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110-721: The ancient city was located on the shore of the Black Sea on the outskirts of present-day Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula , where it is referred to as Khersones . The site is part of the National Preserve of Tauric Chersonesos . The name Chersonesos in Greek means "peninsula" and aptly describes the site on which the colony was established. It should not be confused with the Tauric Chersonese ,

220-527: A halocline that stops at the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL). This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localized atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. It is the remnant of the winter surface mixed layer. The base of the CIL is marked by a major pycnocline at about 100–200 metres (330–660 ft), and this density disparity

330-417: A Greek temple. The fact that the site has not been inhabited since the 14th century makes it an important representation of Byzantine life. The surrounding land under the control of the city, the chora, consists of several square kilometres of ancient but now barren farmland, with remains of wine presses and defensive towers . According to archaeologists, the evidence suggests that the locals were paid to do

440-500: A decrease in the flux of silicon associated with advection across isopycnal surfaces. This phenomenon demonstrates the potential for localized alterations in Black Sea nutrient-input to have basin-wide effects. Baptism of Kievan Rus%27 The Christianization of Kievan Rus' was a long and complicated process that took place in several stages. In 867, Patriarch Photius of Constantinople told other Christian patriarchs that

550-399: A flexed burial position with their legs crouched and folded up to the chest, while a smaller number were buried in an extended position on their back with arms and legs straight. The researchers found that most individuals were genetically similar to each other, regardless of the burial position. This result challenges the widely held opinion that burial position in the northern Black Sea region

660-484: A marked vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer. Day length and insolation intensity also control the extent of the photic zone . Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate , in the form of ammonia . The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to

770-461: A name often applied to the whole of the southern Crimea. During much of the classical period, Chersonesus operated as a democracy ruled by a group of elected archons and a council called the Demiurgoi . As time passed, the government grew more oligarchic, with power concentrated in the hands of the archons. A form of oath sworn by all the citizens from the 3rd century BC onwards has survived to

880-617: A new patriarch, Ignatius) sent to the Rus' an archbishop who propped up the religious fervor of the local leaders with rich presents. Parenthetically, the contemporaneous Christianization of Bulgaria was likewise effected in two stages: the Bulgars were offended when a simple bishop arrived to their capital from Constantinople and requested Pope Nicholas I to send them a higher-ranking church official. Such considerations were an important matter of political prestige. This pattern has parallels with

990-595: A popular place of exile for those who angered the Roman and later Byzantine governments. Among its more famous "inmates" were Pope Clement I and Pope Martin I , and the deposed Byzantine Emperor Justinian II . According to Theophanes the Confessor and others, Chersonesus was the residence of a Khazar governor ( tudun ) in the late 7th century. Between approximately 705 and 840, the city's affairs were managed by elected officials called babaghuq , meaning "father of

1100-421: A popular tourist attraction, protected as an archaeological park. The buildings mix influences of Greek, Roman and Byzantine culture. The defensive wall was approximately 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) long, 3.5 to 4 metres wide and 8 to 10 metres high with towers at a height of 10 to 12 metres. The walls enclosed an area of about 30 hectares (74 acres). Buildings include a Roman amphitheatre and

1210-705: A positive water balance , with an annual net outflow of 300 km (72 cu mi) per year through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea . While the net flow of water through the Bosporus and Dardanelles (known collectively as the Turkish Straits ) is out of the Black Sea, water generally flows in both directions simultaneously: Denser, more saline water from the Aegean flows into

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1320-658: A sizable portion of the Kievan population was Christian by 944. In the Russo-Byzantine Treaty , preserved in the text of the chronicle, the Christian part of the Rus' swear according to their faith, while the ruling prince and other non-Christians invoke Perun and Veles after the pagan custom. The Kievan collegiate church of St. Elijah (whose cult in the Slavic countries was closely modeled on that of Perun)

1430-589: A strongly stratified vertical structure. Because of the extreme stratification, it is classified as a salt wedge estuary . Inflow from the Mediterranean Sea through the Bosporus and Dardanelles has a higher salinity and density than the outflow, creating the classic estuarine circulation. This means that the inflow of dense water from the Mediterranean occurs at the bottom of the basin while

