Chain mail (also known as chain-mail , mail or maille ) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and the 16th century AD in Europe, while it continued to be used in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East as late as the 17th century. A coat of this armour is often called a hauberk or sometimes a byrnie.
80-679: The earliest examples of surviving mail were found in the Carpathian Basin at a burial in Horný Jatov, Slovakia dated in the 3rd century BC, and in a chieftain's burial located in Ciumești , Romania . Its invention is commonly credited to the Celts , but there are examples of Etruscan pattern mail dating from at least the 4th century BC. Mail may have been inspired by the much earlier scale armour . Mail spread to North Africa, West Africa,
160-416: A Bavarian incursion into Tirol, bringing all of Tirol under Habsburg authority in 1370. In 1372 Leopold broke with his brother over rights, prestige and income that he felt he was owed. On 25 July 1373 the brothers signed a peace treaty which granted Leopold control over Tirol, Further Austria and Carniola while income would be split between the dukes. In 1375 their relative Enguerrand VII de Coucy led
240-513: A daughter of Princess Joanna of Burgundy , was 51 when she gave birth to him and died shortly after. Upon the death of Albert II, his eldest son Rudolf IV, called the Founder, assumed the rule over the Habsburg dominions, despite the regulations on a joint rule left by his father. Nevertheless, on 18 November 1364 he promulgated his own house law ( Rudolfinische Hausordnung ), according to which
320-683: A decorative and possibly high-status symbol with military overtones long after its practical usefulness had passed. It was frequently used for the epaulettes of military uniforms. It is still used in this form by some regiments of the British Army . Mail has applications in sculpture and jewellery, especially when made out of precious metals or colourful anodized metals. Mail artwork includes headdresses, decorative wall hangings, ornaments, chess sets, macramé, and jewelry. For these non-traditional applications, hundreds of patterns (commonly referred to as "weaves") have been invented. Large-linked mail
400-406: A hood is a mail coif , and mittens, mitons . A mail collar hanging from a helmet is a camail or aventail . A shirt made from mail is a hauberk if knee-length and a haubergeon if mid-thigh length. A layer (or multiple layers) of mail sandwiched between layers of fabric is called a jazerant . A waist-length coat in medieval Europe was called a byrnie, although the exact construction of a byrnie
480-753: A hooded cloak', also a chasuble worn by Coptic priests) and barnaza ( برنز 'to bronze') suggest an Arabic influence for the Carolingian armour known as byrnie (see below). The first attestations of the word mail are in Old French and Anglo-Norman: maille , maile , or male or other variants, which became mailye , maille , maile , male , or meile in Middle English. Civilizations that used mail invented specific terms for each garment made from it. The standard terms for European mail armour derive from French: leggings are called chausses ,
560-420: A mail fringe to be attached to helmets to protect the upper face. This proved unpopular with soldiers, in spite of being proven to defend against a three-ounce (85 g) shrapnel round fired at a distance of one hundred yards (91 m). Another invention, a "splatter mask" or "splinter mask", consisted of rigid upper face protection and a mail veil to protect the lower face, and was used by early tank crews as
640-424: A majority of the skeletons showed wounds on less well protected legs. Although mail was a formidable protection, due to technological advances as time progressed, mail worn under plate armour (and stand-alone mail as well) could be penetrated by the conventional weaponry of another knight. The flexibility of mail meant that a blow would often injure the wearer, potentially causing serious bruising or fractures, and it
720-581: A measure against flying steel fragments ( spalling ) inside the vehicle. Mail armour was introduced to the Middle East and Asia through the Romans and was adopted by the Sassanid Persians starting in the 3rd century AD, where it was supplemental to the scale and lamellar armour already used. Mail was commonly also used as horse armour for cataphracts and heavy cavalry as well as armour for
