gunmen were killed by Tunisian police. The incident has been treated as a terrorist attack . Tunis is located in north-eastern Tunisia on the Lake of Tunis , and is connected to the Mediterranean sea's Gulf of Tunis by a canal which terminates at the port of La Goulette / Halq al Wadi . The ancient city of Carthage is located just north of Tunis along the coastal part. The city lies on

9906-585: The downturn of the mid-1870s, which also severely impacted Crédit Foncier, the SGA's main sponsor together with Société Générale . The Compagnie Algérienne was formed in Paris on 30 November 1877 to acquire assets of the SGA which its shareholders had decided to liquidate; as part of the restructuring, the former SGA's shareholders received shares of the new company for 40 percent of their SGA shares' nominal value, and nearly all its creditors were eventually reimbursed. The Compagnie endeavored to develop its vast holdings in Algeria for agricultural production, and became

10033-700: The early 1910s it complemented its long-established presence in Marseille with branches on the French Riviera in Antibes , Cannes , Menton , Nice , and Vence , as well as Vichy . This expansion mirrored the rapid increase in the Compagnie's balance sheet and volume of operations in the first decades of the 20th century, in contrast to its comparatively slow development in the 1880s and 1890s. Its network of branches and offices thus grew from 65 in 1912 to 95 in 1921 and 180 in late 1931. In 1931, it also opened

10160-433: The early 1930s. By 1929, it was the eleventh-largest French bank by collected deposits. In the interwar period, it deepened its business relationship with Banque Mirabaud and correspondingly grew its investment banking operations. Its business was comparatively resilient during the crisis of the 1930s. As of 1 January 1942, the company changed its name to Compagnie Algérienne de Crédit et de Banque . From 1 January 1949,

10287-605: The early 2000s. In 2006, a museum dedicated to the Suez Canal history was created in the former board room, on the initiative of the heritage nonprofit Association du Souvenir de Ferdinand de Lesseps et du Canal de Suez . Since May 2015, it has been the Parisian office of the law firm Clifford Chance . Tunis Tunis ( Arabic : تونس Tūnis ) is the capital and largest city of Tunisia . The greater metropolitan area of Tunis, often referred to as " Grand Tunis ", has about 2,700,000 inhabitants. As of 2020 , it

10414-415: The emerging principal town of the kingdom, surrounding the medina, the kasbah, and the new suburbs of Tunis. In 1270 the city was taken briefly by Louis IX of France , who was hoping to convert the Hafsid sovereign to Christianity. King Louis easily captured Carthage , but his army soon fell victim to an outbreak of dysentery. Louis himself died before the walls of the capital and his army were forced out. At

10541-601: The end of 1862, the access canal connecting Lake Timsah to the Mediterranean Sea was complete. François Philippe Voisin became chief engineer in January 1861 and Hardon's contract expired at the end of 1862. Compared with the later mechanised excavation, a low amount of material was excavated during this phase of construction. The British began to loudly decry the use of corvée labor in 1862. Said died in mid-January 1863, and in late-January, just before Ismail began

10668-400: The expenditure side, provision is made for the consolidation of hygiene and cleanliness, the state of the environment and urban design, infrastructure maintenance, rehabilitation and renovation of facilities, and strengthening the logistics and means of work and transport. The city of Tunis, whose size has increased significantly during the second half of the 20th century, now extends beyond

10795-401: The famous travelers to Tunis was Ibn Battuta . In his travel account, when Ibn Battuta and his group arrived in Tunis, the population of the city came out to meet him and the other members of his party. They all greeted them and were very curious, many were asking questions, however, no one in Tunis personally greeted Ibn Battuta, greatly upsetting him. He felt very lonely and could not hold back

10922-579: The form of bonds – maturing in 50 years – to finish the project. Remaining unsold bonds were sold in lotteries approved by the French government. Two dams prevented the filling of the Great Bitter Lake and thus the completion of the canal, one to the north and one to the south. Rocky terrain was cleared on the Serapeum ridge to the north of the lake for a lake filling ceremony witnessed by Ismail in early 1869. The prince of Wales visited in

