168-669: Melilla ( / m ɛ ˈ l iː j ə / mel- EE -yə , Spanish: [meˈliʝa] ; Tarifit : Mřič ) is an autonomous city of Spain on the North African coast. It lies on the eastern side of the Cape Three Forks , bordering Morocco and facing the Mediterranean Sea . It has an area of 12.3 km (4.7 sq mi). It was part of the Province of Málaga until 14 March 1995, when
336-456: A bee appearing prominently on the city's bronze coinage under Mauretanian rule. Alternatively, it has been taken from words meaning "discord", "fever", or a medieval Arab figure. The placename perhaps comes from the Amazigh root M·L (meaning 'white'), producing the Amazigh mlilet and which results in the local Mrič ( [mrɪtʃ] ) via /l/→ [r] and /lt/ → [č] changes. Melilla
504-492: A diva (goddess of state). Caligula, bereft, declared a period of compulsory, universal mourning. Drusilla's death is one of several events approximate to the time of Caligula's illness, besides the death of Antonia and any unreported effects of the illness itself, thought by some to contribute to a fundamental change in Caligula's attitudes. Purges so early in Caligula's reign suggest to Weidemann that "the new emperor had learnt
672-519: A native hillfort and port ( Latin : oppidum et portus ). It was made a Roman colony in AD 46 , after which it was sometimes referenced as Flavia . Rusaddir was said to have once been the seat of a bishop, but there is no record of any bishop of the purported see and it is not included in the Catholic Church 's list of modern titular sees . The political history is similar to that of towns in
840-461: A Jew would have virtually defined him as fundamentally insane, despite appearances otherwise. The ethnically Greek population of Alexandria had already made their loyalty to the new emperor clear, with displays of his image as focus for his cult. The destruction of the altar at Jamlia and, presumably, removal of "idolatrous" images placed in synagogues by Greek citizens, might have been intended as an expression of Jewish religious fervour, rather than
1008-483: A bitter feud with Emperor Tiberius, who was Germanicus' biological uncle and adoptive father. The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. In 26, Tiberius withdrew from public life to the island of Capri , and in 31, Caligula joined him there. Tiberius died in 37 and Caligula succeeded him as emperor, at the age of 24. Of the few surviving sources about Caligula and his four-year reign, most were written by members of
1176-480: A blurring of boundaries between Caligula's personal wealth, and his income as head of state. Caligula's immediate successor, Claudius , abolished taxes, embarked on various costly building projects and donated 15,000 sesterces to each Praetorian Guard in 41 as his own reign began, which suggests that Caligula had left him a solvent treasury. In the long term, the occasional windfall aside, Caligula's spending exceeded his income. Fund-raising through taxation became
1344-561: A circus "fracas"; in Suetonius' biography "more than 20" lives were lost in what is almost certainly the same event, described as a violent but accidental crush. Some sources claim that Caligula forced equestrians and senators to fight in the arena as gladiators. Condemnation to the gladiator arena as a combatant was a standard punishment, doubling as public entertainment, for non-citizens found guilty of certain offences. Laws of AD 19 by Augustus and Tiberius banned voluntary participation of
1512-613: A consul. Most modern commentaries seek to explain Caligula's position, personality and historical context. Some historians dismiss many of the allegations against him as misunderstandings, exaggeration, mockery or malicious fantasy. During his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor, as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate . He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and public works to benefit Rome's ordinary citizens, including racetracks, theatres, amphitheatres, and improvements to roads and ports. He began
1680-476: A day before the Liberalia festival. He was 78 years old. Suetonius, Tacitus and Cassius Dio repeat variously elaborated rumours which held that Caligula, perhaps with Macro, was directly responsible for his death. Philo and Josephus , the latter a Romano-Jewish writer who served Vespasian a generation later, describe Tiberius' death as natural. On the same day, Caligula was hailed as emperor by members of
1848-1049: A fair amount of its vocabulary from Arabic, Spanish and French. Around 51.7% of the vocabulary of Tarifit is estimated to have been borrowed (56.1% of nouns and 44.1% of verbs). All loaned verbs follow Riffian conjugations, and some loaned nouns are Berberized as well. A lot of loans are not recognizable because of sound shifts that have undergone, e.g. ǧiřet [dʒːɪrəθ] 'night' ( Arabic : al-layla), hřec [ɦrəʃ] 'sick' ( Arabic : halaka). From 'An introduction to Tarifiyt Berber (Nador, Morocco)' by Khalid Mourigh and Maarten Kossmann: Sirkuḷasyun (trafic) A: A: Ssalamuɛlikum. peace.upon.you( PL ) A: Ssalamuɛlikum. A: peace.upon.you(PL) A: Hello. B: B: Waɛlikumssalam. and.upon.you( PL ).peace B: Waɛlikumssalam. B: and.upon.you(PL).peace B: Hello. A: A: Teẓṛid you( SG ).saw lakṣiḍa-nni accident-that yewqɛen? happening A: Teẓṛid lakṣiḍa-nni yewqɛen? A: you(SG).saw accident-that happening A: Did you see
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#17327721473252016-640: A geminate counterpart. Most of the time, a geminate is only different from its plain counterpart because of its length. Spirantized consonants have long stops as their geminate counterparts, e.g. yezḏeɣ [jəzðəʁ] 'he lives' vs. izeddeɣ [ɪzədːəʁ] 'he always lives'. There are only a few phonatactic expeceptions to this, e.g. in verb suffixes before vowel-initial clitics, ṯessfehmeḏḏ-as [θəs:fəɦməð:æs] . A few consonants have divergent geminated counterparts; ḍ (/dˤ/ and /ðˤ/) to ṭṭ (/tˤː/), w (/w/) to kkʷ (/kːʷ/), ɣ (/ʁ/) to qq (/qː/), and ř (/r/) to ǧ (/dʒː/). There are some exceptions to this. This
2184-607: A generous gratitude payment of 500 sesterces . Caligula doubled this, and took credit for its payment as an act of personal generosity; he also paid bonuses to the city troops and the army outside Italy. Every citizen in Rome was given 150 sesterces, and heads of households twice that amount. Building projects on the Palatine hill and elsewhere were also announced, which would have been the largest of these expenditures. Thanks to Macro's preparations on his behalf, Caligula's accession
2352-497: A gimcrack "king of the Jews.” In Philo's account, a mob of Greeks broke into synagogues to erect statues and shrines of Caligula, against Jewish religious law. Flaccus responded by declaring the Jews "foreigners and aliens", and expelled them from all but one of Alexandria's five districts, where they lived under dreadful conditions. Philo gives an account of various atrocities inflicted on Alexandria's Jews within and around this ghetto by
2520-535: A great deal from Tiberius" and "that attempts to divide his reign into a 'good' beginning followed by unremitting atrocities [...] are misplaced". Caligula shared many of the popular passions and enthusiasms of the lower classes and young aristocrats: public spectacles, particularly gladiator contests, chariot and horse racing, the theatre and gambling, but all on a scale with which the nobility could not match. He trained with professional gladiators and staged exceptionally lavish gladiator games, being granted exemption by
2688-535: A kind". In 38, Caligula lifted censorship, and published accounts of public funds and expenditure. Suetonius congratulates this as the first such act by any emperor. Very soon after his succession, he restored the right of the popular assembly ( comitia ) to elect magistrates on behalf of the common citizenry, a right that had been taken over by the Senate under Tiberius and Augustus. The aediles , elected officials who managed public games and festivals, and maintained
2856-435: A knowledge of human nature which in reality was not only foreign to him, but famously unsound. At Capri, Caligula learned to dissimulate. He probably owed his life to that and, as all the ancient sources agree, to Macro. Many believed, or claimed to believe, that given a little more time, Tiberius would have eliminated Caligula as a possible successor, but died before this could be done. Tiberius died on 16 March AD 37,
3024-417: A legator's obligation to provide for his family; Caligula seems to have considered his fatherly duties to the state entitled him to a share of every will from pious subjects. The army was not exempt; centurions who left nothing or too little to the emperor could be judged guilty of ingratitude, and have their wills set aside. Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over their spoils to
3192-424: A lot of words, this sound shift has affected other consonants as well. These sound shifts do not occur in the easternmost Riffian dialects of Icebdanen and Iznasen and the westernmost dialects. Postvocalic / r / preceding a consonantal coda is dropped, as in taddart > taddaat 'house/home'. Thus in tamara 'hard work/misery' the / r / is conserved because it precedes a vowel. These sound shifts do not occur in
3360-556: A major preoccupation. Provincial citizens were liable for direct payment of taxes used to fund the military, a payment from which Italians were exempt. Caligula abolished some taxes, including the deeply unpopular sales tax, but he introduced an unprecedented range of new ones, and rather than employ professional tax farmers ( publicani ) in their collection, he made this a duty of the notoriously forceful Praetorian Guard. Dio and Suetonius describe these taxes as "shameful": some were remarkably petty. Caligula taxed "taverns, artisans, slaves and