800-585: A mercenary army into Alsace and Switzerland to capture the Habsburg possessions of Sundgau , Breisgau and the county of Ferrette in the Gugler war of 1375 . After Leopold was unable to defeat his cousin, he retreated to Breisach on the Rhine . A coalition of Swiss cities then attacked and drove the Gugler army out of their country and ended the war. By 1375 Leopold had inherited the former Gorizia possessions in
880-505: A number of other applications. The origin of the word mail are not fully known. One theory is that it originally derives from the Latin word macula , meaning 'spot' or 'opacity' (as in macula of retina ). Another theory relates the word to the old French maillier , meaning 'to hammer' (related to the modern English word malleable ). In modern French, maille refers to a loop or stitch. The Arabic words burnus ( برنوس ' burnoose ,
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#1732772129802960-496: A rivet. Its invention is credited to Fukushima Dembei Kunitaka, pupil, of Hojo Awa no Kami Ujifusa, but it is also said to be derived directly from foreign models. It is heavy because the links are tinned (biakuro-nagashi) and these are also sharp-edged because they are punched out of iron plate Butted or split (twisted) links made up the majority of kusari links used by the Japanese. Links were either butted together meaning that
1040-475: A sharp cliff or other vertical terrain. The name may instead come from Indo-European * kwerp 'to turn', akin to Old English hweorfan 'to turn, change' (English warp ) and Greek καρπός karpós 'wrist', perhaps referring to the way the mountain range bends or veers in an L-shape. Both the plain and the basin overlap significantly with the Pannonian mixed forests ecoregion . The plain or basin
1120-531: A sheet. Guild marks were often stamped on the rings to show their origin and craftsmanship. Forge welding was also used to create solid links, but there are few possible examples known; the only well-documented example from Europe is that of the camail (mail neck-defence) of the 7th-century Coppergate Helmet found in York . Outside of Europe this practice was more common such as "theta" links from India. Very few examples of historic butted mail have been found, and it
1200-497: A single mail glove to protect themselves from self-inflicted injury while cutting meat, as do many oyster shuckers. Scuba divers sometimes use mail to protect them from sharkbite, as do animal control officers for protection against the animals they handle. In 1980, marine biologist Jeremiah Sullivan patented his design for Neptunic full coverage chain mail shark resistant suits which he had developed for close encounters with sharks . Shark expert and underwater filmmaker Valerie Taylor
1280-479: A thinner weapon to surpass), and ring thickness (generally ranging from 1.0 to 1.6 mm diameter (18 to 14 gauge) wire in most examples). Mail, if a warrior could afford it, provided a significant advantage when combined with competent fighting techniques. When the mail was not riveted, a thrust from most sharp weapons could penetrate it. However, when mail was riveted, only a strong well-placed thrust from certain spears, or thin or dedicated mail-piercing swords like
1360-626: Is a geomorphological subsystem of the Alps-Himalaya system , specifically a sediment-filled back-arc basin which spread apart during the Miocene . The Pannonian plain is divided into two parts along the Transdanubian Mountains (Hungarian: Dunántúli-középhegység ). The northwestern part is called Western Pannonian plain (or province ) and the southeastern part Eastern Pannonian plain (or province ). They comprise
1440-581: Is a list of cities in the Pannonian Basin with a population larger than 100,000 within the city proper : 46°30′N 20°00′E / 46.500°N 20.000°E / 46.500; 20.000 Leopold III, Duke of Austria Leopold III (1 November 1351 – 9 July 1386), known as the Just , a member of the House of Habsburg , was Duke of Austria from 1365. As head and progenitor of
1520-516: Is also associated with Pannonian Steppe . The Danube and Tisza rivers divide the basin roughly in half. It extends roughly between Vienna in the northwest, Košice in the northeast, Zagreb in the southwest, Novi Sad in the south and Satu Mare in the east. The Danube enters the basin from its northwest through a valley that splits the Alps and the Bohemian Forest . It runs through
1600-583: Is designed to defend against knife attacks; some of these use layers of metal plates, mail and metallic wires. Many historical reenactment groups, especially those whose focus is Antiquity or the Middle Ages , commonly use mail both as practical armour and for costuming. Mail is especially popular amongst those groups which use steel weapons. A modern hauberk made from 1.5 mm diameter wire with 10 mm inner diameter rings weighs roughly 10 kg (22 lb) and contains 15,000–45,000 rings. One of
