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191-651: Santa Catalina Island ( Spanish : Isla Santa Catalina ; often shortened to Catalina Island or Catalina , and also known as Pimu as the traditional name of the Indigenous people of the Tongva Tribe) is a rocky island , part of the Channel Islands , off the coast of Southern California in the Gulf of Santa Catalina . The island covers an area of about 75 square miles (194 square kilometers). It features
382-583: A Mediterranean climate , characterized by mild, wet winters and warm, dry summers. The climate makes it an attractive destination year-round, although the summer months tend to be the busiest. Throughout the year, Catalina Island hosts a variety of events and activities, including the Catalina Wine Mixer, the Catalina Island JazzTrax Festival, and many more cultural and outdoor events. A tourist-drawing area, Catalina
573-619: A California Senate Bill of 2008 asserted that the US government signed treaties with the Gabrieleño, promising 8.5 million acres (3,400,000 ha) of land for reservations , and that these treaties were never ratified, a paper published in 1972 by Robert Heizer of the University of California at Berkeley , shows that the eighteen treaties made between April 29, 1851, and August 22, 1852, were negotiated with persons who did not represent
764-599: A Justice of the Peace punishable by fine, any white person may, by consent of the Justice, give bond for said Indian, conditioned for the payment of said fine and costs, and in such case the Indian shall be compelled to work for the person so bailing, until he has discharged or cancelled the fine assessed against him. Native men were disproportionately criminalized and swept into this legalized system of indentured servitude . As
955-675: A Spanish-based creole language called Chavacano developed in the southern Philippines. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996. The local languages of the Philippines also retain significant Spanish influence, with many words derived from Mexican Spanish , owing to the administration of the islands by Spain through New Spain until 1821, until direct governance from Madrid afterwards to 1898. Tongva The Tongva ( / ˈ t ɒ ŋ v ə / TONG -və ) are an Indigenous people of California from
1146-607: A city which saw an increase in the Native population from 200 in 1820 to 553 in 1836 (out of a total population of 1,088). As stated by scholar Ralph Armbruster-Sandoval, "while they should have been owners, the Tongva became workers, performing strenuous, back-breaking labor just as they had done ever since settler colonialism emerged in Southern California." As described by researcher Heather Valdez Singleton, Los Angeles
1337-603: A considerable number of words from Arabic , as well as a minor influence from the Germanic Gothic language through the period of Visigoth rule in Iberia. In addition, many more words were borrowed from Latin through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both Classical Latin and Renaissance Latin , the form of Latin in use at that time. According to
1528-581: A disjunctive population of toyon var. macrocarpa that is unique to Santa Catalina Island. The Wrigley Memorial & Botanical Gardens on the island provide an opportunity for visitors to appreciate and learn about these endemic and native plant species. The gardens emphasize the importance of preserving and showcasing the island's exceptional flora. In addition to native and endemic species, Catalina Island has been impacted by introduced species, which were introduced by human activities. Some of these introduced species, like eucalyptus trees, have become common on
1719-516: A diverse and rugged landscape, including rolling hills, canyons, coastal cliffs, and sandy beaches. The island's highest peak is Mount Orizaba , rising to an elevation of 2,097 feet (639 meters). The island is 22 mi (35 km) long and 8 mi (13 km) across at its largest width. The island is situated in the Pacific Ocean, approximately 29 mi (47 km) south-southwest of Long Beach, California . Politically, Catalina Island
1910-478: A divide between Mexican Los Angeles and the nearest Native community. However, "Native men, women, and children continued to live (not just work) in the city. On Saturday Nights, they even held parties, danced, and gambled at the removed Yaanga village and also at the plaza at the center of town." In response, the Californios continued to attempt to control Native lives, issuing Alta California governor Pio Pico
2101-522: A dramatic change in the pronunciation of its sibilant consonants , known in Spanish as the reajuste de las sibilantes , which resulted in the distinctive velar [x] pronunciation of the letter ⟨j⟩ and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic interdental [θ] ("th-sound") for the letter ⟨z⟩ (and for ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ ). See History of Spanish (Modern development of
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#17327797331582292-496: A failed attempt to kill the mission's priests in 1779 and organized eight foothill villages in a revolt in October 1785 with Toypurina , who further organized the villages, which "demonstrated a previously undocumented level of regional political unification both within and well beyond the mission." However, divided loyalties among the natives contributed to the failure of the 1785 attempt as well as mission soldiers being alerted of
2483-473: A few years and the island went back to the Lick estate. The sons of Phineas Banning bought the island in 1891 from the estate of James Lick . The Banning brothers fulfilled Shatto's dream of making Avalon a resort community with the construction of numerous tourist facilities. On November 29, 1915, a fire burned half of Avalon's buildings, including six hotels and several clubs. In the face of huge debt related to
2674-482: A first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos ( Ilustrados ). Despite a public education system set up by the colonial government, by the end of Spanish rule in 1898, only about 10% of the population had knowledge of Spanish, mostly those of Spanish descent or elite standing. Spanish continued to be official and used in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American administration after
2865-435: A herd of 12 Blackbuck from India that currently live at the lower end of the cottonwood canyon near the island's airport. Mule deer were introduced to the island in the 1920s and 30s, and currently have a population density roughly 10 times that of California generally. The island was also previously home to populations of cattle , feral goat , feral pig , and sheep , but these animals are no longer present. According to
3056-406: A land base in the Tongva traditional homeland. In 2008, more than 1,700 people identified as Tongva or claimed partial ancestry. In 2013, it was reported that the four Tongva groups that have applied for federal recognition had more than 3,900 members in total. The Tongva Taraxat Paxaavxa Conservancy was established to campaign for the rematriation of Tongva homelands. In 2022, a 1-acre site
3247-532: A large collection of Catalina-made pottery and tiles , ship models, and much more. The museum features dynamic exhibits on this history, an art gallery, special exhibitions traveling from around the world, and a unique Museum Store. Programs include First Fridays at the Museum, an annual tour of the historic Tuna Club , a Holiday Symphony Concert, book signings, gallery talks, an annual silent film benefit and more. From 1927 until 1937, pottery and tiles were made on
3438-478: A long history in the territory of the current-day United States dating back to the 16th century. In the wake of the 1848 Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty , hundreds of thousands of Spanish speakers became a minoritized community in the United States. The 20th century saw further massive growth of Spanish speakers in areas where they had been hitherto scarce. According to the 2020 census, over 60 million people of
3629-441: A long history of Indigenous belonging in the basin." While in 1848, Los Angeles had been a small town largely of Mexicans and Natives, by 1880 it was home to an Anglo-American majority following waves of white migration in the 1870s from the completion of the transcontinental railroad . As stated by research Heather Valdez Singleton, newcomers "took advantage of the fact that many Gabrieleño families, who had cultivated and lived on
3820-533: A miserable existence by days' work." However, even though Jackson's report would become the impetus for the Mission Indian Relief Act of 1891, the Gabrieleño were "overlooked by the commission charged with setting aside lands for Mission Indians." It is speculated that this may have been attributed to what was perceived as their compliance with the government, which caused them to be neglected, as noted earlier by Indian agent J. Q. Stanley. By
4011-437: A model proposed by archaeologist Mark Q. Sutton, these migrants either absorbed or pushed out the earlier Hokan -speaking inhabitants. By 500 AD, one source estimates the Tongva may have come to occupy all the lands now associated with them, although this is unclear and contested among scholars. In 1811, the priests of Mission San Gabriel recorded at least four languages; Kokomcar, Guiguitamcar, Corbonamga, and Sibanga. During
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#17327797331584202-458: A natural part of the landscape. Native plant species have adapted to these fire cycles, and their life histories often depend on periodic burning for regeneration. In the 20th century, a shift occurred towards extensive fire suppression efforts. These efforts, while well-intentioned to safeguard property and human life, resulted in the accumulation of vegetation, leading to an increased risk of catastrophic wildfires. The suppression of fire disrupted
4393-523: A petition in 1846 stating: "We ask that the Indians be placed under strict police surveillance or the persons for whom the Indians work give [the Indians] quarter at the employer's rancho." In 1847, a law was passed that prohibited Gabrielenos from entering the city without proof of employment. A part of the proclamation read: Indians who have no masters but are self-sustaining, shall be lodged outside of
4584-508: A primarily Hassaniya Arabic -speaking territory, Spanish was officially spoken as the language of the colonial administration during the late 19th and 20th centuries. Today, Spanish is present in the partially-recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as its secondary official language, and in the Sahrawi refugee camps in Tindouf ( Algeria ), where the Spanish language is still taught as