3528-745: A majority are spoken in the Rif region, a large mountainous area of Northern Morocco , and a minority spoken in the western part of neighbouring Algeria . Riffian is spoken mainly in the Moroccan Rif on the Mediterranean coast and in the Rif mountains, with a large minority in the Spanish autonomous city of Melilla . There are also speakers of Riffian in Morocco outside the Rif region, notably in
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#17327721473253696-424: A particular imperial virtue; "security", "concord" or "fortune". Caligula ordered that an image of his deceased mother, Agrippina, must accompany all festival processions. He made his uncle Claudius his consular colleague, tasked with siting statues of Caligula's two dead brothers, and occasionally standing in for Caligula at games, feasts and ceremonies. Claudius' own family found his limp and stammer "something of
3864-493: A priest of his own cult. This could have been an extended joke, created by Caligula himself in mockery of the senate. A persistent, popular belief that Caligula actually promoted his horse to consul has become "a byword for the promotion of incompetents", especially in political life. It may have been one of Caligula's many oblique, malicious or darkly humorous insults, mostly directed at the senatorial class, but also against himself and his family. Winterling sees it as an insult to
4032-507: A private individual, was made constitutional under Antoninus Pius . Caligula did not change the structure of the monetary system established by Augustus and continued by Tiberius, but the contents of his coinage differed from theirs. The location of the imperial mint for the coins of precious metals (gold and silver) is a matter of debate among ancient numismatists. It seems that Caligula initially produced his precious coins from Lugdunum (now Lyon , France), like his predecessors, then moved
4200-430: A public embarrassment"; he mismanaged the statue commission and his first consulship ended soon after, alongside Caligula's but his appointment elevated him from mere equestrian to senator, and eligible for consulship. Barrett and Yardley describe Claudius' consulship as an "astonishingly enlightened gesture" on Caligula's part, not one of Caligula's attempts to court popularity, as Suetonius would have it. Caligula made
4368-441: A public show of burning Tiberius' secret papers, which gave details of his infamous treason trials. They included accusations of villainy and betrayal against various senators, many of whom had willingly assisted in prosecutions of their own number to gain financial advantage, imperial favour, or to divert suspicion away from themselves; any expression of dissatisfaction with the emperor's rule or decisions could be taken as undermining
4536-409: A purge of suspected opponents or conspirators. Caligula's relations with his senate had been congenial but were now sullied by the forced suicide, for reasons unknown, of the eminent senator Silanus, formerly Caligula's father-in-law. Gemellus, Caligula's adopted son and heir, now 18 years old and legally adult, was also disposed of. Suetonius offers several versions of Gemellus' death. In one, Gemellus
4704-408: A religious act for Rome, but a blasphemy for the Jews, and in conflict with Jewish monotheism. In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his". In May of 40, Philo accompanied a deputation of Alexandrian Jews and Greeks to Caligula, and a second deputation after 31 August that year, during
4872-449: A remarriage would serve her personal ambition, and introduce yet another threat to himself. The last years of his principate were dominated by treason trials, whose outcomes were determined by senatorial vote. Agrippina, and Caligula's brother Nero, were tried and banished in the year 29 on charges of treason. The adolescent Caligula was sent to live with his great-grandmother (Tiberius' mother), Livia . After her death two years later, he
5040-604: A response aimed at one tyrant's offensive claims of personal godhood. Philo seems to have loathed Caligula from the start, but his belief that Caligula hated the Jews and was preparing their destruction has no basis in evidence. To place Caligula's statue in Temple precincts, showing him dressed as Jupiter, would have been consistent with the Empire-wide religious phenomenon known as Imperial cult , from whose full expression Jews had so far been exempted; they could offer prayer for
5208-423: A serious Jewish rebellion. In some versions, Caligula proved amenable to rational discussion with Agrippa and Jewish authorities, and faced with threats of rebellion, destruction of property and loss of the grain-harvest if the plan went ahead, abandoned the project. In more hostile versions Caligula, being demonstrably insane, and incapable of rational discussion, impulsively changed his mind once again, and reissued
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5376-475: A single day, and with a single piece of legislation, the 25-year-old Caligula, previously a virtual unknown in Rome's political life, and with no military service, was thus granted the same trappings, authority and powers that Augustus had accumulated piecemeal, over a lifetime and sometimes reluctantly. Until his first formal meeting with the Senate, Caligula refrained from using the titles they had granted him. His studied deference must have gone some way to reassure
5544-648: A single language with its own phonetical innovations distinct from other Berber languages . Majority of them are spoken in Northern Morocco, this includes the varieties of Al Hoceima , Temsamane , Nador , Ikbadene (including Iznasen) and the more southernly variety in the Taza province. Besides Riffian, two other related and smaller Berber languages are spoken in North Morocco: the Sanhaja de Srair and
5712-572: Is also a small number of Sephardic Jews and Sindhi Hindus . Melilla features a diglossia between the official Spanish and Tarifit . Like the autonomous city of Ceuta and Spain's other territories in Africa, Melilla is subject to an irredentist claim by Morocco. Borrowed from Spanish , the English name Melilla is pronounced / m ɛ ˈ l iː j ə / or / m ə ˈ l iː j ə / ( meh- or mə- LEE -yə ) to approximate
5880-682: Is in northwest Africa, on the shores of the Alboran Sea , a marginal sea of the Mediterranean , the latter's westernmost portion. The city is arranged in a wide semicircle around the beach and the Port of Melilla , on the eastern side of the peninsula of Cape Tres Forcas , at the foot of Mount Gurugú [ es ] and around the mouth of the Río de Oro intermittent water stream, 1 meter (3 ft 3 in) above sea level. The urban nucleus
6048-441: Is most common with ww, e.g. acewwaf [æʃəwːæf] 'hair', and rarely occurs with ɣɣ and ḍḍ e.g. iɣɣed [ɪʁːəð] 'ashes', weḍḍaạ [wədˤːɑˤ] 'to be lost'. /dʒ/ and /dʒː/ are allophonic realizations of the same phoneme, both are common. Notes: There are quite a few assimilations that occur with the feminine suffixes t and ṯ. There are also other assimilations. Spirantized consonants become stops after
6216-438: Is not known. Personal generosity and magnanimity, coupled with discretion and responsibility, were expected of the ruling elite, and the emperor in particular. At some time, Caligula ruled that bequests to office-holders remain property of the office, not of the office-holder. Suetonius claims that Caligula squandered 2.7 billion sesterces in his first year. and addressed the consequent treasury deficit by confiscating
6384-463: Is one of Dio's more confusing accounts, involving conspiracies, denunciations and trials for treason ( maiestas ), following Caligula's launch of invective at the entire senate, reviewing and condemning their current and past behaviour. He accused them of servility, treachery and hypocrisy in voting honours to Tiberius and Sejanus while they lived, and rescinding those honours once their recipients were safely dead. He declared that it would be folly to seek
6552-483: Is possible that Silanus had conspired to make Gemellus emperor, should Caligula fail to recover; and Caligula might simply have tired of Macro's control and influence. In 38, Caligula nominated Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as his heir, and married him to his beloved sister Drusilla, but on 19 June that year, Drusilla died. She was deified and renamed Panthea ("All Goddesses"); the first mortal woman in Roman history to be made
6720-486: Is said to have indulged the young man's appetite for theatre, dance and singing, in the hope that this would help soften his otherwise savage nature; "he used to say now and then that to allow Gaius to live would prove the ruin of himself and of all men, and that he was rearing a viper for the Roman people and a Phaethon for the world." Winterling points out that this judgment draws on later, not particularly accurate accounts of Caligula's rule; Suetonius credits Tiberius with
6888-407: Is unsupported. Two of the five prospered under his rule, and beyond. Caligula preferred to publicly humiliate his enemies in the senate, especially those of ancient families, by stripping them of their inherited honours, dignities and titles. In early September, he dismissed the two suffect consuls, citing their inadequate, low-key celebration of his birthday (August 31) and excessive attention to