1680-802: Is diagonally bisected by the Transdanubian Mountains , separating the larger Great Hungarian Plain (including the Eastern Slovak Lowland ) from the Little Hungarian Plain . It forms a topographically discrete unit set in the European landscape, surrounded by imposing geographic boundaries—the Carpathian Mountains to north and east, the Dinaric Alps to south and southwest and the Alps to west. The plain
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#17327721298021760-604: Is generally accepted that butted mail was never in wide use historically except in Japan, where mail ( kusari ) was commonly made from butted links. Butted link mail was also used by the Moros of the Philippines in their mail and plate armours . Mail is used as protective clothing for butchers against meat-packing equipment. Workers may wear up to 4 kg (8.8 lb) of mail under their white coats. Butchers also commonly wear
1840-481: Is historically inaccurate but is much less expensive to procure and especially to maintain than historically accurate reproductions. Mail can also be made of titanium, aluminium, bronze, or copper. Riveted mail offers significantly better protection ability as well as historical accuracy than mail constructed with butted links. Japanese mail ( kusari ) is one of the few historically correct examples of mail being constructed with such butted links . Mail remained in use as
1920-472: Is occasionally used as BDSM clothing material, with the large links intended for fetishistic purposes. Chainmail armor is one of the armor tiers from Minecraft , which can only be obtained from chest loot or some mobs. In some films, knitted string spray-painted with a metallic paint is used instead of actual mail in order to cut down on cost (an example being Monty Python and the Holy Grail , which
2000-472: Is thought to have been worn by Leopold III, Duke of Austria , who died in 1386 during the Battle of Sempach . By the 14th century, articulated plate armour was commonly used to supplement mail. Eventually mail was supplanted by plate for the most part, as it provided greater protection against windlass crossbows, bludgeoning weapons, and lance charges while maintaining most of the mobility of mail. However, it
2080-459: Is unclear, including whether it was constructed of mail or other armour types. Noting that the byrnie was the "most highly valued piece of armour" to the Carolingian soldier, Bennet, Bradbury, DeVries, Dickie, and Jestice indicate that: There is some dispute among historians as to what exactly constituted the Carolingian byrnie. Relying... only on artistic and some literary sources because of
2160-759: The Abbasid Caliphate , mail was quickly adopted in Central Asia by Timur (Tamerlane) and the Sogdians and by India's Delhi Sultanate . Mail armour was introduced by the Turks in late 12th century and commonly used by Turk and the Mughal and Suri armies where it eventually became the armour of choice in India. Indian mail was constructed with alternating rows of solid links and round riveted links and it
2240-681: The Austrian Empire (in 1804) and later became Austria-Hungary (in 1867). Most of the plain was located within the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary, since all other Habsburg possessions in the plain were integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary until 1882. The autonomous Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia , which was one of the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen , comprised the south-western portion of
2320-515: The Dinaric Alps together with the Danube forms a conditional northern limit of Balkan peninsula . It also enters the Danube at southern portion of the Pannonian Basin. Other rivers include Drava , Mureș , Great Morava , Drina and many others. In western portion of Pannonia is located Lake Balaton . Although rain is not plentiful, the plain is a major agricultural area. It is sometimes said that these fields of rich loamy loess soil could feed
2400-1058: The Kingdom of the Lombards , the Avar Khaganate , the West Slavic state of Samo , the Bulgarian Empire, the Frankish Empire , Great Moravia , the Lower Pannonian Principality and the Kingdom of Syrmia . The Principality of Hungary established in 895 by the Magyars was centered on the plain and included almost all of it (as did the former Avar Khaganate). It was established as the Catholic Kingdom of Hungary in AD 1000, with