11049-533: The former, however, was rebuilt first under the rule of Augustus and became an important town under Roman control and the center of a booming agricultural industry. The township is mentioned as Thuni in the Tabula Peutingeriana . In the system of Roman roads for the Roman province of Africa , the town had the title of mutatio ("way station, resting place"). The borough, increasingly Romanized,

11176-583: The founding of the city by order of Caliph Abd al-Malik . From the beginning of the 8th century, Tunis was the chef-lieu of the area: it became the Umayyad, and later the Abbasids ' naval base in the western Mediterranean Sea , and took on considerable military importance. Under the Aghlabids , the city gained significance and benefited from economic improvements and became one of the most important in

11303-744: The governor of Crédit Foncier de France , became its founding chairman on 10 November 1868. The company’s head office was established at 11-13, rue des Capucines in Paris, adjacent to the Crédit Foncier's own headquarters complex. The SGA subsequently acquired vast landholdings and lent to finance mining, infrastructure and land development projects in Algeria, funded mainly by bond issuance. It opened banking offices in Algiers , Bône , Constantine , Oran as well as Marseille in 1869, and also provided short-term credit to Spain and Egypt . This dynamic expansion resulted in financial overstretch during

11430-492: The jetties for Port Said were also constructed by the Dussaud brothers. They created two jetty structures, one at 1.5 miles in length, and the other at 2 miles in length, by dumping 20-ton concrete blocks in the Mediterranean Sea. The blocks were produced in an assembly line with mechanical elevators to pour in cement, lime, and water. After curing for two months in wooden frames, they were lifted on to barges that dropped them into

11557-414: The latitude of the city, the moderating influence of the Mediterranean sea, and the terrain of the hills. Winter is the wettest season of the year, when more than a third of the annual rainfall falls during this period, raining on average every two or three days. The sun may still increase the temperature from 7 °C (45 °F) in the morning to 16 °C (61 °F) in the afternoon on average during

11684-583: The mayor of Tunis was appointed by decree of the President of the Republic from among the members of the City Council. The 2008 budget adopted by the City Council is structured as follows: 61.61 million dinars for operations and 32,516 million dinars for investment. It reflects the improved financial situation of the municipality, the year 2007 was a year registering a surplus in resources that allowed

11811-465: The meantime from 1859 to 1861, the company's Chief Engineer Eugène Mougel and its new superintendent Alphonse Hardon, planned for and built fresh water distilleries along the route, hauled in additional fresh water from the Nile, built housing for workers, gathered stone for the jetty , assembled some aging dredging equipment from the Nile, and looked for workers. Company town establishments arose along

11938-415: The modern portion grew in importance and extended its network of boulevards and streets in all directions. In addition, a series of satellite cities emerged on the urban rim and encroached on the municipality of Tunis proper. In the economic sphere, commercial activities expanded and diversified as modern industries continued to grow, while traditional industry continued to decline. During World War II, Tunis

12065-513: The newly established French protectorate of Tunisia , with a branch in Tunis as early as 1881, followed by Sfax , Bizerte , and Sousse , then Béja and Mateur in 1909, and Gabès , Kairouan and Souk El Arba (now Jendouba ) in 1910. In Morocco, it opened branches in Tangier in 1904, Casablanca in 1906, Safi and Oujda in 1910, Larache , Mazagan (now El Jadida ) and Rabat in 1911. In

12192-578: The newly independent Moroccan government's policy of marocanisation of its banking sector. A new subsidiary, the "CFCB-Société Nouvelle", was created in 1965 and on 1 January 1966 took over the CFCB's banking network in mainland France. Following the 1966 acquisition of the BUP by the Suez Company , the CFCB-Société Nouvelle merged on 1 January 1967 with other banking operations of the BUP and

12319-569: The next largest block owned by citizens of the Ottoman Empire (Said bought around 60,000). None of the shares reserved for Britain, Russia, Austria, or the United States were bought. Said purchased the remaining unbought shares (for a total of 177,000 shares) in order to ensure that the company reached its necessary capitalization amount (to become a legal entity as defined in the 1856 concession). The average number of shares bought by French investors amounted to nine shares each. Lesseps declared