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7056-402: The junta de arbitrios , remained in force. A "junta municipal" with a rather civil composition was created in 1927; on 10 April 1930, an ayuntamiento featuring the same membership as the junta was created, equalling to the same municipal regime as the rest of Spain on 14 April 1931, with the arrival of the first democratically elected municipal corporation on the wake of the proclamation of
7224-544: The parmularius type, who fought using small, round shields. In chariot races, he supported the Greens , and personally drove his favourite racehorse, Incitatus ("Speedy") as a member of the Green faction. Most of Rome's aristocracy would have found this an unprecedented, unacceptable indignity for any of their number, let alone their emperor. Caligula showed little respect for distinctions of rank, status or privilege among
7392-678: The Ghomara languages. They are only distantly related to Riffian and are not mutually intelligible with it. A few Riffian dialects are or used to be in the western part of Algeria , notably by the Beni Snouss tribe of the Tlemcen, as well in Bethioua but also in various colonial districts Riffians started to emigrate to since the 19th century. Dialects distribution There is no consensus on what varieties are considered Riffian and not,
7560-797: The Kingdom of Fez , eclipsed by those on the Atlantic. After the Catholic Monarchs ' conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492, their Secretary Hernando de Zafra [ es ] gathered intelligence about the sorry state of the North African coast with territorial expansion in mind. He sent agents to investigate, and subsequently reported to the Catholic Monarchs that, as of 1494, locals had expelled
7728-599: The Málaga — became an autonomous city , as their Statute of Autonomy was passed. On 6 November 2007, King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofia visited Melilla, with several display of affection from the population. The visit also sparked protests from the Moroccan government. It was the first time a Spanish monarch had visited Melilla in 80 years. Melilla, together with Ceuta, declared the Muslim holiday of Eid al-Adha —Feast of
7896-562: The People's Party (PP, 10 seats), who had been in office since 2000. Melilla also maintains a local police force known as Policia Local de Melilla (Ciudad Autonoma de Melilla - Policia Local). Melilla is subdivided into eight districts ( distritos ), which are further subdivided into neighbourhoods ( barrios ): The gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 1.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 0.1% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power
8064-468: The Rif region in northern Morocco . It is spoken natively by some 1,271,000 Rifians primarily in the Rif provinces of Nador , Al Hoceima and Driouch . In the Rif, the native name of this language is 'Tmaziɣt' (pronounced Tmazixt in most dialects). Speakers may specify by calling it 'Tarifiyt' (pronounced Tarifect in central dialects). Riffian is a Zenati Berber language which consists of various sub-dialects specific to each clan and of which
8232-620: The Roman Empire . He was born two years before Tiberius was made emperor. Gaius accompanied his father, mother and siblings on campaign in Germania , at little more than four or five years old. He had been named after Gaius Julius Caesar , but his father's soldiers affectionately nicknamed him "Caligula" ('little boot'). Germanicus died in Antioch in 19, and Agrippina returned with her six children to Rome, where she became entangled in
8400-870: The Second Republic . The city was used as one of the staging grounds for the July 1936 military coup d'état that started the Spanish Civil War . In the context of the passing of the Ley de Extranjería in 1986, and following social mobilization from the Berber community, conditions for citizenship acquisition were flexibilised and allowed for the naturalisation of a substantial number of inhabitants, until then born in Melilla but without Spanish citizenship. In 1995, Melilla —until then just another municipality of
8568-763: The Statute of Autonomy of Melilla was passed. Melilla is one of the special territories of the member states of the European Union . Movements to and from the rest of the EU and Melilla are subject to specific rules, provided for inter alia in the Accession Agreement of Spain to the Schengen Convention . As of 2019, Melilla had a population of 86,487. The population is chiefly divided between people of Iberian and Riffian extraction. There
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#17327721473258736-518: The (car) crash that happened? B: B: Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), better known by his nickname Caligula ( / k ə ˈ l ɪ ɡ j ʊ l ə / ), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in AD 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus ' granddaughter Agrippina the Elder , members of the first ruling family of
8904-559: The 12 km the autonomous city currently stands. Following the declaration of Melilla as a free port in 1863, the population began to increase, chiefly with Sephardi Jews fleeing from Tetouan who fostered trade in and out of the city. The first Jews from Tetouan probably arrived in 1864, and the first rabbi arrived in 1867 and began to operate the first synagogue, located in the Calle de San Miguel. Many Jews arrived fleeing from persecution in Morocco instigated by Roghi Bu Hamara . Following
9072-425: The 1868 lifting of the veto of emigration to Melilla from Peninsular Spain, the population further increased with Spaniards. The Jewish population, who also progressively acquired Spanish citizenship, increased to 572 in 1893. The economic opportunities created in Melilla henceforth favoured the installment of a Berber population. The first body of local government was the junta de arbitrios created in 1879, in which
9240-537: The Algerian cities of Ghazaouet and Oran . Melilla began to suffer from this, to which the instability brought by revolts against Muley Abdel Aziz in the hinterland also added, although after 1905 Sultan pretender El Rogui ( Bou Hmara ) carried out a defusing policy in the area that favoured Spain. The French occupation of Oujda in 1907 compromised the Melillan trade with that city, and the enduring instability in
9408-528: The Berber varieties of the Rif area (North, Northwest, and Northeast Morocco), – including the varieties of the Senhaja (westernmost group) and of the Iznasen (easternmost group) – form a language continuum with 5 stable core aggregates: They cut across the traditionally used groupings of Senhaja, Rif, Iznasen which are in fact ethnonyms and hold no classification value of any kind, neither do they correspond to
9576-580: The Berbers under the leadership of Abd el Krim inflicted a grave defeat on the Spanish at the Battle of Annual . The Spanish retreated to Melilla, leaving most of the protectorate under the control of the Republic of the Rif . A royal decree pursuing the creation of an ayuntamiento in Melilla was signed on 13 December 1918 but the regulation did not come into force, and thus the existing government body,
9744-628: The Canary and Balearic Islands), the city's population spends a comparatively larger amount of money on bottled water . Funded by the European Regional Development Fund and the Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir [ es ] , works for the expansion of the plant's production capabilities up to 30,000 m (39,000 cu yd) a day started by September 2020. The dome of
9912-534: The Capitol. Barrett (2015) believes that this bridge existed only in Suetonius' account, and should perhaps be dismissed as a fantasy, with possible origins in some jocular remark by Caligula. Caligula began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta Julia ; he cleared the latter space for use as an arena, and filled it with water for a single naumachia (a sham naval battle fought as entertainment). He supervised
10080-484: The Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , endorsed the initiative and provided the assistance of artillery officer Francisco Ramírez de Madrid . Melilla was occupied on 17 September 1497, virtually without violence as it was on the border between the Kingdom of Tlemcen and the Kingdom of Fez, and as a result had been fought over many times and left abandoned. No large-scale expansion into
10248-507: The Chapel of Santiago, built in the mid-16th century by Miguel de Perea with help from Sancho de Escalante, is a rare instance of Gothic architecture in the African continent. Tarifit language Tarifit Berber , also known as Riffian or locally as Tamazight ( Tarifit : Tmaziɣt , pronounced [θmæzɪχt] ; Arabic : الريفية ) is a Zenati Berber language spoken in
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#173277214732510416-483: The Customs Union (including Peninsular Spain) are however subject to the correspondent customs tariff and are taxed with the correspondent VAT. There are some special manufacturing taxes regarding electricity and transport, as well as complementary charges on tobacco and oil and fuel products. The principal industry is fishing. Cross-border commerce (legal or smuggled) and Spanish and European grants and wages are
10584-548: The Elder considered to be engineering marvels. He built a large racetrack, now known as the Circus of Gaius and Nero . In its central spine he incorporated an Egyptian obelisk, now known as the Vatican obelisk , which he had brought by sea on a gigantic, purpose-built ship, which used 120,000 modi of lentils as ballast. At Syracuse , he repaired the city walls and temples. He pushed to keep roads in good condition throughout