2480-701: The Leopoldian line , he ruled over the Inner Austrian duchies of Carinthia , Styria and Carniola as well as the County of Tyrol and Further Austria from 1379 until his death. Born in Vienna , Leopold was a younger son of Duke Albert II of Austria (thereby a grandson of King Albert I of Germany ), and younger brother of the Dukes Rudolf IV and Albert III . His mother, Joanna of Pfirt ,
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2560-625: The Ottoman Empire , while the remainder to the north-west was subsumed into the holdings of the Habsburg monarchy and retitled Royal Hungary . Under Ottoman administration, the plain was reorganised into the Eyalet of Budim , the Eyalet of Egri , the Eyalet of Sigetvar and the Eyalet of Temeşvar . The Pannonian Plain was frequently a scene of conflict between the two empires. At the end of
2640-656: The Pannonian Sea , a shallow sea that reached its greatest extent during the Pliocene Epoch , when three to four kilometres of sediments were deposited. The plain was named after the Pannon named Medes. Various different peoples inhabited the plain during its history. In the first century BC, the eastern parts of the plain belonged to the Dacian state, and in the first century AD its western parts were subsumed into
2720-1179: The Proto-Indo-European root *pen- , "swamp, water, wet" (cf. English fen , "marsh"; Hindi pani , "water"). The name "Carpates" is highly associated with the old Dacian tribes called " Carpes " or " Carpi " who lived in a large area from the east, northeast of the Black Sea to the Transylvanian Plain in present day Romania and Moldova. The name Carpates may ultimately be from the Proto Indo-European root *sker- / *ker- , which meant mountain, rock, or rugged (cf. Germanic root *skerp- , Old Norse harfr "harrow", Gothic skarpo , Middle Low German scharf "potsherd", and Modern High German Scherbe "shard", Old English scearp and English sharp , Lithuanian kar~pas "cut, hack, notch", Latvian cìrpt "to shear, clip"). The archaic Polish word karpa meant 'rugged irregularities, underwater obstacles/rocks, rugged roots, or trunks'. The more common word skarpa means
2800-748: The Roman Empire . The Roman province named Pannonia was established in the area, and the city of Sirmium , today Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia , became one of the four capital cities of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century. In the Age of Migrations and the early Middle Ages , the region belonged to several realms such as the Hun Empire , the Kingdom of the Gepids , the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths ,
2880-646: The Treaty of Neuberg , Leopold became the exclusive ruler of Styria (then including Wiener Neustadt ), Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol and the Further Austrian lands in Swabia . In 1382 he was granted the city of Trieste as part of his payment for defeating Venice. Leopold significantly promoted trade and commerce in the Tyrolean lands, encouraging the development of cities such as Meran . He gained control over
2960-941: The West Slavic languages ( Czech , Polish and Slovak ), the Serbo-Croatian , German and Romanian languages use Pannonian Basin (in Hungarian the basin is known as Kárpát-medence , in Czech ; Panonská pánev , in Polish ; Panoński Basen , in Slovak ; Panónska panva , in Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian: Panonski bazen /Панонски базен, in German ; Pannonisches Becken , and in Romanian ; Câmpia Panonică or Bazinul Panonic ). The East Slavic languages , namely Ukrainian , use
3040-577: The Windic March , White Carniola , Friuli and Istria and the city of Feldkirch in Vorarlberg . On 6 August 1376 he was granted the right to make alliances with foreign rulers. In 1377 Albert traveled to Prussia for about five months, leaving Leopold in charge of all the Habsburg lands. During this time, Leopold signed a peace treaty with one of his brother's bitterest rivals, Heinrich von Schaunberg. When on 7 July 1379 he and Albert III signed
3120-421: The estoc , could penetrate, and a pollaxe or halberd blow could break through the armour. Strong projectile weapons such as stronger self bows , recurve bows , and crossbows could also penetrate riveted mail. Some evidence indicates that during armoured combat, the intention was to actually get around the armour rather than through it—according to a study of skeletons found at the battle of Visby , Gotland,
3200-412: The "Red Wedding" scene. Typically worn under mail armour if thin or over mail armour if thick: Can be worn over mail armour: Carpathian Basin The Pannonian Basin or Carpathian Basin is a large sedimentary basin situated in southeast Central Europe . After the Treaty of Trianon following World War I, the geomorphological term Pannonian Plain became more widely used for roughly