4775-423: A project in 2017 to dedicate wooden statues in local Ganesha Park to the Indigenous people of the area, they disagreed over which name, Tongva or Kizh , should be used on the dedication plaque. Tribal officials tentatively agreed to use the term Gabrieleño. The Act of September 21, 1968, introduced this concept of the affiliation of an applicant's ancestors in order to exclude certain individuals from receiving
4966-519: A real estate speculator from Grand Rapids, Michigan . Shatto purchased the island for $ 200,000 (equivalent to $ 5.9 million in 2023) from the Lick estate at the height of the real estate boom in Southern California in 1887. Shatto created the settlement that would become Avalon , and can be credited with building the town's first hotel, the original Hotel Metropole, and pier. Despite Shatto's efforts, he defaulted on his loan after only
5157-564: A requirement for inclusion on, the judgment roll. The act of 1968 stated that the Secretary of the Interior would distribute an equal share of the award to the individuals on the judgment roll “regardless of group affiliation.” Many lines of evidence suggest that the Tongva are descended from Uto-Aztecan -speaking peoples who originated in what is now Nevada , and moved southwest into coastal Southern California 3,500 years ago. According to
5348-477: A reservation for the Gabrieleño in 1907 failed. Soon it began to be perpetuated in the local press that the Gabrieleño were extinct. In February 1921, the Los Angeles Times declared that the death of Jose de los Santos Juncos, an Indigenous man who lived at Mission San Gabriel and was 106 years old at his time of passing, "marked the passing of a vanished race." In 1925, Alfred Kroeber declared that
5539-568: A result of statements by Davern, and other factors, Wood's death certificate was altered to indicate the cause was "drowning and other undetermined factors" In May 2007, the Island Fire was a large wildfire in the island. Largely due to the assistance of 200 Los Angeles County fire fighters transported by U.S. Marine Corps helicopters and U.S. Navy hovercraft, only a few structures were destroyed, though 4,750 acres (1,922 hectares) of wildland were burned. In May 2011, another wildfire started near
5730-617: A second language features characteristics involving the variability of the vowel system. While far from its heyday during the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , the Spanish language has some presence in northern Morocco , stemming for example from the availability of certain Spanish-language media. According to a 2012 survey by Morocco's Royal Institute for Strategic Studies (IRES), penetration of Spanish in Morocco reaches 4.6% of
5921-531: A second language, largely by Cuban educators. The number of Spanish speakers is unknown. Spanish is also an official language of the African Union . Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish administration in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization , it was the language of government, trade, and education, and was spoken as
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6112-612: A series of letters for the Los Angeles Star from the center of the Gabrieleño community in San Gabriel township, describing Gabrieleño life and culture. Reid himself was married to a Gabrieleño woman by the name of Bartolomea Cumicrabit, who he renamed "Victoria." Reid wrote the following: "Their chiefs still exist. In San Gabriel remain only four, and those young... They have no jurisdiction more than to appoint times for holding of Feasts and regulating affairs connected with
6303-507: A share of the award to the “Indians of California” who chose to receive a share of any awards to certain tribes in California that had splintered off from the generic group. The members or ancestors of the petitioning group were not affected by the exclusion in the Act. Individuals with lineal or collateral descent from an Indian tribe who resided in California in 1852, would, if not excluded by
6494-480: A species may result from the extinction of the original population on the mainland combined with its continued survival on the island where there may be fewer threats to its continued existence. The most common native plant communities of Catalina Island are chaparral , coastal sage scrub , island oak-ironwood woodland, and grassland. These ecosystems are integral to the island's biodiversity and have adapted to its Mediterranean climate and conditions. Catalina Island
6685-549: A tourist attraction and restaurant, until destroyed there by fire in 1938. One of the main investors to purchase shares from the Bannings was chewing-gum magnate William Wrigley, Jr. In 1919, Wrigley bought out nearly every share-holder until he owned controlling interest in the Santa Catalina Island Company. Wrigley invested millions in needed infrastructure and attractions to the island, including
6876-754: A training facility in Avalon, the Coast Guard had training at Two Harbors, the Army Signal Corps maintained a radar station in the interior, the Office of Strategic Services did training at Toyon Bay, and the Navy did underwater demolition training at Emerald Bay. In 1972, the Brown Berets , a group of Latino activists, Chicanos and Mexican residents occupied Santa Catalina Island in 1972 , invoking
7067-678: A type of hybrid parrot, was first bred at Catalina Bird Park in 1940 and is named after Santa Catalina Island. Most of the island is managed by the Catalina Island Conservancy , a private nonprofit organization. The mission of the Catalina Island Conservancy is to be a steward of its lands through a balance of conservation, education and recreation. The Conservancy protects the natural and cultural heritage of Santa Catalina Island, stewarding approximately 42,000 acres (170 km) of land (88 percent of
7258-661: A village, which was the center of Tongva life. The Tongva spoke a language of the Uto-Aztecan family (the remote ancestors of the Tongva probably coalesced as a people in the Sonoran Desert , between perhaps 3,000 and 5,000 years ago). The diversity within the Takic group is "moderately deep"; rough estimates by comparative linguists place the breakup of common Takic into the Luiseño-Juaneño on one hand, and
7449-546: Is Mexico . Spanish is part of the Ibero-Romance language group , in which the language is also known as Castilian ( castellano ). The group evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The oldest Latin texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in the 9th century, and the first systematic written use of
7640-416: Is cognate to the root word of satisfacer ("to satisfy"), and hecho ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of satisfecho ("satisfied"). Compare the examples in the following table: Some consonant clusters of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table: In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent
7831-520: Is a climate pattern characterized by the periodic warming of sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. Conducted in the vicinity of Santa Catalina Island, a well-established research project was derived to investigate how El Niño events influence the local hydrography and the growth dynamics of giant kelp populations in the area. Data collection involved the measurement of sea surface temperatures, kelp biomass, and other pertinent environmental variables during both El Niño events and non-El Niño periods. It
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8022-413: Is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world. Spanish is well represented in the humanities and social sciences . Spanish is also the third most used language on the internet by number of users after English and Chinese and the second most used language by number of websites after English. Spanish is used as an official language by many international organizations , including
8213-482: Is commonly believed to be San Pedro Bay , near present-day San Pedro . The Gaspar de Portolá land expedition in 1769 resulted in the founding of Mission San Gabriel by Catholic missionary Junipero Serra in 1771. Under the mission system, the Spanish initiated an era of forced relocation and virtual enslavement of the peoples to secure their labor. In addition, the Native Americans were exposed to
8404-515: Is constant communication with ancestors. On October 7, 1542, an exploratory expedition led by Spanish explorer Juan Cabrillo reached Santa Catalina in the Channel Islands, where his ships were greeted by Tongva in a canoe. The following day, Cabrillo and his men, the first Europeans known to have interacted with the Gabrieleño people, entered a large bay on the mainland, which they named "Baya de los Fumos" ("Bay of Smokes") on account of
8595-454: Is estimated that about 486 million people speak Spanish as a native language , making it the second most spoken language by number of native speakers . An additional 75 million speak Spanish as a second or foreign language , making it the fourth most spoken language in the world overall after English, Mandarin Chinese, and Hindi with a total number of 538 million speakers. Spanish is also
8786-761: Is heavily influenced by Venezuelan Spanish. In addition to sharing most of its borders with Spanish-speaking countries, the creation of Mercosur in the early 1990s induced a favorable situation for the promotion of Spanish language teaching in Brazil . In 2005, the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President , making it mandatory for schools to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil. In September 2016 this law
8977-480: Is heavily reliant economically on revenue from its annual visitors. Archeological evidence of human settlement dates back to 7000 BC. Prior to the modern era, the island was inhabited by the Tongva , who, had the villages, Chowigna ( San Pedro ) and Guashna ( Playa del Rey ), regularly traveled back and forth to Catalina for trade. The Tongva had settlements all over the island, with their biggest villages being at
9168-694: Is home to approximately 400 species of native plants, each playing a vital role in the island's ecosystem. Among these species, six are considered endemic, meaning they are found only on Catalina Island and nowhere else in the world. These endemics include the Catalina manzanita ( Arctostaphylos catalinae ); Catalina mahogany ( Cercocarpus traskiae ); Catalina dudleya ( Dudleya hassei ); St. Catherine's lace ( Eriogonum giganteum var. giganteum ); Santa Catalina bedstraw ( Galium catalinense ssp. catalinense ); and Santa Catalina Island ironwood ( Lyonothamnus floribundus ssp. floribundus ). Additionally, there's
9359-623: Is home to five native land mammals: the island fox , the Spermophilus beecheyi nesioticus subspecies of California ground squirrel , the Santa Catalina Island harvest mouse ( Reithrodontomys megalotis catalinae ), the Santa Catalina Island deer mouse ( Peromyscus maniculatus catalinae ), and the ornate shrew ( Sorex ornatus ). Only one ornate shrew was ever found, from a now-developed spring area above Avalon. Shrews are difficult to capture and may survive in wetter areas of