10752-487: The Elder, and the most common is an as with his grandfather Agrippa . Finally, Caligula kept open the mint at Caesarea in Cappadocia , which had been created by Tiberius, in order to pay military expenses in the province with silver drachmae . Numismatists Harold Mattingly and Edward Sydenham consider that the artistic style of Caligula's coins is below those of Tiberius and Claudius; they especially criticize
10920-521: The Empire from there as a divine monarch, a Roman pharaoh . Very similar rumours attended Julius Caesar's last days, up to his assassination and very much to his discredit. Caligula's ancestor Mark Antony took refuge in Egypt with Cleopatra, and Augustus had made it a so-called " Imperial province ", under his direct control. It was the main source of Italy's grain supply , and was administered by members of
11088-662: The Kingdom of Fez ensued, and, barring the enterprises of the Cardinal Cisneros along the Algerian coast in Mers El Kébir and Oran , and the rock of Badis in the territorial scope of the Kingdom of Fez, the Hispanic monarchy's imperial impetus was eventually directed elsewhere, to the Italian Wars against France, and, especially after 1519, to the newly discovered continent across the Atlantic. Melilla
11256-839: The PSOE. On 15 June 2019, following the May 2019 Melilla Assembly election , the regionalist and left-leaning party of Muslim and Amazigh persuasion Coalition for Melilla (CPM, 8 seats), the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE, 4 seats) and Citizens–Party of the Citizenry (Cs, 1 seat) voted in favour of the Cs' candidate ( Eduardo de Castro ) as the Presidency of the Autonomous City, ousting Juan José Imbroda , from
11424-502: The Praetorian guard at Misenum . His leadership of the domus Caesaris ("Caesar's household") as its sole heir and pater familias was ratified by the senate, who acclaimed him imperator two days after the death of Tiberius. Caligula entered Rome on 28 or 29 March, and with the consensus of "the three orders" (senate, equestrians and common citizens) the Senate conferred on him the "right and power to decide on all affairs". In
11592-518: The Rif still threatened Melilla. Between 1909 and 1945, the modernista ( Art Nouveau ) style was prevalent in local architecture, making Melilla's streets a "true museum of modernista -style architecture", second only to Barcelona, mainly stemming from the work of architect Enrique Nieto . Mining companies began to enter the hinterland of Melilla by 1908. A Spanish company, the Compañía Española de las Minas del Rif [ es ] ,
11760-524: The Roman Empire and Judaea was ruled as a Roman client kingdom. Jews and Greeks had settled in Egypt following its conquest by Macedonian Greeks, and remained there after its conquest by Rome. While the Alexandrian Greeks held citizen status, Alexandrian Jews were classified as mere settlers, with no statutory or citizen rights other than those granted them by their Roman governors. The Greeks feared that official recognition of Jews as citizens would undermine their own status and privilege. Caligula had replaced
11928-471: The Roman state under Claudius. The temple had been vowed in her lifetime, but not constructed. Between approximately mid-October and mid-November 37, Caligula fell seriously ill through unknown causes and hovered for a month or so between life and death. Rome's public places filled with citizens who implored the gods for his recovery, some even offering their own lives in exchange. By late October, their emperor had recovered, and embarked on what might have been
12096-622: The Sacrifice— an official public holiday from 2010 onward. It is the first time a non-Christian religious festival has been officially celebrated in Spain since the Reconquista . In 2018, Morocco decided to close the customs office near Melilla, the first time since mid-19th century, without any consultation wtith Spain. The customs office was expected to reopen in January 2023. Melilla was
12264-548: The Senate outright refused to accept this, Caligula restored control of elections to them. Either way, the emperor ultimately chose which candidates stood for election, and which were elected. Caligula was quite capable of recognising his own plans and decisions as flawed, and abandoning, revising or reversing them when faced with opposition. He was open to good advice, but could just as easily take its offering as an insult to his youth or understanding – Philo quotes his warning "Who dares teach me?" Caligula abandoned his plan to convert
12432-575: The Senate proposed that his senatorial chair be raised "on a high platform even in the very Senate house". They offered a thanksgiving to Caligula, as to a monarch, expressing gratitude for allowing them to live when others had died. Winterling suggests that Caligula's three subsequent consulships, sworn at the Rostra , were vain attempts to make amends, public statements of respect for the senators as his equals. Barrett perceives these later consulships as symbolic of Caligula's continued intention to dominate
12600-420: The Senate, Marcus Junius Silanus . Caligula was given an honorary quaestorship in the cursus honorum , a series of political promotions that could lead to consulship . He would hold this very junior senatorial post until his sudden nomination as emperor. Junia died in childbirth the following year, along with her baby. In 35, Tiberius named Caligula as joint heir with Tiberius' grandson, Gemellus, who
12768-441: The Senate; Barrett speculates that Caligula may have intended the whole event as an object lesson on how completely he was in charge: it may also provide "the most striking example of his wasteful extravagance"; its pointlessness might have been the whole point. Caligula's reign saw an increase of tensions between Jews native to their homeland of Judea , Jews of the diaspora, and ethnic Greeks. Greeks and Jews had settled throughout
12936-545: The Spanish territory around the Melilla fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859, 1860 , 1861, and 1894. In the late 19th century, as Spanish influence expanded in this area, the Crown authorized Melilla as the only centre of trade on the Rif coast between Tetuan and the Algerian border. The value of trade increased, with goat skins, eggs and beeswax the principal exports, and cotton goods, tea, sugar and candles
13104-465: The State, and lead to prosecution for maiestas (treason). Caligula claimed – falsely, as it later turned out – that he had read none of these documents before burning them. He used a coin issue to advertise his claim that he had restored the security of the laws, which had suffered during Tiberius' prolonged absence from Rome; he reduced a backlog of court cases in Rome by adding more jurors and suspending
13272-705: The Statute of Autonomy are the Assembly of Melilla , the President of Melilla and the Council of Government. The assembly is a 25-member body whose members are elected through universal suffrage every 4 years in closed party lists following the schedule of local elections at the national level. Its members are called "local deputies " but they rather enjoy the status of concejales (municipal councillors). Unlike regional legislatures (and akin to municipal councils),
13440-543: The Temple of Jerusalem to a temple of the Imperial cult, with a statue of himself as Zeus, when warned that the plan would arouse extreme protests, and injure the local economy. He gave funds where they were needed; he helped those who lost property in fires, and abolished a deeply unpopular tax on sales, but whether his extravagant gifts to favourites during his earliest reign – be they actors, charioteers or other public performers – drew on his personal wealth or state coffers
13608-408: The anniversary of Actium (September 2). This was the last battle in a damaging civil war between two of Caligula's close ancestors, which he found no cause for celebration. One of the dismissed consuls killed himself: Caligula may have suspected him of conspiracy. Suetonius and Dio outline Caligula's supposed proposal to promote his favourite racehorse, Incitatus ("Swift"), to consul , and later,
13776-470: The applause of the populace. A few months later, Germanicus was despatched to tour Rome's allies and provinces with his family. They were received with great honour; at Assos Caligula gave a public speech, aged only 6. Somewhere en route , Germanicus contracted what proved to be a fatal illness. He lingered awhile, and died at Antioch , Syria , in AD ;19, aged 33, convinced that he had been poisoned by
13944-464: The assembly does not enjoy right of initiative for primary legislation. The president of Melilla (who, often addressed as Mayor-President, also exerts the roles of Mayor, president of the Assembly, president of the Council of Government and representative of the city) is invested by the Assembly. After local elections, the president is invested through a qualified majority from among the leaders of
14112-496: The attention of the soldiers, to whom he was something of a mascot, though he later grew to dislike the nickname. Germanicus was a respected, immensely popular figure among his troops and Roman civilians of every class, and was widely expected to eventually succeed his uncle Tiberius as emperor. For his successful northern campaigns, he was awarded the great honour of a triumph . During the triumphal procession through Rome, Caligula and his siblings shared their father's chariot, and
14280-608: The authority of the Sultan of Fez and had offered to pledge loyalty. While the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas put Melilla and Cazaza , until then reserved to the Portuguese, under the sphere of Castile , the conquest of the city had to wait, delayed by the French occupation of Naples. The Duke of Medina Sidonia , Juan Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán , advocated seizing Melilla, to be headed by Pedro de Estopiñán [ es ] , and