1540-428: A synagogue, itself replacing a small temple dating from the early days of Christianity. The 1935 basilica is often used as an image representing Chersonesos. Its picture appears on one Ukrainian banknote. As well as the archaeological sites, the museum has around 200,000 smaller items from 5 AD to the 15th century, over 5,000 of which are currently exhibited. These include: The Institute of Classical Archaeology of

1650-433: A threat to health—and perhaps even life—for people living on the Black Sea coast. There have been isolated reports of flares on the Black Sea occurring during thunderstorms, possibly caused by lightning igniting combustible gas seeping up from the sea depths. The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited to the brackish , nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs,

1760-448: A traditional story that the pagans were particularly impressed by a miracle: a gospel book thrown by the archbishop (sic) into an oven was not damaged by fire. Constantine's account precipitated a long-term dispute over whether the 9th-century Christianization of the Rus' went through two stages. One school of thought postulates that there was only one Christianization: wishing to glorify his ancestor, Constantine simply ascribed to Basil

1870-529: A very thick convective bottom layer. The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea. The discovery of the river, announced on August 1, 2010, was made by scientists at the University of Leeds and is the first of its kind to be identified. The undersea river stems from salty water spilling through

1980-553: A way to refuse him by tricking him into becoming her godfather . When she was baptized, she said it was inappropriate for a godfather to marry his goddaughter . Although it is usually presumed that Olga was baptized in Constantinople rather than Kiev, there is no explicit mention of the sacrament, so neither version is excluded. Olga is also known to have requested a bishop and priests from Rome. Her son, Sviatoslav (r. 963–972), continued to worship Perun and other gods of

2090-496: A weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the seasonal thermocline during summer months, and surface-intensified autumn production. This pattern of productivity is augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and summer months. Since the 1960s, rapid industrial expansion along the Black Sea coastline and the construction of a major dam on the Danube have significantly increased annual variability in

2200-643: Is a narrative recorded in several different versions in medieval sources about how Vladimir the Great converted from Slavic paganism to Byzantine Christianity in the 980s. In traditional historiography, it is known as the Baptism of Volodimer, and regarded as the highlight of the Christianization of Kievan Rusʹ (dubbed the Baptism of Rus ' ). Returning to Kiev in triumph, Vladimir exhorted

2310-577: Is disputed ), when Vladimir the Great was baptized in Chersonesus ( Korsun ) and proceeded to baptize his family and people in Kiev . The latter events are traditionally referred to as baptism of Rus' ( Russian : Крещение Руси ; Ukrainian : Хрещення Русі ; Belarusian : Вадохрышча Русі ) in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian literature. Although sometimes solely attributed to Vladimir/Volodymyr,

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2420-759: Is mentioned as such in the Notitiae Episcopatuum ; it disappeared after the Turkish conquest in 1475 and the destruction of the city. In the late 19th century, the grand Russian Orthodox St Vladimir's Cathedral (completed 1892) was built on a small hill overlooking the site; designed in Byzantine style, it was intended to commemorate the site of Vladimir's baptism. In 1333, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chersonesus in Zechia

2530-526: Is mentioned in the text of the chronicle, leaving modern scholars to ponder how many churches existed in Kiev at the time. Either in 945 or 957, the ruling regent, Olga of Kiev , visited Constantinople with a certain priest, Gregory. Her reception at the imperial court is described in De Ceremoniis . According to legends, Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII fell in love with Olga; however, she found

2640-590: Is subject to interannual variability. Outside of the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed as a result of upwelling around the coastal apron and "wind curl" mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. During the spring, the Batumi eddy forms in the southeastern corner of the sea. Beneath the surface waters—from about 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft)—there exists

2750-836: Is the copper Korsun Gate , supposedly captured by the Novgorodians in Korsun' and now part of the St. Sophia Cathedral. After the Fourth Crusade (1202–04), Chersonesus became dependent on the Byzantine Empire of Trebizond as the Principality of Theodoro . After the Siege of Trebizond (1461) the Principality of Theodoro became independent. The city fell under Genoese control in the early 13th century, which forebode