9550-525: Is part of Los Angeles County in District 4. Most of the island's land is unincorporated and is thus governed by the county. Catalina was originally inhabited and used by many different Southern California Tribes. The first European colonists to arrive on the island claimed it for the Spanish Empire . Over the years, territorial claims to the island transferred ownership to Mexico and then to
9741-461: Is possible there were as many as half a dozen dialects rather than the two which the existence of the missions has lent the appearance of being standard. The demarcation of the Fernandeño and the Gabrieleño territories is mostly conjectural and there is no known point in which the two groups differed markedly in customs. The wider Gabrieleño group occupied what is now Los Angeles County south of
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#17327797331589932-766: Is rich in quartz , to the extent that some beaches on the seaward side have silvery-grey sand. These deposits provide insights into the island's history, as they contain fossils of ancient marine life. The island is situated along the boundary of two tectonic plates: the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. This boundary is marked by the San Andreas Fault and the East Pacific Rise. The islands in this region have been shaped by tectonic uplift and volcanic activity. This means that
10123-484: Is road strikes; to combat this, the Conservancy installed new signage about Island Foxes. The Conservancy also introduced wild-life proof trash cans to protect foxes from human garbage, informs boaters about the possibility and danger of wildlife stowaways, and asks dog owners to keep their animals leashed. The Institute for Wildlife Studies, a separate conservation organization, has worked to restore bald eagles to
10314-844: Is spoken by very small communities in Angola due to Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned for their country's independence. Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in Africa, namely the cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the Canary Islands , located in the Atlantic Ocean some 100 km (62 mi) off
10505-813: Is the de facto national language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of New Mexico . The language has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of Los Angeles , Miami , San Antonio , New York , San Francisco , Dallas , Tucson and Phoenix of the Arizona Sun Corridor , as well as more recently, Chicago , Las Vegas , Boston , Denver , Houston , Indianapolis , Philadelphia , Cleveland , Salt Lake City , Atlanta , Nashville , Orlando , Tampa , Raleigh and Baltimore-Washington, D.C. due to 20th- and 21st-century immigration. Although Spanish has no official recognition in
10696-533: Is the most widely circulated endonym among the people, used by Narcisa Higuera in 1905 to refer to inhabitants in the vicinity of Mission San Gabriel. Some people who identify as direct lineal descendants of the people advocate the use of their ancestral name Kizh as an endonym . Along with the neighboring Chumash , the Tongva were the most influential people at the time of European encounter. They had developed an extensive trade network through te'aats (plank-built boats). Their food and material culture
10887-498: Is the official language of 20 countries , as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations . Spanish is the world's second-most spoken native language after Mandarin Chinese ; the world's fourth-most spoken language overall after English , Mandarin Chinese, and Hindustani ( Hindi - Urdu ); and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. The country with the largest population of native speakers
11078-507: Is the second, and much smaller, resort village on the island. Located at the isthmus of the island, northwest of Avalon, it is the primary landing spot for those who wish to tour the western half of the island. It is accessible by boat from San Pedro and by bus or boat from Avalon. While tourists rarely have an opportunity to surf , two beaches on the back side of Catalina offer good waves: Shark Harbor and Ben Weston Beach. There are also two camps, Catalina Island Camps and Camp Emerald Bay, on
11269-553: Is unique to the island and has been studied for its geologic significance. It is believed to be one of the oldest rocks on the island. The geology of Catalina Island is also important for conservation efforts. The Catalina Island Conservancy plays a role in protecting and managing the island's natural resources, including its geological formations. Santa Catalina Island has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csb ) with very mild winters. The National Weather Service maintains cooperative weather records at
11460-578: Is usually assumed to be derived from castillo ('castle'). In the Middle Ages , the language spoken in Castile was generically referred to as Romance and later also as Lengua vulgar . Later in the period, it gained geographical specification as Romance castellano ( romanz castellano , romanz de Castiella ), lenguaje de Castiella , and ultimately simply as castellano (noun). Different etymologies have been suggested for
11651-482: The Gabrieleño . This was not their autonym, or their name for themselves. Because of historical uses, the term is part of every official tribe's name in this area, spelled either as "Gabrieleño" or "Gabrielino." Because tribal groups have disagreed about appropriate use of the term Tongva , they have adopted Gabrieleño as a mediating term. For example, when Debra Martin, a city council member from Pomona , led
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#173277973315811842-658: The Los Angeles Basin and the Southern Channel Islands , an area covering approximately 4,000 square miles (10,000 km ). In the precolonial era, the people lived in as many as 100 villages and primarily identified by their village rather than by a pan-tribal name. During colonization , the Spanish referred to these people as Gabrieleño and Fernandeño , names derived from the Spanish missions built on their land: Mission San Gabriel Arcángel and Mission San Fernando Rey de España . Tongva
12033-495: The Old World diseases endemic among the colonists. As they lacked any acquired immunity, the Native Americans suffered epidemics with high mortality, leading to the rapid collapse of Tongva society and lifeways . They retaliated by way of resistance and rebellions, including an unsuccessful rebellion in 1785 by Nicolás José and female chief Toypurina . In 1821, Mexico gained its independence from Spain and secularized
12224-583: The San Gabriel township , which became "the cultural and geographic center of the Gabrieleño community." Yaanga also diversified and increased in size, with peoples of various Native backgrounds coming to live together shortly following secularization. However, the government had instituted a system dependent on Native labor and servitude and increasingly eliminated any alternatives within the Los Angeles area. As explained by Kelly Lytle Hernández, "there
12415-566: The Sierra Madre and half of Orange County , as well as the islands of Santa Catalina and San Clemente . The Spanish oversaw the construction of Mission San Gabriel in 1771. The Spanish colonizers used slave labor from local villages to construct the Missions. Following the destruction of the original mission, probably due to El Niño flooding, the Spanish ordered the mission relocated five miles north in 1774 and began referring to
12606-452: The Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005. Spanish has historically had a significant presence on the Dutch Caribbean islands of Aruba , Bonaire and Curaçao ( ABC Islands ) throughout the centuries and in present times. The majority of the populations of each island (especially Aruba) speaking Spanish at varying although often high degrees of fluency. The local language Papiamentu (Papiamento on Aruba)
12797-446: The Spanish–American War but was eventually replaced by English as the primary language of administration and education by the 1920s. Nevertheless, despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines upon independence in 1946, alongside English and Filipino , a standardized version of Tagalog . Spanish was briefly removed from official status in 1973 but reimplemented under
12988-401: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo , which has no mention of the islands. On February 15, 1975, Philip Wrigley deeded 42,135 acres (17,051 hectares) of the island from the Santa Catalina Island Company to the Catalina Island Conservancy that he had helped to establish in 1972. This gave the Conservancy control of nearly 90 percent of the island. The balance of the Santa Catalina Island Company that
13179-591: The United Nations , European Union , Organization of American States , Union of South American Nations , Community of Latin American and Caribbean States , African Union , among others. In Spain and some other parts of the Spanish-speaking world, Spanish is called not only español but also castellano (Castilian), the language from the Kingdom of Castile , contrasting it with other languages spoken in Spain such as Galician , Basque , Asturian , Catalan/Valencian , Aragonese , Occitan and other minor languages. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses
13370-498: The mainland to study at the Catalina Island Marine Institute every year. Spanish language Spanish ( español ) or Castilian ( castellano ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin spoken on the Iberian Peninsula of Europe . Today, it is a global language with about 500 million native speakers, mainly in the Americas and Spain , and about 600 million when including second language speakers. Spanish
13561-399: The "Gabrieleño" labor population at the mission was recorded to be 1,201. It jumped to 1,636 in 1820 and then declined to 1,320 in 1830. Resistance to this system of forced labor continued into the early 19th century. In 1817, the San Gabriel Mission recorded that there were "473 Indian fugitives." In 1828, a German immigrant purchased the land on which the village of Yang-Na stood and evicted
13752-454: The 1920s to 1930s, several bison were brought onto Catalina Island for a movie. The bison are popular with the tourists and buildings have painted images of bison and bison weather vanes. Over the decades, the bison herd grew to as many as 600. The population numbered approximately 150 in 2009. Other non-native animals currently living on the island include the bullfrog , feral cat , California mule deer , Norway rat , European starling , and