14448-621: The beginning of his reign. Caligula minted a quadrans , a small bronze coin, to mark the abolition of the ducentesima , a 0.5% tax on sales. The output of the precious metal mints was small and his sesterces were mostly made in limited quantities, which make his coins now very rare. This rarity cannot be attributed to Caligula's alleged damnatio memoriae reported by Dio, as removing his coins from circulation would have been impossible; besides, Mark Antony 's coins continued to circulate for two centuries after his death. Caligula's common coins are base metal types with Vesta , Germanicus, and Agrippina
14616-512: The bridge is unclear; Winterling believes that it might have been intended to mark Caligula's attempted invasion of Britain. A two-day ceremonial was performed, with offerings to the sea-god Neptune and Invidia (Envy), and a satisfactory result, in that the sea remained completely calm. The bridge was said to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge across the Hellespont . For
14784-624: The capture of the Río de Oro's underflow. Seeking to address the water supply problem, works for the construction of a desalination plant in the Aguadú cliffs, projected to produce 22,000 m (29,000 cu yd) a day, started in November 2003. The plant entered operation in March 2007. Its daily operation is partially funded by the central government. Relative to the Spanish average (and similarly to
14952-498: The chief imports. Melilla's civil population in 1860 still amounted to only 375 estimated inhabitants. In a 1866 Hispano-Moroccan arrangement signed in Fes , both parties agreed to allow for the installment of a customs office near the border with Melilla, to be operated by Moroccan officials. The Treaty of Peace with Morocco that followed the 1859–60 War entailed the acquisition of a new perimeter for Melilla, bringing its area to that where
15120-544: The city's Greek population. Caligula held Flaccus responsible for the disturbances, exiled him, and eventually executed him. In 39, Agrippa accused his uncle Herod Antipas , the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea , of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia . Herod Antipas confessed, Caligula exiled him, and Agrippa was rewarded with his territories. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks, when Jews who refused to venerate
15288-509: The colonial period. Texts like R. Basset (1897) and S. Biarnay (1917) are transcribed in the Latin alphabet but they are transcribed in a rather deficient way. Most recently (since 2003), Tifinagh has become official throughout Morocco. The Arabic script is not used anymore for writing Riffian Berber. The Berber Latin alphabet continues to be the most used writing system online and in most publications in Morocco and abroad. Tarifit has loaned
15456-401: The consonant 'n', this occurs between words as well. The initial masculine a- prefix is dropped in certain words, e.g., afus 'hand' becomes fus , and afiɣaṛ 'snake' becomes fiɣạṛ . This change, characteristic of Zenati Berber varieties, distances Riffian from neighbouring dialects such as Atlas-Tamazight and Shilha . In the history of Western and Central Riffian /l/ has become /r/ in
15624-653: The conspirators might have planned this as an opportunity to restore the Roman Republic and aristocratic privileges; but if so, their plan was thwarted by the Praetorians, who seem to have spontaneously chosen Caligula's uncle Claudius as the next emperor. Caligula's death marked the official end of the Julii Caesares in the male line, though the Julio-Claudian dynasty continued to rule until
15792-676: The construction of two aqueducts in Rome: the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus . During his reign, the empire annexed the client kingdom of Mauretania as a province . He had to abandon an attempted invasion of Britain, and the installation of his statue in the Temple of Jerusalem. In early 41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard , senators , and courtiers. At least some of
15960-415: The consulars themselves. An aristocrat's highest ambition, the consulship, could be laid open to ruinous competition and at the same time, to ridicule. David Woods believes it unlikely that Caligula meant to insult the post of consul, as he had held it himself. Suetonius, possibly failing to get the joke, presents it as further proof of Caligula's insanity, adding circumstantial details more usually expected of
16128-407: The cost of Caligula's extravagant bridge-building project at Baiae. Suetonius has presumably the same financial crisis starting in 38; he does not mention a bridge but lists a broad range of Caligula's extravagances, said to have exhausted the state treasury. To Wilkinson, Caligula's uninterrupted use of precious metals in coin issues does not suggest a bankrupt treasury, though there must have been
16296-495: The deified Augustus; their powers were entirely ceremonial, not executive, but their names were included in the standard formulas used in the senate house to invoke divine blessings on debates and proceedings, and the annual prayers for the safety of emperor and state. Caligula named his favourite sister, Drusilla, as heir to his imperium . Oaths were sworn in the name of Caligula, and his entire family. One of his sesterces not only identifies each sister by name, but associates her with
16464-526: The demise of Caligula's nephew, the Emperor Nero . Caligula was born in Antium on 31 August AD 12, the third of six surviving children of Germanicus and his wife and second cousin, Agrippina the Elder . Germanicus was a grandson of Mark Antony , and Agrippina was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder , making her the granddaughter of Augustus . The future emperor Claudius
16632-440: The destruction of his family is taken by Tacitus as evidence that his "monstrous character was masked by a hypocritical modesty". Winterling observes that a forthright protest would "certainly have cost him his life". In 33, Caligula's mother and his brother Drusus died, while still in exile. In the same year, Tiberius arranged the marriage of Caligula and Junia Claudilla , daughter of one of Tiberius' most influential allies in
16800-546: The difference of opinion mainly lie in the easternmost dialects of the Iznasen and the westernmost dialects of Senhaja de Sraïr and Ketama. Dialects include West-Riffian (Al Hoceima), Central-Riffian (Nador) and East-Riffian (Berkan). Iznasen (Iznacen, Beni Snassen) is counted as a dialect in Kossman (1999), but Blench (2006) classifies it as one of the closely related Mzab–Wargla languages . Lafkioui (2020) argues that
16968-399: The easternmost Riffian dialects of Icebdanen and Iznasen and the westernmost dialects beyond Ayt Waayaɣeř. Like other Berber languages, Riffian has been written with several different systems over the years. Unlike the nearby Tashelhit (Shilha), Riffian Berber has little written literature before the twentieth century. The first written examples of Riffian berber start appearing just before
17136-416: The election lists, or, failing to achieve the former, the leader of the most voted list at the election is invested to the office. In case of a motion of no confidence the president can only be ousted with a qualified majority voting for an alternative assembly member. The Council of Government is the traditional collegiate executive body for parliamentary systems . Unlike the municipal government boards in
17304-480: The elite in any public spectacles, but the ban was never particularly effective, and was broadly ignored in Caligula's reign. During Caligula's illness two citizens, one of whom was an equestrian, offered to fight as gladiators if only the gods would spare the emperor's life. The offers were insincere, intended to flatter and invite reward. When Caligula recovered, he insisted that they be taken at face value, to avoid accusations of perjury: "cynical, but not without wit of
17472-590: The emperor as a god were accused of dishonouring him. In the Judaean city of Jamnia , resident Greeks built a shoddy, sub-standard altar to the Imperial cult , intending to provoke a reaction from the Jews; they immediately tore it down. This was interpreted as an act of rebellion. In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem , a political, rather than
17640-414: The emperor, rather than to him; far from a perfect compromise but the highest honour that Jewish tradition permitted in honour of a mortal. Caligula found this most unsatisfactory, and demanded that his statue be installed in the Temple of Jerusalem forthwith. The Governor of Syria, Publius Petronius , ordered a statue from Sidon , then postponed its installation for as long he could, rather than risk
17808-406: The empire, and extended the existing network: to this end, Caligula investigated the financial affairs of current and past highway commissioners. Those guilty of negligence, embezzlement or misuse of funds were forced to repay what they had dishonestly used for other purposes, or fulfil their commissions at their own expense. Caligula planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish
17976-488: The equestrian order, directly responsible to the ruling emperor. Egypt was, more or less, Caligula's property, to dispose of as he wished. Roman knowledge of pharaonic brother-sister marriages to maintain the royal bloodline would have shored up the many flimsy, scandalised allegations of adolescent incest between Caligula and Drusilla, supposedly discovered by Antonia but reported as rumour, and only by Suetonius. Barrett finds no further evidence for these allegations, and advises