2860-460: Is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water. Below the pycnocline is the Deep Water mass, where salinity increases to 22.3 PSU and temperatures rise to around 8.9 °C (48.0 °F). The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilizes all of the free oxygen. Weak geothermal heating and long residence time create

2970-477: Is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of winter cyclones , which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs and influence Mediterranean sea surface temperatures (SSTs). The relative strength of these systems also limits the amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter. Other influencing factors include

3080-595: Is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the World Ocean . During geological periods when this hydrological link was not present, the Black Sea was an endorheic basin , operating independently of the global ocean system (similar to the Caspian Sea today). Currently, the Black Sea water level is relatively high; thus, water is being exchanged with

3190-469: The Bosporan Kingdom , and the native Scythians and Tauri , and even extending its power over the west coast of the peninsula, it was compelled to call in the aid of Mithradates VI and his general Diophantus , c. 110 BC, and submitted to the Bosporan Kingdom . It was subject to Rome and received a garrison from the middle of the 1st century BC until the 370s AD, when it was captured by

3300-646: The East European Plain , west of the Caucasus , and north of Anatolia . It is bounded by Bulgaria , Georgia , Romania , Russia , Turkey , and Ukraine . The Black Sea is supplied by major rivers, principally the Danube , Dnieper and Dniester . Consequently, while six countries have a coastline on the sea, its drainage basin includes parts of 24 countries in Europe. The Black Sea, not including

3410-789: The Hittites . The Hattic city of Zalpa was "situated probably at or near the estuary of the Marrassantiya River, the modern Kızıl Irmak , on the Black Sea coast." The principal Greek name Póntos Áxeinos is generally accepted to be a rendering of the Iranian word * axšaina- ("dark colored"). Ancient Greek voyagers adopted the name as Á-xe(i)nos , identified with the Greek word áxeinos (inhospitable). The name Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos (Inhospitable Sea), first attested in Pindar ( c.  475 BC ),

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3520-586: The Huns . It became a Byzantine possession during the Early Middle Ages and withstood a siege by the Göktürks in 581. Byzantine rule was slight: there was a small imperial garrison more for the town's protection than for its control and it exercised a measure of self-government. It was useful to Byzantium in two ways: it was an observation point to watch the barbarian tribes, and its isolation made it

3630-595: The Kartvelian tribe of Speris or Saspers . Other modern names such as Chyornoye more and Karadeniz (both meaning Black Sea) originated during the 13th century. A 1570 map Asiae Nova Descriptio from Abraham Ortelius 's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum labels the sea Mar Maggior (Great Sea), compare Latin Mare major . English writers of the 18th century often used Euxine Sea ( / ˈ j uː k s ɪ n / or / ˈ j uː k ˌ s aɪ n / ). During

3740-587: The Novgorodians into Christianity "by fire", while the local mayor, Putyata , persuaded his compatriots to accept Christian faith "by the sword". At that same time, Bishop Ioakim Korsunianin built the first, wooden, Cathedral of Holy Wisdom "with 13 tops" on the site of a pagan cemetery. Paganism persisted in the country for a long time, surfacing during the Upper Volga Uprising and other occasional pagan protests. The northeastern part of

3850-704: The Ottoman Empire , it was called either Bahr-e Siyah ( Perso-Arabic ) or Karadeniz ( Ottoman Turkish ), both meaning "Black Sea". The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows: On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara [A line joining Cape Rumili with Cape Anatoli (41°13'N)]. In the Kertch Strait . A line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia (45°02'N). The area surrounding

3960-684: The Rus' people were converting enthusiastically, but his efforts seem to have entailed no lasting consequences, since the Russian Primary Chronicle and other Slavonic sources describe the tenth-century Rus' as still firmly entrenched in Slavic paganism . The traditional view, as recorded in the Russian Primary Chronicle , is that the definitive Christianization of Kievan Rus' dates happened c. 988 (the year

4070-537: The Rus'-Byzantine War of 860 , Photius informs the Oriental patriarchs and bishops that, after the Bulgarians turned to Christ in 864, the Rus' followed suit so zealously that he found it prudent to send to their land a bishop . Byzantine historians, starting with the continuation of Theophanes the Confessor , assumed that the Rus' raid against Constantinople in 860 was a Byzantine success and attributed