12446-636: The oldest section of the city, dates from this period, during which the region was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate . The city had the natural advantage of coastal access, via the Mediterranean , to the major ports of southern Europe. Early on, Tunis played a military role; the Umayyads recognized the strategic importance of its proximity to the Strait of Sicily , with a dockyard built upon

12573-472: The origin of the name Tunis . Some scholars relate it to the Carthaginian goddess Tanith ('Tanit or Tanut), as many ancient cities were named after patron deities. Some scholars claim that it originated from Tynes , which was mentioned by Diodorus Siculus and Polybius in the course of descriptions of a location resembling present-day Al-Kasbah, Tunis's old Berber village. Another possibility

12700-413: The outskirts of Tunis. These form a large percentage of the population of the Tunis metropolitan area. It grew from 27% of the total population in 1956, to 37% in 1975 and 50% in 2006. Tunis has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ), characterized by hot and dry, prolonged summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall. The local climate is also affected somewhat by

12827-558: The parent entity was again named Compagnie Algérienne , while the banking operations were run in a banking subsidiary, the Société Nouvelle de la Compagnie Algérienne de Crédit et de Banque , which in 1955 was in turn renamed Compagnie Algérienne de Crédit et de Banque (CACB). In 1960, the Banque de l'Union Parisienne (BUP), which had pre-existing financial links with both the Banque Mirabaud and its partner

12954-634: The performance, the people returned to their homes. The Ottoman Empire took nominal control of Tunis in 1534 when Hayreddin Barbarossa captured it from the Hafsid Sultan Mulai Hassan , who fled to the court of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. Charles, suffering losses from the corsairs operating out of Djerba , Tunis, and Algiers , agreed to reinstate Mulai Hassan in exchange for his acceptance of Spanish suzerainty. A naval expedition led by Charles himself

13081-453: The population of the metropolitan area continued to grow: by 21.1% from 1956 to 1966 and by 28.5% from 1966 to 1975 (55.6% between 1956 and 1975). This steady growth was accompanied by changes that affected the nature of the settlement of the capital. Decolonization led to the exodus of some European minorities whose numbers dwindled every year. The gaps created by their departure were filled by Tunisians who emigrated to Tunis from other parts of

13208-516: The price was 22 million francs. In 1879, Ismail was deposed by the Ottoman Sultan and replaced with Tawfiq . Tawfiq was challenged for leadership during a nationalist uprising in 1880 by Colonel Ahmad Urabi . In response to an anti-European riot in 1882 , Britain landed an army, seized the canal, and developed a protectorate over Egypt, placing Lord Cromer as the head governing authority. The 1888 Convention of Constantinople declared

13335-541: The process of establishing himself as the new viceroy of Egypt by Ottoman Sultan Abdul Aziz , Ismail declared that he was establishing reforms in the ways of the creation of a civil service list and the abolishment of corvée labor . Ismail's motives had to do with his own personal projects (cotton farms, whose export from Egypt had been increasing since the beginning of the American Civil War , and other cash crops and public works) within Egypt and with limiting

13462-484: The remaining 10 miles between Suez and the southern dam. The average final width of the canal was 200 feet – 300 feet at the top with a depth of at least 26 feet. The company and Ismail set aside 1 million francs for the inauguration of the canal on 17 November 1869. One thousand guests were invited for a tour upon opening. The empress Eugénie and Ismail were a major attraction. The multinational flotilla of about 60 ships proceeded south from Port Said to Ismailia, where

13589-411: The rest being shared between bodies of water (20,000 hectares (77 sq mi; 200 km ) of lakes or lagoons) and agricultural or natural land (250,000 hectares (970 sq mi; 2,500 km )). However, urban growth, which is estimated to be increasing by 500 hectares per year, is gradually changing the landscape with urban sprawl . After World War II, suburbs began to rapidly spring up on