18144-410: The estates of wealthy individuals, after false accusations, fines or outright seizure, even the death penalty, as a means of raising money. This seems to have started in earnest around the time of Caligula's confrontation with the senate (in early 39). Suetonius's retrospective balance sheet overlooks what would have been owed to Caligula, personally and in his capacity as emperor, on Tiberius' death, and
18312-460: The extension and rebuilding of the imperial palace to include a gallery for his art collection. Philo and his party were given a tour of the gallery during their diplomatic visit. Barrett (2015) considers Philo's description of Caligula as a "would-be connoisseur and aesthete" as "probably not very wide of the mark." To help meet Rome' burgeoning demand for fresh water, he began the construction of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus , which Pliny
18480-534: The extensive emphasis on his relatives was to highlight Caligula's double claim to the Principate, from both the Julian and Claudian sides of the dynasty, and to call for the unity of the family. The sesterce with his three sisters was discontinued after 39, due to Caligula's suspicion regarding their loyalty. He also made a sesterce celebrating the Praetorian cohorts as a mean to give them the bequest of Tiberius at
18648-403: The fabric of roads and shrines, would now have incentive to spend their own money on lavish, high-profile spectacles and other munera (gifts to the state or people), to win the popular vote. Dio writes that this, "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many... many disasters would result". When
18816-458: The fatherland"), which had been conferred on Augustus. Caligula refused it, protesting his youth, until 21 September 37. He commemorated his own father, Germanicus, with portraits on coinage, adopted his name, and renamed the month of September after him. He granted his sisters and his grandmother Antonia Minor extraordinary privileges, normally reserved for the Vestals , and female priesthoods of
18984-564: The ferry links to Melilla, both for passengers and for freight. Because of this, the port and related companies form an important economic driver for the city. In order to boost growth and as a measure to promote tourism in the Autonomous City of Melilla, the Tourist Board has developed a Regulatory Decree for bonuses for Tourist Packages to Melilla. The Tourist package consists of the application of discounts on return tickets by plane or boat provided that they include accommodation during
19152-421: The garrison of the place on 7 June 1556. During the late 17th century, Alaouite sultan Ismail Ibn Sharif attempted to conquer the presidio , taking the outer fortifications in the 1680s and further unsuccessfully besieging Melilla in the 1690s. One Spanish officer reflected, "an hour in Melilla, from the point of view of merit, was worth more than thirty years of service to Spain." The current limits of
19320-485: The hiring of slaves", edibles sold in the city, litigation anywhere in the Empire, weddings or marriages, the wages of porters "or perhaps couriers", and most infamously, a tax on prostitutes (active, retired or married) or their pimps, liable for "a sum equivalent to a single transaction". Citizens of provincial Italy lost their previous tax exemptions. Most individual tax bills were fairly small but cumulative; over Caligula's brief reign, taxes were doubled overall. Even then,
19488-412: The laws") required the exercise of personal responsibility, self-restraint, and above all, tact; as if the Senate still held the power they had voluntarily surrendered. In Barrett's words, "Caligula would be restrained only by his own sense of discretion, which became in lamentably short supply as his reign progressed". Caligula dutifully asked the Senate to approve divine honours for his predecessor but
19656-508: The location of the last public statue in Spain to commemorate former dictator Francisco Franco following Spain's Historical Memory Law , passed in 2007, which included provision to the removal of any artefacts which celebrated the Franco regime from all public buildings and spaces. Nonetheless, the statue remained on the Cuesta de la Florentina street until its final removal in 2021. Melilla
19824-435: The love or approval of such men: they hated him, and wanted him dead, so it would be better that they should fear him. Caligula's diatribes exposed the idealised princeps or First Senator as illusion and imposture. When the senate returned next day, they seemed to confirm his suspicions, and voted him a special guard of armed pretorians to protect him and guard his statues. Apparently seeking to please him and assure his safety,
19992-578: The military enjoy preponderance. The Polígono excepcional de Tiro, the first neighborhood outside the walled core ( Melilla la Vieja ), began construction in 1888. In 1893, Riffian tribesmen launched the First Melillan campaign to try to conquer the city; the Spanish government sent 25,000 soldiers to defend it against them. The conflict was also known as the Margallo War , after Spanish General Juan García y Margallo , Governor of Melilla, who
20160-611: The mines. In October of that year, Bou Hmara's vassals revolted against him and raided the mines, which remained closed until June 1909. By July the workmen were again attacked and several were killed. Severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen followed, in the Second Melillan campaign that took place in the vicinity of Melilla. In 1910, the Spaniards restarted the mines and undertook harbor works at Mar Chica, but hostilities broke out again in 1911. On 22 July 1921,
20328-453: The mint to Rome in 37–38, although it is possible that this move occurred later, under Nero. His base metal coinage was struck in Rome. Unlike Tiberius, whose coins remained almost unchanged throughout his reign, Caligula used a variety of types, mostly featuring Divus Augustus , as well as his parents Germanicus and Agrippina, his dead brothers Nero and Drusus , and his three sisters Agrippina , Drusilla , and Livilla . The reason for
20496-406: The more astute that he should prove amenable to their guidance. Some must have resented the political manipulations that led to this extraordinary settlement. Caligula was now entitled to make, break or ignore any laws he chose. Augustus had shown, and Tiberius had failed to realise, that the roles of primus inter pares ("first among equals") and princeps legibus solutus ("a princeps not bound by
20664-452: The necessary funds, to complete the humiliation of Rome's elite, especially the old Republican families. Despite his biographers' attempts to ridicule Caligula's taxes, many were continued after his death. The military remained responsible for all tax collection, and the tax on prostitution continued up to the reign of Severus Alexander . Caligula's ruling that bequests made to any reigning emperor became property of his office, not himself as
20832-408: The nobility and senate, long after the events they purport to describe. For the early part of his reign, he is said to have been "good, generous, fair and community-spirited" but increasingly self-indulgent, cruel, sadistic, extravagant and sexually perverted thereafter; an insane, murderous tyrant who demanded and received worship as a living god, humiliated his Senate, and planned to make his horse
21000-557: The opening ceremony, Caligula donned the supposed breastplate of Alexander the Great , and rode his favourite horse, Incitatus , across the bridge, perhaps defying a prediction, attributed by Suetonius to Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes , that Caligula had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". On the second day, he rode the bridge from end to end several times "at full tilt", accompanied by
21168-436: The order to Petronius along with the threat of enforced suicide if he failed. An even larger statue of Caligula-Zeus was ordered from Rome; the ship carrying it was still under way when news of Caligula's death reached Petronius. Caligula's plan was abandoned, Petronius survived and the statue was never installed. Philo reports a rumour that in 40, Caligula announced to the Senate that he planned to move to Alexandria, and rule
21336-519: The order's membership lists for signs of dishonesty or scandal. He seems to have ignored trivial misdemeanours, and would have anticipated the creation of "new men" ( novi homines ), first of their families to serve as senators. They would owe him a debt of gratitude and loyalty for their advancement. Barrett describes some of the supposed equestrian offences punished by Caligula as "decidedly trivial", and their punishments as sensationalist. Dio claims that Caligula had more than 26 equestrians executed in
21504-681: The other income sources. Melilla is regularly connected to the Iberian peninsula by air and sea traffic and is also economically connected to Morocco: most of its fruit and vegetables are imported across the border. Moroccans in the city's hinterland are attracted to it: 36,000 Moroccans cross the border daily to work, shop or trade goods. The port of Melilla offers several daily connections to Almería and Málaga . Melilla Airport offers daily flights to Almería, Málaga and Madrid . Spanish operators Air Europa and Iberia operate in Melilla's airport. Many people travelling between Europe and Morocco use