4180-609: The Sea of Azov , covers 436,400 km (168,500 sq mi), has a maximum depth of 2,212 m (7,257 ft), and a volume of 547,000 km (131,000 cu mi). Most of its coasts ascend rapidly. These rises are the Pontic Mountains to the south, bar the southwest-facing peninsulas, the Caucasus Mountains to the east, and the Crimean Mountains to the mid-north. In the west,

4290-467: The Slavic pantheon . He remained a stubborn pagan all of his life; according to the Primary Chronicle, he believed that his warriors would lose respect for him and mock him if he became a Christian. Sviatoslav's successor, Yaropolk I (r. 972–980), seems to have had a more conciliatory attitude towards Christianity. Late medieval sources even claim that Yaropolk exchanged ambassadors with

4400-459: The University of Texas at Austin and the local Archaeological Park has investigated the site since 1992. The Ukrainian government has included the site on its tentative World Heritage List . The site, however, is in danger of further urban encroachment and coastal erosion . In 2013, "The Ancient City of Tauric Chersonese and its Chora" was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This World Heritage Site consists of seven locations that encompass

4510-746: The 13th century. In Greece , the historical name "Euxine Sea", which holds a different literal meaning (see below), is still widely used: The Black Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms – the others being the Red Sea , the White Sea and the Yellow Sea . The earliest known name of the Black Sea is the Sea of Zalpa, so called by both the Hattians and their conquerors,

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4620-662: The Aegean Sea. The Bosporus strait connects it to the small Sea of Marmara which in turn is connected to the Aegean Sea via the strait of the Dardanelles . To the north, the Black Sea is connected to the Sea of Azov by the Kerch Strait . The water level has varied significantly over geological time. Due to these variations in the water level in the basin, the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been dry land. At certain critical water levels, connections with surrounding water bodies can become established. It

4730-582: The Black Sea Depression they are terrigenous non-carbonate silts , and at the foot of the continental slope turbidite sediments. The Black Sea is the world's largest body of water with a meromictic basin. The deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The Black Sea's circulation patterns are primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in

4840-544: The Black Sea belong to Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and Ukraine: Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of the North Atlantic oscillation , the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses. While the exact mechanisms causing the North Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear, it

4950-585: The Black Sea features a range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae, including diatoms and dinoflagellates , acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but the distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by seasonal physiographic development. During winter, strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high summer temperatures result in

5060-632: The Black Sea is commonly referred to as the Black Sea Region . Its northern part lies within the Chernozem belt (black soil belt) which goes from eastern Croatia ( Slavonia ), along the Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria ( Danubian Plain ) and southern Romania ( Wallachian Plain ) to northeast Ukraine and further across the Central Black Earth Region and southern Russia into Siberia . The littoral zone of

5170-562: The Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral or Pontic zone . The largest bays of the Black Sea are Karkinit Bay in Ukraine; the Gulf of Burgas in Bulgaria; Dnieprovski Bay and Dniestrovski Bay, both in Ukraine; and Sinop Bay and Samsun Bay, both in Turkey. The largest rivers flowing into the Black Sea are: These rivers and their tributaries comprise a 2-million km (0.77-million sq mi) Black Sea drainage basin that covers wholly or partially 24 countries: Unrecognised states: Some islands in

5280-402: The Black Sea underneath the less dense, fresher water that flows out of the Black Sea. This creates a significant and permanent layer of deep water that does not drain or mix and is therefore anoxic . This anoxic layer is responsible for the preservation of ancient shipwrecks which have been found in the Black Sea, which ultimately drains into the Mediterranean Sea , via the Turkish Straits and

5390-457: The Bosporus Strait from the Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea, where the water has a lower salt content. Because of the anoxic water at depth, organic matter, including anthropogenic artifacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels . Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of

5500-483: The Bosporus is located at 36.5 m (120 ft) below present sea level (deepest spot of the shallowest cross-section in the Bosporus, located in front of Dolmabahçe Palace ) and has a wet section of around 38,000 m (410,000 sq ft). Inflow and outflow current speeds are averaged around 0.3 to 0.4 m/s (1.0 to 1.3 ft/s), but much higher speeds are found locally, inducing significant turbulence and vertical shear. This allows for turbulent mixing of