13943-404: The 2021–2022 school year alone. The local business process outsourcing industry has also helped boost the language's economic prospects. Today, while the actual number of proficient Spanish speakers is around 400,000, or under 0.5% of the population, a new generation of Spanish speakers in the Philippines has likewise emerged, though speaker estimates vary widely. Aside from standard Spanish,
14134-595: The 20th century, Spanish was introduced to Equatorial Guinea and the Western Sahara , and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as Spanish Harlem in New York City . For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language . Spanish is the primary language in 20 countries worldwide. As of 2023, it
14325-473: The Catalina Island Conservancy, there are 37 resident bird species on the island. Considerably more marine, pelagic, and migrating birds frequent the island, and 127 species have been reported to the Cornell University eBird database from 10 different eBird hotspots. There are several live camera feeds showing bald eagle nests on the island; nests are active February–July. In the waters surrounding
14516-558: The Catalina fox community has been restored to more than 1570 in 2018. However, mysterious, usually fatal ear tumors continue to plague the Catalina fox. Three Catalina Island Conservancy wildlife biologists continue to monitor the population through pit tagging, trapping and inspection. The conservancy group vaccinates around 300 foxes every year and monitors 50 unvaccinated foxes via radio collar to watch for signs of new disease outbreaks. The current leading cause of death among Island Foxes
14707-623: The City limits in localities widely separated... All vagrant Indians of either sex who have not tried to secure a situation within four days and are found unemployed, shall be put to work on public works or sent to the house of correction. In 1848, Los Angeles formally became a town of the United States following the Mexican-American War . Landless and unrecognized, the people faced continued violence, subjugation, and enslavement (through convict labor ) under American occupation. Some of
14898-654: The Equatoguinean education system and is the primary language used in government and business. Whereas it is not the mother tongue of virtually any of its speakers, the vast majority of the population is proficient in Spanish. The Instituto Cervantes estimates that 87.7% of the population is fluent in Spanish. The proportion of proficient Spanish speakers in Equatorial Guinea exceeds the proportion of proficient speakers in other West and Central African nations of their respective colonial languages. Spanish
15089-742: The Europeans were forbidden to trade with colonies. However, this policy was short lasted as the island lacked the ships to enforce this prohibition; also, much of the colonies wanted to trade with other European powers. During the period stretching from the late 18th to early 19th centuries, Russian hunters from the Aleutian Islands , particularly the Russian-American Company , visited Catalina Island as part of their fur trading expeditions. They were primarily interested in harvesting sea otters for their valuable fur, which led to
15280-564: The Gabrieleño culture was extinct, stating "they have melted away so completely that we know more of the finer facts of the culture of ruder tribes." Scholars have noted that this extinction myth has proven to be "remarkably resilient," yet is untrue. Despite being declared extinct, Gabrieleño children were still being assimilated by federal agents who encouraged enrollment at Sherman Indian School in Riverside, California . Between 1890 and 1920, at least 50 Gabrieleño children were recorded at
15471-705: The Iberian Peninsula. These languages included Proto-Basque , Iberian , Lusitanian , Celtiberian and Gallaecian . The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era , the most important influences on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring Romance languages — Mozarabic ( Andalusi Romance ), Navarro-Aragonese , Leonese , Catalan/Valencian , Portuguese , Galician , Occitan , and later, French and Italian . Spanish also borrowed
15662-596: The Island. Glass bottom boats tour the reefs and shipwrecks of the area, and scuba diving and snorkeling are popular in the clear water. Lover's Cove, to the east of Avalon, and Descanso Beach, to the west of the Casino, are popular places to dive. At Casino Point is the Avalon Underwater Dive Park, which was the first non-profit underwater park in the United States. The area flying fish and
15853-497: The Isthmus Yacht Club and was fought by 120 firefighters transported by barge from Los Angeles. It was extinguished the next day after burning 117 acres (47 ha). Catalina Island is a part of the Channel Islands of California, which are a chain of eight islands located in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Southern California. These islands are often referred to as the Channel Islands archipelago. They are not part of
16044-489: The Isthmus and at present-day Avalon, Shark/Little Harbor, and Emerald Bay. They were renowned for their mining, working and the trade of soapstone which was found in great quantities and varieties on the island. This material was in great demand and was traded along the California coast. The island was valued for its natural resources, but was also respected by the Tongva as an important "ceremonial center" with connections to
16235-413: The Los Angeles basin area, only 20 former neophytes from San Gabriel Mission received any land from secularization. What they received were relatively small plots of land. A "Gabrieleño" by the name of Prospero Elias Dominguez was granted a 22-acre plot near the mission while Mexican authorities granted the remainder of the mission land, approximately 1.5 million acres, to a few colonist families. In 1846, it
16426-540: The Old Spanish sibilants) for details. The Gramática de la lengua castellana , written in Salamanca in 1492 by Elio Antonio de Nebrija , was the first grammar written for a modern European language. According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to Queen Isabella I , she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire. In his introduction to
16617-584: The Padres and the others of the Mission, because they had come to live and establish themselves in her land.’’ In June 1788, nearly three years later, their sentences arrived from Mexico City : Nicolás José was banned from San Gabriel and sentenced to six years of hard labor in irons at the most distant penitentiary in the region. Toypurina was banished from Mission San Gabriel and sent to the most distant Spanish mission. Resistance to Spanish rule demonstrated how
16808-589: The Royal Spanish Academy) states that, although the Royal Spanish Academy prefers to use the term español in its publications when referring to the Spanish language, both terms— español and castellano —are regarded as synonymous and equally valid. The term castellano is related to Castile ( Castilla or archaically Castiella ), the kingdom where the language was originally spoken. The name Castile , in turn,
16999-408: The Santa Catalina Island Company passed down to his son, Philip K. Wrigley , who continued his father's work improving the infrastructure of the island. During World War II , the island was closed to tourists and used for military training facilities. Catalina's steamships were expropriated for use as troop transports and a number of military camps were established. The U.S. Maritime Service set up
17190-549: The Santa Catalina Island land-mass was never directly connected to mainland California. Other geologic factors that contributed to the island topography include further geologic uplift and subsidence, tectonic plate movement, sedimentation, metamorphic activity, weathering, and erosion. The island's landscape is characterized by rugged terrain, including steep cliffs, canyons, and rolling hills. There are also geologic features such as sea caves and marine terraces along
17381-517: The Santa Catalina airport. The average January temperatures are a maximum of 58.4 °F (14.7 °C) and a minimum of 47.6 °F (8.7 °C). Average July temperatures are a maximum of 78.1 °F (25.6 °C) and a minimum of 60.0 °F (15.6 °C). There are an average of 12.5 days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and an average of 0.3 days with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower. The record high temperature
17572-468: The Senate. The US had negotiated with people who did not represent the Tongva and had no authority to cede their land. During the following occupation by Americans, many of the Tongva and other Indigenous peoples were targeted with arrest . Unable to pay fines, they were used as convict laborers in a system of legalized slavery to expand the city of Los Angeles for Anglo-American settlers, who became
17763-516: The Spanish Crown's claims to California were both insecure and contested. By the 1800s, San Gabriel was the richest in the entire colonial mission system, supplying cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, horses, mules, and other supplies for settlers and settlements throughout Alta California . The mission functioned as a slave plantation. Latter-day ethnologist Hugo Reid reported, “Indian children were taken from their parents to be raised behind bars at
17954-452: The State. ... The other Spanish languages shall also be official in their respective Autonomous Communities... The Royal Spanish Academy ( Real Academia Española ), on the other hand, currently uses the term español in its publications. However, from 1713 to 1923, it called the language castellano . The Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (a language guide published by
18145-674: The Tongva as "Gabrieleno." At the Gabrieleño settlement of Yaanga along the Los Angeles River , missionaries and Indian neophytes, or baptized converts, built the first town of Los Angeles in 1781. It was called El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula (The Village of Our Lady, the Queen of the Angels of Porziuncola). In 1784, a sister mission, the Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles Asistencia ,
18336-482: The Tongva people and that none of these persons had authority to cede lands that belonged to the people. An 1852 editorial in the Los Angeles Star revealed the public's anger towards any possibility of the Gabrieleño receiving recognition and exercising sovereignty: To place upon our most fertile soil the most degraded race of aborigines upon the North American Continent, to invest them with
18527-727: The Tongva- Serrano on the other, at about 2,000 years ago. (This is comparable to the differentiation of the Romance languages of Europe). The division of the Tongva/Serrano group into the separate Tongva and Serrano peoples is more recent, and may have been influenced by Spanish missionary activity . The majority of Tongva territory was located in what has been referred to as the Sonoran life zone, with rich ecological resources of acorn, pine nut, small game, and deer. On