21672-408: The portraits, which are too hard and lack details. Caligula had a fondness for grandiose, costly building projects, many of which were intended to benefit or entertain the general population but are described in Roman sources as wasteful. In the city of Rome, he completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey . He is said to have built a bridge between the temple of Castor and Pollux and
21840-478: The prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus , with Herod Agrippa , who was governor of Batanaea and Trachonitis , and was a personal friend. Flaccus had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists. In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus. According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers and mockery from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as
22008-789: The provincial governor, Gnaius Calpurnius Piso . Many believed that he had been killed at the behest of Tiberius, as a potential rival. Germanicus was cremated, and his ashes were taken to Rome, escorted by his wife and children, Pretorian guards , civilian mourners and senators, then placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus . Caligula lived with his mother Agrippina in Rome, in a milieu very different from that of his earlier years. Agrippina made no secret of her imperial ambitions for herself and her sons, and in consequence, her relations with Tiberius rapidly deteriorated. Tiberius believed himself under constant threat from treason, conspiracy and political rivalry. He forbade Agrippina to remarry, for fear that
22176-739: The region of the Moroccan Rif and southern Spain. Melilla was progressively ruled by the Vandals , Byzantines , and the Visigoths . In the early 6th century, it was the main port of the Mauro-Roman Kingdom . After the Islamic conquest of North Africa , it fell under the Umayyads , Cordobans , Idrisids , Almoravids , Almohads , Marinids , and Wattasids . During the 15th century, the city declined, like most Mediterranean cities of
22344-437: The release of the former emperor's hoarded wealth into the economy at large. Caligula's inheritance included the deceased empress Livia 's vast bequest, which Caligula distributed among its nominated public, private and religious beneficiaries. Barrett (2015) asserts that this "massive cash injection would have given the Roman economy a tremendous boost". Dio remarks the beginnings of a financial crisis in 39, and connects it to
22512-477: The requirement that sentences be confirmed by imperial office. Stressing his descent from Augustus, Caligula retrieved the remains of his mother and brothers from their places of exile for interment in the Mausoleum of Augustus. Caligula began work on a temple to Livia , widow of Augustus; she held the honorific title of Augusta while still living, and when she died was eventually made a diva (goddess) of
22680-532: The rest of Moroccan cities where they compose a minority. The neighbour state of Algeria is also home to Rif minorities. A Riffian-speaking community exists in the Netherlands and Belgium as well as to a lesser extent other European countries. There is a large amount of dialectal variation in Riffian Berber; this can easily be seen using the dialect Atlas (Lafkioui, 1997), however Riffian compose
22848-527: The revenue was nowhere near enough, and the imposition was deeply resented by Rome's commoners. Josephus claims that this led to riotous protests at the Circus. Barrett remarks that stories of consequent "mass executions" there by the military should "almost certainly" be dismissed as "standard exaggeration". Property or money left to Tiberius as emperor but not collected on his death would have passed to Caligula as office-holder. Roman inheritance law recognised
23016-488: The sea, rendering much cooler summers and more precipitation than inland areas deeper into Africa. The climate, in general, is similar to the southern coast of peninsular Spain and the northern coast of Morocco, with relatively small temperature differences between seasons. Minimum temperatures have never been below 0 °C (32 °F) during 1991-2020 period, and only 2.2 days per year have maximum temperature above 35 °C (95 °F). The government bodies stipulated in
23184-645: The senate and the state; Barrett describes the change in Caligula's rule as a gradual unravelling, a "descent into serious mismanagement and impenetrable mistrust" – and, latterly, into "arbitrary terror"; but Dio's claim that in fact, "there was nothing but slaughter" is undermined by evidence that most senators managed to survive Caligula's reign with their persons and fortunes intact. Caligula had not, after all, destroyed Tiberius' records of treason trials. He reviewed them and decided that numerous senators discharged from Tiberius' court hearings seemed to have been guilty of conspiracy all along, against emperor and State –
23352-428: The senate from the sumptuary laws that limited the number of gladiators to be kept in Rome. He was openly and vocally partisan in his uninhibited support or disapproval of particular charioteers, racing teams, gladiators and actors, shouting encouragement or scorn, sometimes singing along with paid performers or declaiming the actors' lines, and generally behaving as "one of the crowd". In gladiator contests, he supported
23520-432: The senate, whose members Tiberius had once described as "men ready to be slaves". Among those whom Caligula recalled from exile were actors and other public performers who had somehow caused Tiberius offence. Caligula seems to have built a loyal following among his own loyal freedmen , citizen-commoners, disreputable public performers on whom he lavished money and other gifts; and the lower nobility (equestrians) rather than
23688-555: The senatorial nobility, including palaces, servants and golden goblets, and invitations to banquets. In 39 or 40, by Suetonius' reckoning, Caligula ordered a temporary floating bridge to be built using a double line of ships as pontoons , earth-paved and stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae , near Naples , to the neighbouring port of Puteoli , with resting places between. Some ships were built on site but grain ships were also requisitioned, brought to site, secured and temporarily resurfaced. Any practical purpose for
23856-429: The senators and nobles whom he clearly and openly mistrusted, despised and humiliated for their insincere simulations of loyalty. Dio notes, with approval, that Caligula allowed some equestrians senatorial honours, anticipating their later promotion to senator based on their personal merits. To reverse declining membership of the equestrian order, Caligula recruited new, wealthy members empire-wide, and scrupulously vetted
24024-404: The sociolinguistic landscape of the Rif area, which shows considerable complexity. In the history of Western and Central Riffian /l/ has become /r/ in a lot of words. In most dialects there is no difference in this consonant (ř) and in original r, but in some dialects it is more clearly distinguished by the fact that ř is trilled while r is a tap. All consonants except for /ŋ/, /tʃ/ and /ʔ/ have
24192-477: The soldiery, famous nobles and hostages. Seneca and Dio claim that grain imports were dangerously depleted by Caligula's re-purposing of Rome's grain ships as pontoons. Barrett finds these accusations absurd; if the bridge was finished in 39, that was far too early to have had any effect on the annual grain supply, and "a genuine grain crisis was simply blamed on the most outlandish episode at hand." Dio places this episode soon after Caligula's furious denunciation of
24360-486: The sound of the Spanish double L , properly [meˈliʝa] in most standard Spanish dialects . The name is attested from the 9th century, deriving from Arabic Malīlya ( مَلِيلْيَة , [maˈliːlja] ) of uncertain etymology. The name has been related to honey ( Spanish : miel ; Latin : mel ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : μέλι , méli ) since Melilla was a notable site for beekeeping in antiquity,
24528-500: The standard ayuntamientos , the members of the Council of Government (including the vice-presidents) do not need to be members of the assembly. Melilla is the city in Spain with the highest proportion of postal voting ; vote buying (via mail-in ballots) is widely reported to be a common practice in the poor neighborhoods of Melilla. Court cases in this matter had involved the PP, the CPM and
24696-402: The state. Stories of a brothel in the Imperial palace, staffed by Roman aristocrats, matrons and their children, are taken literally by Suetonius and Dio; McGinn believes they could be based on a single incident, extended to an institution in the telling. Similar allegations would be made in the future against Commodus and Elagabalus . Winterling, citing Dio 59.28.9, traces the outline of
24864-407: The stay in Melilla in one of the types of tourist accommodation or at the home of a resident of the city and do not exceed, between the round trip dates, ten days. Melilla's water supply primarily came from a network of dug wells (which by the turn of the 21st century suffered from overexploitation and had also experienced a degradation of the water quality and the intrusion of seawater ), as well as
25032-724: The story to Cassius Dio's account for AD 40, and his allegation that the noble tenants of newly built suites of rooms at the palace were compelled to pay exorbitant rents for the privilege of living so close to Caligula, and under the protection of the praetorians. No brothel is mentioned in this account. Suetonius appears to reverse the traditional aristocratic client-patron ceremonies of mutual obligation, and have Caligula accepting payments for maintenance from his loyal consular "friends" at morning salutations, evening banquets, and bequest announcements. The sheer numbers of "friends" involved meant that meticulous records were kept of who had paid, how much, and who still owed. His agents would then visit