5610-401: The Christian state." Zuckerman argues that Ignatius sent his archbishop to Rus' in about 870, while Dmitry Obolensky inclines to accept 874 as the date of the definitive Christianization. Whatever the scope of Photius's efforts to Christianize the Rus', their effect was not lasting. Although they fail to mention the mission of Photius, the authors of the Primary Chronicle were aware that

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5720-458: The Christianization of Kievan Rus' was a long and complicated process that began before the state's formation. As early as the 1st century AD, Greeks in the Black Sea Colonies converted to Christianity, although most of these lands never became part of Kievan Rus'. The Goths migrated to through the region in the 3rd century, adopting Arian Christianity in the 4th century, leaving behind 4th- and 5th-century churches excavated in Crimea (which

5830-425: The Greeks to trade there. In 1299, the town was sacked by the Mongol armies of Nogai Khan 's Golden Horde . Byzantine sources last mention Chersonesus in 1396, and based on archaeological evidence the site is presumed to have been abandoned in the following decades. Chersonesus had been a Roman pre- Great Schism , later Greek/Orthodox, episcopal see for centuries, elevated early to the rank of archbishopric, since it

5940-402: The Macedonian , it was his ancestor who persuaded the Rus' to abandon their pagan ways. Constantine attributes the conversion to Basil and to Patriarch Ignatius , rather than to their predecessors, Michael III and Photius. He narrates how the Byzantines galvanized the Rus' into conversion by their persuasive words and rich presents, including gold, silver, and precious tissues. He also repeats

6050-407: The Mediterranean. The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea, the first of its kind discovered. Current names of the sea are usually equivalents of the English name "Black Sea", including these given in the countries bordering the sea: Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate

6160-423: The Mid-Black Sea High, which includes the Andrusov Ridge, Tetyaev High, and Archangelsky High, extending south from the Crimean Peninsula . The basin includes two distinct relict back-arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo - and Neo- Tethys oceans, but the timings of these events remain uncertain. Arc volcanism and extension occurred as

6270-448: The N:P:Si ratio in the basin. Coastal areas, accordingly, have seen an increase in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton blooms, with diatom-bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 2.5 and non-diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6. The non-diatoms, such as the prymnesiophytes Emiliania huxleyi (coccolithophore), Chromulina sp., and the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii , can out-compete diatom species because of

6380-454: The Neo-Tethys Ocean subducted under the southern margin of Laurasia during the Mesozoic . Uplift and compressional deformation took place as the Neotethys continued to close. Seismic surveys indicate that rifting began in the Western Black Sea in the Barremian and Aptian followed by the formation of oceanic crust 20 million years later in the Santonian . Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in

6490-399: The Pope. The Chronicon of Adémar de Chabannes and the life of St. Romuald (by Pietro Damiani ) actually document the mission of St. Bruno of Querfurt to the land of Rus', where he succeeded in converting to Christianity a local king (one of three brothers who ruled the land). Alexander Nazarenko suggests that Yaropolk went through some preliminary rites of baptism, but was murdered at

6600-464: The Rim Current. The Rim Current has a maximum velocity of about 50–100 cm/s (20–39 in/s). Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. The Eastern and Western Gyres are well-organized systems in the winter but dissipate into a series of interconnected eddies in the summer and autumn. Mesoscale activity in the peripheral flow becomes more pronounced during these warmer seasons and

6710-428: The Soviet state and the church. For the first time since 1917, numerous churches and monasteries were returned to the Russian Orthodox Church . In Ukrainian communities around the world, members of various Ukrainian churches also celebrated the Millennium of Christianity in Ukraine . In 2008 the National Bank of Ukraine issued into circulation commemorative coins "Christianization of Kievan Rus" within "Rebirth of

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6820-449: The ancient archaeological site, coupled with a lack of funding to prevent such development pressures, has left the site of Chersonesus firmly at risk. In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage , Global Heritage Fund identified Chersonesus as one of 12 worldwide sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures as primary causes. On July 29, 2015,