3280-427: The 17th century the Habsburgs won decisive battles against the Ottomans , and most of the plain gradually came under Habsburg rule. Under Habsburg rule the region was eventually reorganised into the Kingdom of Hungary, the Banat of Temeswar , the Military Frontier , the Kingdom of Croatia , the Kingdom of Slavonia and Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat . The Habsburg Monarchy was subsequently transformed into
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3360-500: The ABS mail used in the Lord of the Rings can be seen in the entrance to the Royal Armouries museum in Leeds in the form of a large curtain bearing the logo of the museum. It was acquired from the makers of the film's armour, Weta Workshop , when the museum hosted an exhibition of WETA armour from their films. For the film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome , Tina Turner is said to have worn actual mail and she complained how heavy this was. Game of Thrones makes use of mail, notably during
3440-453: The Austrian "hereditary lands" were again declared a common possession of the brothers, though the eldest received a number of additional rights. After Rudolf's death on 27 July 1365, Albert III and Leopold (their elder brother Friedrich had died in 1362) assumed the rule over the Habsburg lands, with Albert taking the additional rights as eldest. While Albert ruled, Leopold became a general leading Habsburg troops in battle. In 1368 he defeated
3520-438: The Edo period. The end of the samurai era in the 1860s, along with the 1876 ban on wearing swords in public, marked the end of any practical use for mail and other armour in Japan. Japan turned to a conscription army and uniforms replaced armour. Mail's resistance to weapons is determined by four factors: linkage type ( riveted , butted, or welded ), material used (iron versus bronze or steel), weave density (a tighter weave needs
3600-489: The Middle East, Central Asia, India, Tibet, South East Asia, and Japan. Herodotus wrote that the ancient Persians wore scale armour, but mail is also distinctly mentioned in the Avesta , the holy scripture of the Zoroastrian religion that written in the 6th century AD. Mail continues to be used in the 21st century as a component of stab-resistant body armour , cut-resistant gloves for butchers and woodworkers, shark-resistant wet-suits for defense against shark bites, and
3680-525: The armpits. Riveted kusari was known and used in Japan. On page 58 of the book Japanese Arms & Armor: Introduction by H. Russell Robinson, there is a picture of Japanese riveted kusari, and this quote from the translated reference of Sakakibara Kozan's 1800 book, The Manufacture of Armour and Helmets in Sixteenth-Century Japan , shows that the Japanese not only knew of and used riveted kusari but that they manufactured it as well. ... karakuri-namban (riveted namban), with stout links each closed by
3760-404: The center of the basin escaping at southeast portion where South Carpathians transition to Dinaric Alps and Balkan Mountains . The Tisza enters the basin from northeast running downhill from the Eastern Carpathians , it continues southwest and south until joins the Danube at southern portion of the basin. Another important river of the region is Sava which running along the eastern foothills of
3840-449: The city of Basel in 1376 and could also purchase Laufenburg from his Swabian Habsburg cousins ten years later. However, his further attempts to expand his position in Switzerland failed, when he was killed in the Battle of Sempach . Initially buried in Königsfelden Monastery , his mortal remains were transferred firstly to St. Blaise Abbey in a solemn ceremony on 14 November 1770, and finally to Saint Paul's Abbey , Carinthia. He
3920-436: The coronation of Stephen I of Hungary . The Kingdom of Hungary by the 11th century comprised the entire Pannonian Basin, but the changing fates of this part of Europe during the Ottoman wars of the 14th to 17th centuries left the Pannonian basin divided between numerous political entities. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the central and eastern regions of the kingdom and the plain on which they lay were incorporated into
4000-406: The drawbacks of mail is the uneven weight distribution; the stress falls mainly on shoulders. Weight can be better distributed by wearing a belt over the mail, which provides another point of support. Mail worn today for re-enactment and recreational use can be made in a variety of styles and materials. Most recreational mail today is made of butted links which are galvanised or stainless steel. This