25200-586: The temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus , and house his own cult and image there: and to found a city high up in the Alps . He intended to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the site. None of these plans came to fruition. In the course of 39, Caligula's increasingly tense relationship with his Senate deteriorated into outright hostility and confrontation. This
25368-464: The very same consuls who had been involved in conspiracies against him, rail against the Senate's treachery en masse but ask for "gifts" from individuals to express their loyal friendship in return. A refusal was unthinkable. Winterling describes the families who occupied these rooms as hostage, under the supervision of the Praetorians; some paid up willingly, some reluctantly, but all paid. Caligula made loans available at high interest to those who lacked
25536-578: The worst form of maiestas (treason). Tiberius' treason trials had encouraged professional delatores (informers), who were loathed by the populace, but many of the accused had testified against each other, and against Caligula's own family, even to the point of initiating the prosecutions themselves. If they had acted against Caligula's family, they might act against Caligula himself. New investigations were launched; Dio names five once-trusted, consular senators tried for maiestas , but his allegation that senators or others were put to death in "great numbers"
25704-628: The worst of the Alexandrian riots. Neither of these encounters proved decisive. Both gave Caligula ample opportunity for casual, friendly banter, which seems to have included humiliating levity, always at the Jewish delegation's expense; but he made no claims of divinity, either in his dress nor his speech, merely asking at the second encounter, more or less rhetorically, why Jews found his veneration so difficult. Philo and Josephus each saw Caligula's behaviour as driven by his claims to divinity, which for
25872-639: Was 19,900 euros or 66% of the EU27 average in the same year. Melilla was the NUTS2 region with the lowest GDP per capita in Spain. Melilla does not participate in the European Union Customs Union (EUCU). There is no VAT (IVA) tax, but a local reduced-rate tax called IPSI. Preserving the status of free port , imports are free of tariffs and the only tax concerning them is the IPSI. Exports to
26040-646: Was Caligula's junior by seven years and not yet an adult. At the time, Tiberius seemed to be in good health, and likely to survive until Gemellus' majority. In Philo's account, Tiberius was genuinely fond of Gemellus, but doubted his personal capacity to rule and feared for his safety should Caligula come to power. Suetonius claims that Tiberius, ever mistrustful but still shrewd in his mid-70s, saw through Caligula's apparent self-possession to an underlying "erratic and unreliable" temperament, not one to be trusted in government; and he claims that Caligula took pleasure in cruelty, torture, and sexual vice of every kind. Tiberius
26208-567: Was Caligula's paternal uncle. Caligula had two older brothers, Nero and Drusus , and three younger sisters, Agrippina the Younger , Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla . At the age of two or three, he accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania . He wore a miniature soldier's outfit devised by his mother to please the troops, including army boots ( caligae ) and armour. The soldiers nicknamed him Caligula ("little boot"). Winterling believes he would have enjoyed
26376-630: Was a Phoenician and later Punic trade establishment under variations of the name Rusadir ( Punic : 𐤓𐤔𐤀𐤃𐤓 , ršʾdr ), taken from the Phoenician name of the nearby Cape Three Forks . After Carthage 's defeat in the Punic Wars , the city fell under the control of the Roman client state Mauretania . After its annexation under Caligula , Claudius organized it as part of the province of Mauretania Tingitana . Pliny mentions it as
26544-495: Was a "brilliantly stage-managed affair". The legions had already sworn loyalty to Caligula as their imperator. Now Caligula gave the miserly Tiberius a magnificent funeral at public expense, and a tearful eulogy, and met with an ecstatic popular reception along the funeral route and in Rome itself. Among Caligula's first acts as emperor was the provision of public games on a grand scale. Philo describes Caligula in these early days as universally admired. Suetonius writes that Caligula
26712-601: Was befriended by Tiberius' Praetorian prefect , Naevius Sutorius Macro . Macro had been active in the downfall of Sejanus , his ambitious and manipulative predecessor in office, and was a trusted communicant between the emperor, and his senate in Rome. Philo , Jewish diplomat and later witness to several events in Caligula's court, writes that Macro protected and supported Caligula, allaying any suspicions Tiberius might harbour concerning his young ward's ambitions. Macro represented Caligula to Tiberius as "friendly, obedient" and devoted to Tiberius' grandson, Tiberius Gemellus , who
26880-508: Was constituted in July 1908, shared by Clemente Fernández, Enrique Macpherson, the Count of Romanones , the Duke of Tovar and Juan Antonio Güell [ es ] , who appointed Miguel Villanueva as chairman. Thus two mining companies under the protection of Bou Hmara started mining lead and iron 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) from Melilla. They started to construct a railway between the port and
27048-414: Was given the adult toga virilis then charged with having taken an antidote, "implicitly accusing Caligula of wanting to poison him", and forced to kill himself. Several months later, in early 38, Caligula forced suicide on his Praetorian Prefect, Macro, without whose help and protection he would not have survived, let alone gained the throne as sole ruler. Any link between the deaths is speculative, but it
27216-546: Was initially jointly administered by the House of Medina Sidonia and the Crown, and a 1498 settlement required the former to station a 700-man garrison in Melilla and the latter to provide the city with a number of maravedíes and wheat fanegas . The Crown's interest in Melilla decreased during the reign of Charles V . During the 16th century, soldiers stationed in Melilla were badly remunerated, leading to many desertions. The Duke of Medina Sidonia relinquished responsibility over
27384-540: Was killed in the battle. The new 1894 agreement with Morocco that followed the conflict increased trade with the hinterland , bringing the economic prosperity of the city to a new level. The total population of Melilla amounted to 10,004 inhabitants in 1896. The turn of the new century saw attempts by France (based in French Algeria ) to profit from their newly acquired sphere of influence in Morocco to counter Melilla's trading prowess by fostering trade links with
27552-557: Was loved by many, for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Three months of public rejoicing ushered in the new reign. Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as a " Golden Age " of happiness and prosperity. Josephus claims that in the first two years of his reign, Caligula's "high-minded... even-handed" rule earned him goodwill throughout the Empire. Caligula took up his first consulship on 1 July, two months after his succession. He accepted all titles and honours offered him except pater patriae ("father of
27720-511: Was originally a fortress , Melilla la Vieja , built on a peninsular mound about 30 meters (98 ft) in height. The Moroccan settlement of Beni Ansar lies immediately south of Melilla. The nearest Moroccan city is Nador , and the ports of Melilla and Nador are within the same bay; nearby is the Bou Areg Lagoon. Melilla has a warm Mediterranean climate on the border with a hot Semi-arid climate , influenced by its proximity to
27888-465: Was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia Minor . In the year 30, Tiberius had Caligula's brothers, Drusus and Nero, declared public enemies by the Senate, and exiled. Caligula and his three sisters remained in Italy as hostages of Tiberius, kept under close watch. In 31, Caligula's brother Nero died in exile. Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius at Villa Jovis on Capri . He
28056-421: Was seven years younger than himself. Caligula is described during this time as a first-rate orator, well-informed, cultured and intelligent, a natural actor who recognized the danger he was in, and hid his resentment of Tiberius' maltreatment of himself and his family behind such an obsequious manner that it was said of him that there had never been "a better slave or a worse master". Caligula's failure to protest
28224-631: Was turned down, in line with senatorial and popular opinion regarding the dead emperor's worth. Caligula did not push the issue; he had made the necessary gesture of filial respect. Tiberius' will named two heirs, Caligula and Gemellus, but the latter was still a minor, and could not hold any kind of office. The will was annulled with the standard justification that Tiberius must have been insane when he composed it, incapable of good judgment. Although Tiberius' will had been legally set aside, Caligula honoured many of its terms, and in some cases, improved on them. Tiberius had provided each praetorian guardsman with
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