6930-425: The basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large-scale volcanism and numerous orogenies , causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus , Pontides , southern Crimean Peninsula and Balkanides mountain ranges. During the Messinian salinity crisis in the neighboring Mediterranean Sea , water levels fell but without drying up the sea. The collision between the Eurasian and African plates and

7040-419: The behest of his pagan half-brother Vladimir (whose own rights to the throne were questionable) before his conversion was formalized. Following this theory, any information on Yaropolk's baptism according to the Latin form would have been suppressed by the later Eastern Orthodox chroniclers, zealous to keep Vladimir's image of the Rus Apostle untarnished for succeeding generations. The Conversion of Volodimer

7150-412: The centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 metres (7,257.22 feet) just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula . The Paleo- Euxinian is described by the accumulation of eolian silt deposits (related to the Riss glaciation ) and the lowering of sea levels ( MIS 6, 8 and 10). The Karangat marine transgression occurred during the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e). This may have been

7260-499: The city of Chersonesus and six plots of agricultural land. The site was designated as a World Heritage site under the UNESCO criterion (ii) and (v). UNESCO considers these areas to show cultural lifestyles and land use of ancient populations that inhabited these areas. In 2014, the Crimean peninsula was annexed by Russia , but UNESCO has maintained that it will continue to recognize Crimea and its heritage sites as belonging to Ukraine. The encroachment of modern building in and around

7370-405: The city was plundered and destroyed. In 2007, Chersonesus tied for fifth in the Seven Wonders of Ukraine poll. On February 13, 2009, Ukrainian Defence Minister Yuriy Yekhanurov called on Russia's Black Sea naval fleet to move its automobile depot from the site to another place. The location of the Russian Black Sea naval fleet's automobile depot was one of the obstacles to the inclusion of

7480-407: The city". In 833, Emperor Theophilus sent the nobleman Petronas Kamateros , who had recently overseen the construction of the Khazar fortress of Sarkel , to take direct control over the city and its environs, establishing the theme of Klimata/Cherson . It remained in Byzantine hands until the 980s, when it reportedly fell to Vladimir the Great of the Kievan Rus' . Vladimir agreed to evacuate

7590-490: The coast is generally small floodplains below foothills such as the Strandzha ; Cape Emine , a dwindling of the east end of the Balkan Mountains ; and the Dobruja Plateau considerably farther north. The longest east–west extent is about 1,175 km (730 mi). Important cities along the coast include (clockwise from the Bosporus ) Burgas , Varna , Constanța , Odesa , Sevastopol , Novorossiysk , Sochi , Poti , Batumi , Trabzon and Samsun . The Black Sea has

7700-437: The country, centred on Rostov , was particularly hostile to the new religion. Novgorod itself faced a pagan uprising as late as 1071, in which Bishop Fedor faced a real threat to his person; Prince Gleb Sviatoslavich broke up the crowd by chopping a sorcerer in half with an axe. The Christianization of Rus firmly allied it with the Byzantine Empire . The Greek learning and book culture was adopted in Kiev and other centres of

7810-436: The country. Churches started to be built on the Byzantine model. During the reign of Vladimir's son Yaroslav I , Metropolitan Ilarion authored the first known work of East Slavic literature, an elaborate oration in which he favourably compared Rus to other lands known as the " Sermon on Law and Grace " . The Ostromir Gospels , produced in Novgorod during the same period, was the first dated East Slavic book fully preserved. But

7920-401: The dark color of the water or climatic conditions. Some scholars understand the name to be derived from a system of colour symbolism representing the cardinal directions , with black or dark for north, red for south, white for west, and green or light blue for east. Hence, "Black Sea" meant "Northern Sea". According to this scheme, the name could only have originated with a people living between

8030-537: The earliest Kievan princes and princesses such as Askold and Dir and Olga of Kiev reportedly converted to Christianity, but Oleg the Wise , Igor of Kiev and Sviatoslav I remained pagans. According to some sources and historians, there was an attempt in the 9th century to Christianise Kievan Rus'. The most authoritative source for this purported first conversion attempt is an encyclical letter of Patriarch Photius of Constantinople , datable to early 867. Referencing