4080-446: The ends touched each other and were not riveted, or the kusari was constructed with links where the wire was turned or twisted two or more times; these split links are similar to the modern split ring commonly used on keychains. The rings were lacquered black to prevent rusting, and were always stitched onto a backing of cloth or leather. The kusari was sometimes concealed entirely between layers of cloth. Kusari gusoku or chain armour
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#17327721298024160-401: The exception of Little Hungarian Plain (which is only around 15% of the territory of ancient Pannonian Transdanubia) hills and mountains dominate the landscape, so real plains are very rare on that territory. The largest plain of Ancient Roman Pannonia province is located in Slavonia in Croatia and Voivodine in modern Serbia. Julius Pokorny derived the name Pannonia from Illyrian , from
4240-420: The following sections: Note: The Transylvanian Plateau and the Lučenec-Košice Depression (both parts of the Carpathians) and some other lowlands are sometimes also considered part of the Pannonian Plain in non-geomorphological or older divisions. Relatively large or distinctive areas of the plain that do not necessarily correspond to national borders include: The Pannonian Basin has its geological origins in
4320-479: The lack of archaeological examples, some believe that it was a heavy leather jacket with metal scales sewn onto it with strong thread. It was also quite long, reaching below the hips and covering most of the arms. Other historians claim instead that the Carolingian byrnie was nothing more than a coat of mail, but longer and perhaps heavier than traditional early medieval mail. Without more certain evidence, this dispute will continue. The use of mail as battlefield armour
4400-413: The late 19th and early 20th century, mail was used as a material for bulletproof vests , most notably by the Wilkinson Sword Company. Results were unsatisfactory; Wilkinson mail worn by the Khedive of Egypt 's regiment of "Iron Men" was manufactured from split rings which proved to be too brittle, and the rings would fragment when struck by bullets and aggravate the injury. The riveted mail armour worn by
4480-421: The nation of Kuchi arrived wearing "armour similar to chains". Once in China, mail was imported but was not produced widely. Due to its flexibility, comfort, and rarity, it was typically the armour of high-ranking guards and those who could afford the exotic import (to show off their social status) rather than the armour of the rank and file, who used more common brigandine, scale, and lamellar types. However, it
4560-410: The opposing Sudanese Madhists did not have the same problem but also proved to be relatively useless against the firearms of British forces at the battle of Omdurman . During World War I, Wilkinson Sword transitioned from mail to a lamellar design which was the precursor to the flak jacket . Mail was also used for face protection in World War I. Oculist Captain Cruise of the British Infantry designed
4640-446: The plain. With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary after World War I, the region was divided between Hungary , Romania , Czechoslovakia , Austria and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed to Yugoslavia in 1929). The borders drawn in 1918 and 1919 are mostly preserved as those of the contemporary states of Austria , Czech Republic , Hungary , Poland , Slovakia , Serbia , Ukraine , Croatia , and Romania . This
4720-411: The poor understanding of hygiene, however, cuts that could get infected were much more of a problem. Thus mail armour proved to be sufficient protection in most situations. Several patterns of linking the rings together have been known since ancient times, with the most common being the 4-to-1 pattern (where each ring is linked with four others). In Europe, the 4-to-1 pattern was completely dominant. Mail
4800-483: The riveted rings was formed by either of two methods. One was to hammer out wrought iron into plates and cut or slit the plates. These thin pieces were then pulled through a draw plate repeatedly until the desired diameter was achieved. Waterwheel -powered drawing mills are pictured in several period manuscripts. Another method was to simply forge down an iron billet into a rod and then proceed to draw it out into wire. The solid links would have been made by punching from