18718-502: The U.S. population were of Hispanic or Hispanic American by origin. In turn, 41.8 million people in the United States aged five or older speak Spanish at home, or about 13% of the population. Spanish predominates in the unincorporated territory of Puerto Rico , where it is also an official language along with English. Spanish is by far the most common second language in the country, with over 50 million total speakers if non-native or second-language speakers are included. While English
18909-424: The United States of America. The island was used for otter hunting and gold-digging, before successfully being developed into a tourist destination in the 1920s. Since the 1970s, most of the island has been administered by the Catalina Island Conservancy . In 2022, Santa Catalina Island's population was 4,201 people, with a 51.44 percent to 48.56 percent ratio of male to female residents , 90 percent of whom live in
19100-457: The administration of Ferdinand Marcos two months later. It remained an official language until the ratification of the present constitution in 1987, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language. Additionally, the constitution, in its Article XIV, stipulates that the Government shall provide the people of the Philippines with a Spanish-language translation of
19291-422: The attempt by converts or neophytes. Toypurina, José and two other leaders of the rebellion, Chief Tomasajaquichi of Juvit village and a man named Alijivit, from nearby village of Jajamovit, were put on trial for the 1785 rebellion. At his trial, José stated that he participated because the ban at the mission on dances and ceremony instituted by the missionaries, and enforced by the governor of California in 1782,
19482-501: The basin, along its rivers and on its shoreline, stretching from the deserts and to the sea." Only a few villages led by tomyaars (chiefs) were "in the mountains, where Chengiichngech 's avengers, serpents, and bears lived," as described by historian Kelly Lytle Hernández. However, "the grand jury dismissed the depths of Indigenous claims to life, land, and sovereignty in the region and, instead, chose to frame Indigenous peoples as drunks and vagrants loitering in Los Angeles... disavowing
19673-497: The bright orange Garibaldi are attractions. Parasailing is also offered. Jeep and bus tours are given of the interior, which is a conservation area managed by the Catalina Island Conservancy. The Love Catalina Island Tourism Authority operates the official island visitor center on the Green Pleasure Pier and provides visitor services assists tourists with any information on how to get to Catalina Island. Two Harbors
19864-399: The church [traditional structure made of brush]." There is some speculation that Reid was campaigning for the position of Indian agent in Southern California, but died before he could be appointed. Instead, in 1852, Benjamin D. Wilson was appointed, who maintained the status quo. The letters of Hugo Reid revealed the names of 28 Gabrielino villages. In 1855, the Gabrieleño were reported by
20055-689: The city streets clean in the 1850s and 1860s but increasingly included road construction projects as well. Although federal officials reported that there were an estimated 16,930 California Indians and 1,050 at Mission San Gabriel, "the federal agents ignored them and those living in Los Angeles" because they were viewed as "friendly to the whites," as revealed in the personal diaries of Commissioner George W. Barbour . In 1852, superintendent of Indian affairs Edward Fitzgerald Beale echoed this sentiment, reporting that "because these Indians were Christians, with many holding ranch jobs and having interacted with whites," that "they are not much to be dreaded." Although
20246-751: The classic hispanus or hispanicus took the suffix -one from Vulgar Latin , as happened with other words such as bretón (Breton) or sajón (Saxon). Like the other Romance languages , the Spanish language evolved from Vulgar Latin , which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans during the Second Punic War , beginning in 210 BC. Several pre-Roman languages (also called Paleohispanic languages )—some distantly related to Latin as Indo-European languages , and some that are not related at all—were previously spoken in
20437-424: The coast, shellfish, sea mammals, and fish were available. Prior to Christianization , the prevailing Tongva worldview was that humans were not the apex of creation, but were rather one strand in the web of life . Humans, along with plants, animals, and the land were in a reciprocal relationship of mutual respect and care, which is evident in their creation stories. The Tongva understand time as nonlinear and there
20628-405: The coastline. Catalina Island has been a site of interest for geologists and researchers studying island geology, as well as the processes of island formation, uplift, and erosion. The island's geology has also contributed to the understanding of tectonic plate interactions in the region. One of the most notable geological features on Catalina Island is the " Catalina Schist. " This metamorphic rock
20819-500: The consonant written b (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is no difference between the pronunciation of orthographic b and v . Typical of Spanish (as also of neighboring Gascon extending as far north as the Gironde estuary , and found in a small area of Calabria ), attributed by some scholars to a Basque substratum was the mutation of Latin initial f into h- whenever it
21010-560: The construction of the Catalina Casino which opened on May 29, 1929. Wrigley also sought to bring publicity to the island through events and spectacles. Starting in 1921, the Chicago Cubs , also owned by Wrigley, used the island for the team's spring training . The Cubs continued to use the island for spring training until 1951, except during the war years of 1942 to 1945. Following the death of Wrigley, Jr. in 1932, control of
21201-404: The country's constitution. In recent years changing attitudes among non-Spanish speaking Filipinos have helped spur a revival of the language, and starting in 2009 Spanish was reintroduced as part of the basic education curriculum in a number of public high schools, becoming the largest foreign language program offered by the public school system, with over 7,000 students studying the language in
21392-624: The decimation of the local sea otter population. The hunting by the Russian-American caused a profound ecological impact on the marine life around Catalina Island by depleting a keystone species. With its numerous hidden coves and relatively low population, the island has been considered a potentially attractive location for pirates and smugglers, much like other coastal areas. While there are historical indications that such activities may have occurred at various times, concrete documented accounts of piracy or significant smuggling operations on
21583-628: The decline of the Pimugnans because of diseases brought by the Spanish from Europe. By the 1830s, the island's entire native population had been forced to the mainland on the Spanish missions or to work as ranch hands for the many private land owners. In the late 18th century, the Franciscan friars considered building a mission on Catalina, but abandoned the idea due to the island's rugged terrain, small population size, and lack of fresh water. While Spain maintained its claim on Catalina Island,
21774-411: The early twentieth century, Gabrieleño identity had suffered greatly under American occupation. Most Gabrieleño publicly identified as Mexican, learned Spanish, and adopted Catholicism while keeping their identity a secret. In schools, students were punished for mentioning that they were "Indian" and many of the people assimilated into Mexican-American or Chicano culture. Further attempts to establish
21965-653: The endonym would be pronounced / ˈ t ɒ ŋ v eɪ / , TONG -vay . Some descendants prefer the endonym Kizh , which they argue is an earlier and more historically accurate name that was well documented by records of the Smithsonian Institution, Congress, the Catholic Church, the San Gabriel Mission, and other historical scholars. The Spanish referred to the Indigenous peoples surrounding Mission San Gabriel as
22156-454: The entire community with the help of Mexican officials. The mission period ended in 1834 with secularization under Mexican rule. Some "Gabrieleño" absorbed into Mexican society as a result of secularization, which emancipated the neophytes. Tongva and other California Natives largely became workers while former Spanish elites were granted huge land grants. Land was systemically denied to California Natives by Californio land owning men. In
22347-552: The fire and the subsequent decline in tourism due to World War I , the Banning brothers were forced to sell the island in shares in 1919. On May 10, 1912 Glenn L. Martin flew a homemade seaplane in to Avalon, setting records for distance and time. In 1917 the Meteor Company purchased the Chinese pirate ship Ning Po , the oldest pirate ship afloat, built in 1753, and towed her to the Isthmus of Catalina Island for use as
22538-487: The first laws passed targeted Natives for arrest, imprisonment, and convict labor. The 1850 Act for the Government and Protection of Indians "targeted Native peoples for easy arrest by stipulating that they could be arrested on vagrancy charges based 'on the complaint of any reasonable citizen'" and Gabrieleños faced the brunt of this policy. Section 14 of the act stated: When an Indian is convicted of any offence before
22729-683: The following table: Spanish is marked by palatalization of the Latin double consonants ( geminates ) nn and ll (thus Latin annum > Spanish año , and Latin anellum > Spanish anillo ). The consonant written u or v in Latin and pronounced [w] in Classical Latin had probably " fortified " to a bilabial fricative /β/ in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with
22920-466: The former British colony of Belize (known until 1973 as British Honduras ) where English is the sole official language, according to the 2022 census, 54% of the total population are able to speak the language. Due to its proximity to Spanish-speaking countries and small existing native Spanish speaking minority, Trinidad and Tobago has implemented Spanish language teaching into its education system. The Trinidadian and Tobagonian government launched
23111-604: The grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire." From the 16th century onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered America and the Spanish East Indies via Spanish colonization of America . Miguel de Cervantes , author of Don Quixote , is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes ("the language of Cervantes"). In