13716-501: The result that Blake's fifteen ships attacked the Bey's arsenal at Porto Farina (Ghar el Melh), destroying nine Algerian ships and two shore batteries, the first time in naval warfare that shore batteries had been eliminated without landing men ashore. At the beginning of the 18th century, Tunisia entered into a new period in its history with the advent of the Husainid dynasty . Successive Husainid rulers made great progress in developing

13843-408: The route. In 1860, the company employed 210 Europeans and 544 Egyptians along 11 stations of the route. Employees were provided scrip to buy provisions. Plans were made for an access canal from the Nile to Lake Timsah to provide fresh water. Once the necessary infrastructure was established, the plan was to build an 8 metre-wide access canal from Port Said to Lake Timsah and later from Lake Timsah to

13970-565: The same time, driven by the reconquest of Spain, the first Andalusian Muslims and Jews arrived in Tunis and would become of importance to the economic prosperity of the Hafsid capital and the development of its intellectual life. During the Almohad and Hafsid periods, Tunis was one of the richest and grandest cities in the Islamic world , with a population of about 100,000. Like the Almohads,

14097-440: The sea. 30,000 blocks were used in the jetties. In 1867, the company began to develop its fee structure in preparation for opening. During this same year the company had already started to charge fees for transport of goods across the northern almost-completed portion to the separate southern access canal, garnering millions of francs in annual revenue. The company estimated that of the 10 million tons of annual goods shipped around

14224-402: The settlement of debts of the municipality and the strengthening of its credibility with respect its suppliers and public and private partners. Revenues are generated by the proceeds of taxes on buildings and vacant lots, fees for the rental of municipal property, income from the operation of the public, advertising, and that the fact that the municipality has capital shares in some companies. On

14351-758: The state-owned Suez Canal Authority , precipitating the Suez Crisis . Following the loss of the canal concession, the Suez Company received financial compensation from the Egyptian government, the final payment of which was made in 1962, and used this resource to reinvent itself as a major investment and holding company in France. In 1958 it renamed itself the Compagnie financière de Suez ("Suez Financial Company"), and in 1967 changed its name again to Compagnie financière de Suez et de l'Union parisienne ,

14478-459: The suburbs. The city spilled outside the area of the earlier town and the banks of the lake, and the new districts were modernized with running water (1860), lighting gas (1872), roads, waste collection (1873), and communication with adjacent suburbs and the city center. The crafts and traditional trades declined somewhat, as the newcomers increased trade with Europe, introducing the first modern industries and new forms of urban life. The creation of

14605-678: The tears coming from his eyes. This went on for a while until one of the pilgrims realized he was upset, he went up and greeted and talked to Ibn Battuta until he entered the city. At the time, the Sultan of Tunis was Abu Yahya and during Ibn Battuta's stay, the Festival of the Breaking of the Fast was taking place. The people in the city assembled in large numbers to celebrate the festival, in extravagant and most luxurious outfits. Abu Yahya arrived on horseback, where all of his relatives joined him. After

14732-401: The total construction cost of the canal, according to Lesseps' autobiographical account, was £11,627,000. This cost was more than covered by the initial equity capitalization of £8 million (1858), a legal decision awarding about £4 million (1864 and 1866), and a bond issuance of £4 million (1867). Approximately 500 ships carrying around 400,000 tons made passage through the canal in 1870, which

14859-563: The winter. Frosts are rare. The lowest temperature of −2.0 °C (28.4 °F) was recorded on 18 January 1979. In spring, rainfall declines by half. The sunshine becomes dominant in May when it reaches 10 hours a day on average. In March temperatures may vary between 8 and 18 °C (46 and 64 °F), and between 13 and 24 °C (55 and 75 °F) in May. However, it is common for temperatures to soar even as early as April with record temperatures reaching 40 °C (104 °F). In summer, rain

14986-582: The workers for the company were required to be supplied from Egypt and the skilled workers were required to be paid commensurate with skilled workers on other Egyptian public works projects. An amendment stipulated that work could only commence with the approval of the Ottoman Sultan. The board of directors of the concessionaire company would have 32 members, each serving for eight years. The operations office would be headquartered in Alexandria, while administrative offices would be located in Paris. This company