4880-424: The same region, referring to the lowlands in the area occupied by the Pannonian Sea during the Pliocene Epoch. The term Pannonian Plain refers to the lowland parts of the Pannonian Basin as well as those of some adjoining regions like Lower Austria , Moravia , and Silesia ( Czech Republic and Poland ). The lands adjoining the plain proper are sometimes also called peri-Pannonian . In English language,
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#17327721298024960-471: The soldiers themselves. Asian mail could be just as heavy as the European variety and sometimes had prayer symbols stamped on the rings as a sign of their craftsmanship as well as for divine protection. Mail armour is mentioned in the Quran as being a gift revealed by Allah to David : 21:80 It was We Who taught him the making of coats of mail for your benefit, to guard you from each other's violence: will ye then be grateful? (Yusuf Ali's translation) From
5040-458: The terms Tysa-Danube Lowland or Middanubian Lowland ( Ukrainian : Тисо-Дунайська низовина, Середньодунайська низовина ) Pannonian basin vs Carpathian basin: On the territory of present-day Hungary the ancient Roman Pannonia province was located only on Transdanubian territories, however the Great Hungarian Plain was not part of Pannonia province. This comprises less than 29% of modern Hungary, therefore Hungarian geographers avoid
5120-411: The terms "Pannonian Basin" and "Carpathian Basin" are used synonymously. The name "Pannonian" is taken from that of Pannonia , a province of the Roman Empire . The historical province overlapped but was not coterminous with the geographical plain or basin, as only the western part of the territory (known as Transdanubia ) of modern Hungary formed part of the ancient Pannonia, while Great Hungarian Plain
5200-423: The terms "Pannonian Basin" and especially the "Pannonian Plain" terms due to it being considered not only unhistorical but also topologically erroneous term. Because the term "Pannonian" has historically not applied to 80% of the basin's territory, Hungarian geographers and historians use the more accurate term "Carpathian Basin". The other logical problem with the Pannonian "Plain" terminology lies in topography: with
5280-513: The whole of Europe. However, there has been an increase in extreme precipitation events that cause soil erosion in recent years. Knowledge of areas affected by severe soil erosion can lead to the implementation of effective measures to reduce it. For its early settlers, the plain offered few sources of metals or stone. When archaeologists come upon objects of obsidian or chert , copper or gold, they have almost unparalleled opportunities to interpret ancient pathways of trade. The Pannonian Basin
5360-445: The work: Alice la Haubergere was an armourer who worked in Cheapside in the early 1300s and in York in 1446 Agnes Hecche inherited her father's mail making tools to continue her work after his death. Mail from dead combatants was frequently looted and was used by the new owner or sold for a lucrative price. As time went on and infrastructure improved, it came to be used by more soldiers. The oldest intact mail hauberk still in existence
5440-454: Was a poor defence against head trauma. Mail-clad warriors typically wore separate rigid helms over their mail coifs for head protection. Likewise, blunt weapons such as maces and warhammers could harm the wearer by their impact without penetrating the armour; usually a soft armour, such as gambeson , was worn under the hauberk. Medieval surgeons were very well capable of setting and caring for bone fractures resulting from blunt weapons. With
5520-408: Was also common in East Asia, primarily Japan, with several more patterns being utilised and an entire nomenclature developing around them. Historically, in Europe, from the pre-Roman period on, the rings composing a piece of mail would be riveted closed to reduce the chance of the rings splitting open when subjected to a thrusting attack or a hit by an arrow. Up until the 14th century European mail
5600-516: Was among the first to develop and test shark suits in 1979 while diving with sharks. Mail is widely used in industrial settings as shrapnel guards and splash guards in metal working operations. Electrical applications for mail include RF leakage testing and being worn as a Faraday cage suit by tesla coil enthusiasts and high voltage electrical workers. Conventional textile-based ballistic vests are designed to stop soft-nosed bullets but offer little defense from knife attacks. Knife-resistant armour