23302-477: The island and can sometimes outcompete native flora. Conservation efforts, led by organizations such as the Catalina Island Conservancy, aim to manage and control invasive species to protect the native ecosystem. Catalina Island has also been a focal point for botanical research, attracting botanists and researchers who study the island's unique plant species. These studies contribute to our understanding of plant adaptation, island ecology, and conservation. The island
23493-399: The island are limited. During the 1850s and 1860s, Catalina Island witnessed a minor gold rush, as part of the larger California Gold Rush of that era. Gold miners arrived on the island in search of valuable minerals. However, their scale and success was nothing to be compared to the more prosperous gold rush locations in California. The historical evidence regarding substantial gold deposits on
23684-411: The island arrived by chance by blowing over on the wind, drifting or swimming over the ocean, or flown over by wing. Starting with the Native Americans, animals and plants have also been introduced by humans, both intentionally and accidentally. Catalina is home to at least fifty endemic species and subspecies that occur naturally on the island and nowhere else in the world. This limited distribution of
23875-718: The island at the Catalina Clay Products Company , and these items are now highly sought-after collectibles. Children in Avalon attend schools in the Long Beach Unified School District . There were two schools on Catalina Island. Two Harbors was served by a one-room school house, but it closed down in 2014; students must now travel to Avalon for all grades K–12. Avalon schools are housed on one main campus that includes Avalon Elementary School, Avalon Middle School and Avalon High School. Thousands of school-age youths travel from
24066-403: The island on Conservancy land since the late 1970s. Bald eagles had been common on the island until the 1960s, when it is believed that the effects of dumping the pesticide DDT off the coast of Southern California made it impossible for eagles to successfully hatch their young. The reintroduction of the bald eagle to the island may also edge out an invasive golden eagle population that threatens
24257-523: The island remains inconclusive. In 1846, Californio Governor Pío Pico made a Mexican land grant of the Island of Santa Catalina to Thomas M. Robbins, as Rancho Santa Catalina. Robbins established a small ranch on the island, but sold it in 1850 to José María Covarrubias . A claim was filed with the Public Land Commission in 1853, and in 1867, the grant was officially patented to José María Covarrubias . Covarrubias, in turn, sold
24448-417: The island to Albert Packard of Santa Barbara in 1853. By 1864, the entirety of Catalina Island was under the ownership of James Lick , whose estate maintained control over the island for the following approximately 25 years. By the end of the 19th century, the island was almost uninhabited except for a few cattle herders. The first owner to try to develop Avalon into a resort destination was George Shatto ,
24639-437: The island's only incorporated city, Avalon . The second center of population is the unincorporated village of Two Harbors at the island's isthmus . Development also occurs at the smaller settlements of Rancho Escondido and Middle Ranch. The remaining population is scattered over the island between the two population centers. Today, the popular tourist destination can be reached via ferry services from mainland California, with
24830-468: The island), 50 mi (80 km) of shoreline, an airport, and more than 200 mi (320 km) of roads. One of the Conservancy's key goals is the conservation of the island fox, an endangered endemic species. In 1999, all but 100 out of 1,300 foxes on Catalina Island were wiped out because of a virulent strain of canine distemper . Following a successful recovery program which included captive breeding, distemper vaccinations and population monitoring,
25021-442: The island, there are schools of fish like Garibaldi , California sheephead , leopard sharks , white seabass , yellowtail , bat rays , giant sea bass , and many more. Great white sharks are also occasionally found or caught off the coast of Catalina, though usually around seal rookeries and not around inhabited areas. Common marine mammals around Catalina include California sea lions and harbor seals . The Catalina macaw ,
25212-493: The island. The Catalina orangetip butterfly is a notable insect on the island. The Southern Pacific rattlesnake ( Crotalus oreganus helleri ) is also present on the island. This species should not be confused for the Santa Catalina rattlesnake , found on Santa Catalina Island, Mexico. The Catalina Island bison herd consists of American Plains Bison maintained and monitored by the Catalina Island Conservancy. In
25403-544: The island. Overgrazing by these introduced animals led to the removal of native vegetation and substantially altered the composition of plant communities. As a result, this overgrazing caused notable changes in the island's ecosystem dynamics, influencing both its flora and fauna. The ecological effects of grazing practices raised legitimate concerns about habitat degradation and the decline of native plant species on Santa Catalina Island. Conservationists and environmentalists responded by considering management strategies to address
25594-484: The jail and convict labor crews in Mexican Los Angeles." By 1844, most Natives in Los Angeles worked as servants in a perpetual system of servitude, tending to the land and serving settlers, invaders, and colonizers. The ayuntamiunto forced the Native settlement of Yaanga to move farther away from town. By the mid-1840s, the settlement was forcibly moved eastward across the Los Angeles River , placing
25785-610: The language happened in Toledo , a prominent city of the Kingdom of Castile , in the 13th century. Spanish colonialism in the early modern period spurred the introduction of the language to overseas locations, most notably to the Americas. As a Romance language, Spanish is a descendant of Latin. Around 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary is Latin in origin, including Latin borrowings from Ancient Greek. Alongside English and French , it
25976-549: The language's hegemony in an intensely centralising Spanish state were established from the 18th century onward. Other European territories in which it is also widely spoken include Gibraltar and Andorra . Spanish is also spoken by immigrant communities in other European countries, such as the United Kingdom , France , Italy , and Germany . Spanish is an official language of the European Union . Today,
26167-631: The mainland but are remnants of an ancient mountain range. Catalina is primarily composed of two distinct rock units: Catalina Schist from the Early Cretaceous (95 to 109 million years ago), and Miocene volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks . The geological makeup of Catalina Island is primarily igneous and metamorphic rock. The island is composed of a variety of rock types, including basalt, schist, granite, and limestone. These rocks originated from volcanic eruptions, magma intrusions, and sedimentary deposits over millions of years. The island
26358-405: The mainland). European contact was first made in 1542 by Spanish explorer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo , who was greeted at Santa Catalina by people in a canoe. The following day, Cabrillo and his men entered a large bay on the mainland, which they named Baya de los Fumos ("Bay of Smokes") because of the many smoke fires they saw there. The Indigenous people smoked their fish for preservation. This
26549-694: The majority of the Spanish speakers live in Hispanic America . Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either de facto or de jure —of Argentina , Bolivia (co-official with 36 indigenous languages), Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , Cuba , Dominican Republic , Ecuador , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Mexico (co-official with 63 indigenous languages), Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay (co-official with Guaraní ), Peru (co-official with Quechua , Aymara , and "the other indigenous languages"), Puerto Rico (co-official with English), Uruguay , and Venezuela . Spanish language has
26740-739: The many smoke fires they saw there. This is commonly believed to be San Pedro Bay , near present-day San Pedro . The Gaspar de Portola expedition in 1769 was the first contact by land to reach Tongva territory, marking the beginning of Spanish colonization. Franciscan padre Junipero Serra accompanied Portola. Within two years of the expedition, Serra had founded four missions, including Mission San Gabriel , founded in 1771 and rebuilt in 1774, and Mission San Fernando , founded in 1797. The people enslaved at San Gabriel were referred to as Gabrieleños , while those enslaved at San Fernando were referred to as Fernandeños . Although their language idioms were distinguishable, they did not diverge greatly, and it
26931-418: The mission system. Many individuals returned to their village at time of death. Many converts retained their traditional practices in both domestic and spiritual contexts, despite the attempts by the padres and missionaries to control them. Traditional foods were incorporated into the mission diet and lithic and shell bead production and use persisted. More overt strategies of resistance such as refusal to enter
27122-438: The mission. They were allowed outside the locked dormitories only to attend to church business and their assigned chores. When they were old enough, boys and girls were put to work in the vast vineyards and orchards owned by the missions. Soldiers watched, ready to hunt down any who tried to escape.” Writing in 1852, Reid said he knew of Tongva who “had an ear lopped off or were branded on the lip for trying to get away.” In 1810,
27313-457: The missions . They sold the mission lands , known as ranchos, to elite ranchers and forced the Tongva to assimilate. Most became landless refugees during this time. In 1848, California was ceded to the United States following the Mexican-American War . The US government signed 18 treaties between 1851 and 1852 promising 8.5 million acres (3.4 million ha) of land for reservations . However, these treaties were never ratified by
27504-553: The most common departure point being the city of Long Beach. The island also has an airport, the Catalina Airport in the Sky, which is located on a hilltop and offers scenic views of the island. Catalina Island is known for its diverse ecosystems, which include coastal scrub , chaparral , oak woodlands , grasslands , and coastal marine environments. It is also home to various native and introduced species, both on land and in