15113-546: Was also eventually Christianized and became the seat of a bishop . However, it remained modestly sized compared to Carthage during this time. In the late 7th century, the Arab Muslims conquered the region, and in 698 a commune and a mosque were established at the outskirts of the ancient ruins, founded by Hassan ibn al-Nu'man , which would become the city of Tunis and the Zaytuna Mosque . The Medina of Tunis ,

15240-462: Was built for the Suez canal Company in 1911-1913 on a design by architect Henri Paul Nénot . The Suez Company was long known colloquially as the "old lady of the rue d'Astorg" ( French : la vieille dame de la rue d'Astorg ) with reference to its headquarters address. Following the Suez Company's merger with Lyonnaise des eaux, it was sold to the real estate arm of General Electric and renovated in

15367-502: Was dispatched in 1535, and the city was recaptured. The victory against the corsairs is recorded in a tapestry at the Royal Palace of Madrid . The Spanish governor of La Goulette , Luys Peres Varga, fortified the island of Chikly in the lake of Tunis to strengthen the city's defenses between 1546 and 1550. The Ottoman Uluç Ali Reis , at the head of an army of janissaries and Kabyles , retook Tunis in 1569. However, following

15494-492: Was further varied depending upon the soil type they excavated. Ultimately, Borel, Lavalley and company removed 75% of the 74 million cubic meters excavated from the main canal. And most of that work was done between 1867 and 1869. Another French contractor, Alphonse Couvreux , who is credited with the first documented use of a bucket chain excavator on land, employed seven of his excavators to dig about 8 million cubic yards of material from 1863 to 1868. During this same period,

15621-537: Was held by Axis forces from November 1942 to May 1943. It was their last base in Africa, as they retreated towards Sicily after being surrounded by Allied forces from Algeria to the west and from Libya to the east. On 7 May 1943, at about 15:30 in the afternoon, Tunis fell to troops of British 1st Army and the U.S. 1st Army , which had defeated the German 5th Panzer Army guarding the city. At midday on 20 May 1943,

15748-470: Was much less than the 5 million tons projected in 1867. Of that tonnage, three-quarters came from Britain. In 1871, more tonnage made the passage, but it was still less than 1 million tons. The ship tonnage for 1872, 1873, and 1874 was 1,439,000, 2,085,000, and 2,424,000, respectively. Toll revenue from the first five years (1870–1874) are as follows: £206,373, £359,747, £656,305, £915,853, and £994,375. In 1873, Ismail borrowed £30 million (more than double

15875-823: Was no stipulation dictating whether the route of the canal would be direct or indirect (from the Nile). The company was given the right to free quarries and import equipment tax-free. In that original concession, founding members of the Company were to receive 10 percent of the canal's profits. These members included François Barthélemy Arlès-Dufour , Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds , Richard Cobden , Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin , Benoît Fould , Lesseps and several members of his family, Eugène Mougel , Ruyssenaers (Dutch Consul General in Egypt), M. Sabatier (French Consul General), Sa'id of Egypt and multiple members of his family, Paulin Talabot and his brother Edmond, and members of

16002-427: Was renamed Banque de l'Union Parisienne-CFCB, majority-owned by the Compagnie de Suez. In 1971, that entity was renamed simply Banque de l'Union Parisienne, and Suez sold its 80% equity stake to the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas , which in turn merged it with the Crédit du Nord in 1973. As a consequence, the former mainland French branches of the Compagnie Algérienne became branches of the respective regional banks of

16129-689: Was to be called the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez. In late Spring of 1858, the French Academy of Sciences released a public report approving of the engineering plans for the canal. The report noted that in the previous two decades, Europeans had spent 12 billion francs building railroads, and that at a cost of 200 million francs (or £8 million), the canal was affordable. Lesseps pushed ahead without formal British or Ottoman approval. In October 1858, Lesseps notified international press and company agents that 400,000 shares at

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