5680-421: Was common during the Iron Age and the Middle Ages , becoming less common over the course of the 16th and 17th centuries when plate armour and more advanced firearms were developed. It is believed that the Roman Republic first came into contact with mail fighting the Gauls in Cisalpine Gaul , now Northern Italy . The Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the lorica hamata which
5760-651: Was commonly used during the Edo period 1603 to 1868 as a stand-alone defense. According to George Cameron Stone Entire suits of mail kusari gusoku were worn on occasions, sometimes under the ordinary clothing In his book Arms and Armor of the Samurai: The History of Weaponry in Ancient Japan , Ian Bottomley shows a picture of a kusari armour and mentions kusari katabira (chain jackets) with detachable arms being worn by samurai police officials during
5840-460: Was filmed on a very small budget). Films more dedicated to costume accuracy often use ABS plastic rings, for the lower cost and weight. Such ABS mail coats were made for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy , in addition to many metal coats. The metal coats are used rarely because of their weight, except in close-up filming where the appearance of ABS rings is distinguishable. A large scale example of
5920-495: Was made of alternating rows of round riveted rings and solid rings. Sometime during the 14th century European mail makers started to transition from round rivets to wedge-shaped rivets, but continued using alternating rows of solid rings. Eventually European mail makers stopped using solid rings and almost all European mail was made from wedge riveted rings only with no solid rings. Both were commonly made of wrought iron , but some later pieces were made of heat-treated steel. Wire for
6000-428: Was not part of it: In terms of modern state boundaries, the Pannonian Basin centres on the territory of Hungary , which lies entirely within the basin, but it also covers parts of southern Slovakia , southeast Poland , western-southwest Ukraine , western Romania , northern Serbia , northeast Croatia , northeast Slovenia , and eastern Austria . The term Carpathian Basin is used in Hungarian literature , while
6080-540: Was often integrated with plate protection (mail and plate armour). Mail was introduced to China when its allies in Central Asia paid tribute to the Tang Emperor in 718 by giving him a coat of "link armour" assumed to be mail. Earliest assumed reference to mail can be found in early 3rd century record by Cao Zhi , being called "chained ring armor". China first encountered the armour in 384 when its allies in
6160-630: Was one of the few military products that China imported from foreigners. Mail spread to Korea slightly later where it was imported as the armour of imperial guards and generals. In Japan , mail is called kusari which means chain. When the word kusari is used in conjunction with an armoured item it usually means that mail makes up the majority of the armour composition. An example of this would be kusari gusoku which means chain armour. Kusari jackets , hoods , gloves , vests , shin guards , shoulder guards, thigh guards , and other armoured clothing were produced, even kusari tabi socks. Kusari
6240-410: Was still widely used by many soldiers, along with brigandines and padded jacks . These three types of armour made up the bulk of the equipment used by soldiers, with mail being the most expensive. It was sometimes more expensive than plate armour. Mail typically persisted longer in less technologically advanced areas such as Eastern Europe but was in use throughout Europe into the 16th century. During
6320-588: Was used as a primary form of armour through the Imperial period. After the fall of the Western Empire, much of the infrastructure needed to create plate armour diminished. Eventually the word "mail" came to be synonymous with armour. It was typically an extremely prized commodity, as it was expensive and time-consuming to produce and could mean the difference between life and death in a battle. Historically mail makers were often men, but women also undertook
6400-617: Was used in samurai armour at least from the time of the Mongol invasion (1270s) but particularly from the Nambokucho Period (1336–1392). The Japanese used many different weave methods including a square 4-in-1 pattern ( so gusari ), a hexagonal 6-in-1 pattern ( hana gusari ) and a European 4-in-1 ( nanban gusari ). The rings of Japanese mail were much smaller than their European counterparts; they would be used in patches to link together plates and to drape over vulnerable areas such as
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