27695-423: The native island fox. Grazing practices on Santa Catalina Island have a historical legacy dating back to the late 19th century when ranching operations were established. During this period, livestock, primarily sheep and cattle , were introduced to the island, marking the beginning of a substantial human impact on its ecology. The introduction of herbivores for grazing had significant ecological consequences for
27886-531: The natural fire regimes that had shaped the region for millennia and had unintended ecological consequences, including changes in plant composition and fuel load. Contemporary fire management on the island strives to strike a balance between the ecological role of fire and the necessity of protecting human structures and lives. This involves a more nuanced approach that recognizes the importance of fire in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Controlled burns, also known as prescribed fires, are one technique employed to reduce
28077-539: The negative impacts of grazing and to protect the island's unique flora. This prompted the implementation of conservation efforts to manage and mitigate the ecological consequences of livestock grazing, with the goal of preserving the island's natural heritage. Fire is an intrinsic element of the Mediterranean climate in Southern California, and it has played a crucial role in shaping the region's ecosystems over time. Historically, fires occurred infrequently but were
28268-404: The new majority in the area by 1880. In the early 20th century, an extinction myth was purported about the Gabrieleño, who largely identified publicly as Mexican-American by this time. However, a close-knit community of the people remained in contact with one another between Tejon Pass and San Gabriel township into the 20th century. Since 2006, four organizations have claimed to represent
28459-428: The northeastern end of the island that offer summer camps for children and Boy Scouts. The Catalina Island Museum, formerly located in the historic Catalina Casino but since 2016 in a standalone building, is also an attraction as it is the keeper of the island's cultural heritage with collections numbering over 100,000 items and including over 8,000 years of Native American history, over 10,000 photographs and images,
28650-416: The northern boundary was somewhere between Topanga and Malibu (perhaps the vicinity of Malibu Creek ) and the southern boundary was Orange County's Aliso Creek . The word Tongva was coined by C. Hart Merriam in 1905 from numerous informants. These included Mrs. James Rosemyre (née Narcisa Higuera) (Gabrileño), who lived around Fort Tejon , near Bakersfield. Merriam's orthography makes it clear that
28841-734: The northwest of the African mainland. The Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands traces its origins back to the Castilian conquest in the 15th century , and, in addition to a resemblance to Western Andalusian speech patterns, it also features strong influence from the Spanish varieties spoken in the Americas, which in turn have also been influenced historically by Canarian Spanish. The Spanish spoken in North Africa by native bilingual speakers of Arabic or Berber who also speak Spanish as
29032-479: The people living in San Gabriel during this time. In 1859, amidst increasing criminalization and absorption into the city's burgeoning convict labor system, the county grand jury declared "stringent vagrant laws should be enacted and enforced compelling such persons ['Indians'] to obtain an honest livelihood or seek their old homes in the mountains." This declaration ignored Reid's research, which stated that most Tongva villages, including Yaanga , "were located in
29223-516: The people were displaced to small Mexican and Native communities in the Eagle Rock and Highland Park districts of Los Angeles as well as Pauma , Pala , Temecula , Pechanga , and San Jacinto . Imprisonment of Natives in Los Angeles was a symbol of establishing the new "rule of law." The city's vigilante community would routinely "invade" the jail and hang the accused in the streets. Once congress granted statehood to California in 1850, many of
29414-669: The people: Two of the groups, the hyphen and the slash group, were founded after a hostile split over the question of building an Indian casino . In 1994, the state of California recognized the Gabrielino "as the aboriginal tribe of the Los Angeles Basin." No organized group representing the Tongva has attained recognition as a tribe by the federal government . The lack of federal recognition has prevented self-identified Tongva descendants from having control over Tongva ancestral remains, artifacts, and has left them without
29605-533: The population. Many northern Moroccans have rudimentary knowledge of Spanish, with Spanish being particularly significant in areas adjacent to Ceuta and Melilla. Spanish also has a presence in the education system of the country (through either selected education centers implementing Spain's education system, primarily located in the North, or the availability of Spanish as foreign language subject in secondary education). In Western Sahara , formerly Spanish Sahara ,
29796-416: The provisions of the Act of 1968, remain on the list of the “Indians of California.” To comply with the Act, the Secretary of Interior would have to collect information about the group affiliation of an applicant's Indian ancestors. That information would be used to identify applicants who could share in another award. The group affiliation of an applicant's ancestors was thus a basis for exclusion from, but not
29987-541: The rights of sovereignty, and to teach them that they are to be treated as powerful and independent nations, is planting the seeds of future disaster and ruin... We hope that the general government will let us alone—that it will neither undertake to feed, settle or remove the Indians amongst whome we in the South reside, and that they leave everything just as it now exists, except affording us the protection which two or three cavalry companies would give. In 1852, Hugo Reid wrote
30178-574: The risk of severe wildfires. These managed fires are intentionally set under controlled conditions to reduce excess vegetation and restore natural fire regimes. Other strategies, such as fuel reduction efforts and public education, are also integral to fire management on Santa Catalina Island. The goal is to protect both human communities and the island's ecological integrity while respecting the historical role of fire in shaping its landscapes. Over one million people travel to Catalina Island every year, accounting for $ 166.7 million in annual direct spending on
30369-533: The same land for generations, did not hold legal title to the land, and used the law to evict Indian families." The Gabrieleño became vocal about this and notified former Indian agent J. Q. Stanley, who referred to them as "half-civilized" yet lobbied to protect the Gabrieleño "against the lawless whites living amongst them," arguing that they would become " vagabonds " otherwise. However, active Indian agent Augustus P. Greene's recommendation took precedent, arguing that "Mission Indians in southern California were slowing
30560-580: The same time, three languages were recorded in Mission San Fernando. Prior to Russian and Spanish colonization in what is now referred to California, the Tongva primarily identified by their associated villages ( Topanga , Cahuenga , Tujunga , Cucamonga , etc.) For example, individuals from Yaanga were known as Yaangavit among the people (in mission records, they were recorded as Yabit ). The Tongva lived in as many as one hundred villages. One or two clans would usually constitute
30751-487: The sawmill." A missionary during this period reported that three out of four children died at Mission San Gabriel before reaching the age of 2. Nearly 6,000 Tongva lie buried in the grounds of the San Gabriel Mission. Carey McWilliams characterized it as follows: "the Franciscan padres eliminated Indians with the effectiveness of Nazis operating concentration camps...." There is much evidence of Tongva resistance to
30942-492: The school. Between 1910 and 1920, the establishment of the Mission Indian Federation, of which the Gabrieleño joined, led to the 1928 California Indians Jurisdictional Act, which created official enrollment records for those who could prove ancestry from a California Indian living in the state in 1852. Over 150 people self-identified as Gabrieleño on this roll. A Gabrieleño woman at Tejon Reservation provided
31133-609: The settlement of this portion of the country for non-Indians and suggested that the Indians be completely assimilated," as summarized by Singleton. In 1882, Helen Hunt Jackson was sent by the federal government to document the condition of the Mission Indians in southern California. She reported that there were a considerable number of people "in the colonies in the San Gabriel Valley, where they live like gypsies in brush huts, here today, gone tomorrow, eking out
31324-532: The sight of Spanish sticks that spit fire and death, nor [to] retch at the evil smell of gunsmoke—and be done with you white invaders!’ This quote, from Thomas Workman Temple II's article “Toypurina the Witch and the Indian Uprising at San Gabriel” is arguably a mistranslation and embellishment of her actual testimony. According to the soldier who recorded her words, she stated simply that she ‘‘was angry with
31515-506: The superintendent of Indian affairs Thomas J. Henley to be in "a miserable and degraded condition." However, Henley admitted that moving them to a reservation, potentially at Sebastian Reserve in Tejon Pass , would be opposed by the citizens because "in the vineyards, especially during the grape season, their labor is made useful and is obtained at a cheap rate." A few Gabrieleño were in fact at Sebastian Reserve and maintained contact with
31706-695: The supernatural." As stated by scholars John Dietler, Heather Gibson, and Benjamin Vargas, "Catholic enterprises of proselytization , acceptance into a mission as a convert, in theory, required abandoning most, if not all, traditional lifeways." Various strategies of control were implemented to retain control, such as use of violence, segregation by age and gender, and using new converts as instruments of control over others. For example, Mission San Gabriel's Father Zalvidea punished suspected shamans "with frequent flogging and by chaining traditional religious practitioners together in pairs and sentencing them to hard labor in
31897-519: The surrounding waters. Unique species include the island fox and the Catalina two striped garter snake. The city of Avalon, California , located on the island's eastern side, is the primary population center and serves as the hub for tourism. Visitors can explore Avalon's streets, visit museums, dine in restaurants, and enjoy various water-based activities such as snorkeling, scuba diving, and boat tours. The island offers opportunities for hiking, biking, camping, and wildlife watching. Catalina Island enjoys
32088-548: The system, work slowdowns, abortion and infanticide of children resulting from rape, and fugitivism were also prevalent. Five major uprisings were recorded at Mission San Gabriel alone. Two late-eighteenth century rebellions against the mission system were led by Nicolás José, who was an early convert who had two social identities: "publicly participating in Catholic sacraments at the mission but privately committed to traditional dances, celebrations, and rituals." He participated in
32279-415: The term castellano to define the official language of the whole of Spain, in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas (lit. "the other Spanish languages "). Article III reads as follows: El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. ... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas... Castilian is the official Spanish language of
32470-597: The term español (Spanish). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, español derives from the Occitan word espaignol and that, in turn, derives from the Vulgar Latin * hispaniolus ('of Hispania'). Hispania was the Roman name for the entire Iberian Peninsula . There are other hypotheses apart from the one suggested by the Royal Spanish Academy. Spanish philologist Ramón Menéndez Pidal suggested that
32661-444: The theories of Ramón Menéndez Pidal , local sociolects of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of Burgos , and this dialect was later brought to the city of Toledo , where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century. In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, Leonese , and, according to some authors,
32852-465: The third most used language on the Internet , after English and Chinese. Spanish is the official language of Spain . Upon the emergence of the Castilian Crown as the dominant power in the Iberian Peninsula by the end of the Middle Ages, the Romance vernacular associated with this polity became increasingly used in instances of prestige and influence, and the distinction between "Castilian" and "Spanish" started to become blurred. Hard policies imposing
33043-460: The village of Povuu'nga , located in present-day Long Beach . During European colonization , The first European to set foot on the island was the Portuguese explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo , who sailed to the west coast in the name of the Spanish crown . On October 7, 1542, he claimed the island for Spain and named it “ San Salvador” after his ship. Although his interactions with Catalina Island are not well-documented, his main achievement
33234-423: The warm waters accompanying El Niño which can have detrimental consequences for kelp as the warm water disrupts the normal nutrient-rich upwelling, a process vital for kelp growth. Since Catalina Island was never connected to mainland California, it originally lacked any terrestrial life. Any plants or animals that arrived on the island had to make their way across miles of open ocean. The original species to come to
33425-437: Was 105 °F (41 °C) on July 6, 2018, and the record low temperature was 29 °F (−2 °C) on January 11, 1949. Coastal high fog is common during summer, but usually burns off by the afternoon. Average annual precipitation at the airport is 13.73 inches (34.9 cm); the highest mountain peaks get up to 17 inches (43 cm) per year. There are an average of 45 days with measurable precipitation. The wettest year
33616-474: Was 1952 with 21.74 inches (55.2 cm) and the driest year was 1964 with 5.53 inches (14.0 cm). The most precipitation in one month was 7.81 inches (19.8 cm) in January 1952. The most precipitation in 24 hours was 2.95 inches (7.5 cm) on December 5, 1966. Snowfall is a rarity on the island, averaging only 0.4 inches (1.0 cm) a year at the airport, but 4.0 inches (10 cm) fell in 1949, including 3.0 inches (7.6 cm) in January. El Niño
33807-409: Was based on an Indigenous worldview that positioned humans as one strand in a web of life (as expressed in their creation stories ). Over time, different communities came to speak distinct dialects of the Tongva language , part of the Takic subgroup of the Uto-Aztecan language family. There may have been five or more such languages (three on the southernmost Channel Islands and at least two on
33998-624: Was concluded that this temperature rise has had diverse effects on the local hydrography, including shifts in water circulation patterns, heightened nutrient availability, and alterations in light penetration. Macrocystis pyrifera , a species of giant kelp, is a pivotal component of the underwater ecosystem of Catalina Island. The study discerned both positive and negative effects of El Niño events on giant kelp The Positive Effects were that El Niño caused an increase in nutrient levels, resulting from shifts in ocean currents, which, in turn, benefited kelp growth in certain areas. The Negative Effects were
34189-581: Was developed in the cities of Toledo , in the 13th to 16th centuries, and Madrid , from the 1570s. The development of the Spanish sound system from that of Vulgar Latin exhibits most of the changes that are typical of Western Romance languages , including lenition of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin vīta > Spanish vida ). The diphthongization of Latin stressed short e and o —which occurred in open syllables in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in
34380-446: Was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see Iberian Romance languages ). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spain with the advance of the Reconquista , and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the Arabic of Al-Andalus , much of it indirectly, through the Romance Mozarabic dialects (some 4,000 Arabic -derived words, make up around 8% of the language today). The written standard for this new language
34571-713: Was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The h- , still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects, it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Latin and neighboring Romance languages, there are many f -/ h - doublets in modern Spanish: Fernando and Hernando (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), ferrero and herrero (both Spanish for "smith"), fierro and hierro (both Spanish for "iron"), and fondo and hondo (both words pertaining to depth in Spanish, though fondo means "bottom", while hondo means "deep"); additionally, hacer ("to make")
34762-438: Was founded at Yaanga as well. Entire villages were baptized and indoctrinated into the mission system with devastating results. For example, from 1788 to 1815, natives of the village of Guaspet were baptized at San Gabriel. Proximity to the missions created mass tension for Native Californians, which initiated "forced transformations in all aspects of daily life, including manners of speaking, eating, working, and connecting with
34953-435: Was heavily dependent on Native labor and "grew slowly on the back of the Gabrieleño laborers." Some of the people became vaqueros on the ranches, highly skilled horsemen or cowboys, herding and caring for the cattle. There was little land available to the Tongva to use for food outside of the ranches. Some crops such as corn and beans were planted on ranchos to sustain the workers. Several Gabrieleño families stayed within
35144-415: Was in mapping and exploring the coastline, which helped lay the foundation for future European expeditions and settlements in California. Over half a century later, another Spanish explorer, Sebastián Vizcaíno , arrived at the island on the eve of Saint Catherine 's day (November 24) of 1602. Vizcaino renamed the island in the saint's honor. The colonization of California by the Spanish greatly contributed to
35335-430: Was intolerable as they prevented their mourning ceremonies. When questioned about the attack, Toypurina is famously quoted in as saying that she participated in the instigation because “[she hated] the padres and all of you, for living here on my native soil, for trespassing upon the land of my forefathers and despoiling our tribal domains. … I came [to the mission] to inspire the dirty cowards to fight, and not to quail at
35526-410: Was no place for Natives living but not working in Mexican Los Angeles. In turn, the ayuntamiunto (city council) passed new laws to compel Natives to work or be arrested." In January 1836, the council directed Californios to sweep across Los Angeles to arrest "all drunken Indians." As recorded by Hernández, "Tongva men and women, along with an increasingly diverse set of their Native neighbors, filled
35717-473: Was not deeded to the Conservancy maintains control of much of its resort properties and operations on the island. Actress Natalie Wood drowned in the waters near the settlement of Two Harbors over the Thanksgiving holiday weekend in 1981 in what was ruled an accidental death. Wood and her husband, Robert Wagner , were vacationing aboard their motor yacht, Splendour, along with their guest, Christopher Walken , and Splendour 's captain, Dennis Davern. As
35908-423: Was noted by researcher Kelly Lytle Hernández that 140 Gabrieleños signed a petition demanding access to mission lands and that Californio authorities rejected their petition. Emancipated from enslavement in the missions yet barred from their own land, most Tongva became landless refugees during this period. Entire villages fled inland to escape the invaders and continued devastation. Others moved to Los Angeles,
36099-423: Was recorded by Anglo-American settlers, "'White men, whom the Marshal is too discreet to arrest' ... spilled out of the town's many saloons, streets, and brothels, but the aggressive and targeted enforcement of state and local vagrancy and drunk codes filled the Los Angeles County Jail with Natives, most of whom were men." Most spent their days working on the county chain gang , which was largely involved with keeping
36290-443: Was returned to the conservancy in Altadena , which marked the first time the Tongva had land in Los Angeles County in 200 years. Tongva territories border those of numerous other tribes in the region. The historical Tongva lands made up what is now called "the coastal region of Los Angeles County , the northwest portion of Orange County and off-lying islands." In 1962 Curator Bernice Johnson, of Southwest Museum , asserted that
36481-462: Was revoked by Michel Temer after the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff . In many border towns and villages along Paraguay and Uruguay, a mixed language known as Portuñol is spoken. Equatorial Guinea is the only Spanish-speaking country located entirely in Africa, with the language introduced during the Spanish colonial period . Enshrined in the constitution as an official language (alongside French and Portuguese), Spanish features prominently in
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