8140-587: The events of the Rus'–Byzantine War (1043) and to a different Vladimir . In fact, most valuables looted by the Slavs in Korsun' made their way to Novgorod (perhaps by way of Joachim the Korsunian , the first Novgorodian bishop, as his surname indicates ties to Korsun), where they were preserved in the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom until the 20th century. One of the most interesting items from this "Korsun Treasure"

8250-402: The farm work instead of being enslaved . The excavated tombstones hint at burial practices that were different from the Greek ones. Each stone marks the tomb of an individual, instead of the whole family and the decorations include only objects like sashes and weapons, instead of burial statues. Over half of the tombs archaeologists have found have bones of children. Burned remnants suggest that

8360-429: The fortress only if Basil II 's sister Anna Porphyrogeneta would be given him in marriage. The demand caused a scandal in Constantinople. As a pre-condition for the marriage settlement, Vladimir was baptized here in 988, thus paving the way to the Baptism of Kievan Rus' . Thereafter Korsun' was evacuated. Since this campaign is not recorded in Greek sources, historians have suggested that the account actually refers to

8470-684: The governor of Sevastopol, Sergey Menyaylo , controversially fired the director of the National Preserve of Tauric Chersonesos, Andrey Kulagin. He then appointed the head priest of the Russian Orthodox Cathedral of Saint Vladimir in Chersonesus, Sergiy Khalyuta, as the new director of the Preserve. This move caused heated protests from the staff of the Preserve, and all 109 members unanimously refused to work under

8580-512: The highest sea levels reached in the late Pleistocene . Based on this some scholars have suggested that the Crimean Peninsula was isolated from the mainland by a shallow strait during the Eemian Interglacial. The Neoeuxinian transgression began with an inflow of waters from the Caspian Sea . Neoeuxinian deposits are found in the Black Sea below −20 m (−66 ft) water depth in three layers. The upper layers correspond with

8690-459: The late 11th century, and the internal evidence suggests that the trip to the would-be Novgorod Slavs was the first interpolation – as Andrew tells people about it in Rome, but says nothing about erecting a cross and blessing the future site of Kyiv. Therefore, the latter would have been a secondary interpolation that was only formulated later in order to claim an apostolic origin for Kyiv. Some of

8800-518: The late 1980s. Additionally, an alien species—the warty comb jelly ( Mnemiopsis leidyi )—established itself in the basin, exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons. The change in species composition in Black Sea waters also has consequences for hydrochemistry, as calcium-producing coccolithophores influence salinity and pH, although these ramifications have yet to be fully quantified. In central Black Sea waters, silicon levels also reduced significantly, due to

8910-407: The limited availability of silicon, a necessary constituent of diatom frustules. As a consequence of these blooms, benthic macrophyte populations were deprived of light, while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine animals. Overfishing during the 1970s further compounded the decline in macrophytes, while the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass of copepods and other zooplankton in

9020-400: The missionary triumphs of his predecessor, Michael III. On the other hand, Constantine Zuckerman argues that, in response to the initial request of the Rus', Photius (and Michael III) sent to the Rus' Khaganate a simple bishop. The pagans felt slighted at the low rank of the prelate and their Christian zeal evaporated. In September 867, Michael was assassinated by Basil, who (together with

9130-414: The new director. The conflict attracted significant attention from the media, particularly due to its political connotations, given that Menyaylo had been appointed governor by Russian president Vladimir Putin , shortly after Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014. The workers claim that the conflict between Menyaylo and Kulagin started on July 11, when Kulagin complained about a road construction project on

9240-431: The north of the basin is up to 190 km (120 mi) wide and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the eastern edge around Georgia , however, are typified by a narrow shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km (12 mi) in width and a steep apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in

9350-561: The northern (black) and southern (red) seas : this points to the Achaemenids (550–330 BC). In the Greater Bundahishn , a Middle Persian Zoroastrian scripture, the Black Sea is called Siyābun . In the tenth-century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam , the Black Sea is called Georgian Sea ( daryā-yi Gurz ). The Georgian Chronicles use the name zğua sperisa ზღუა სპერისა (Sea of Speri) after

9460-551: The occasion, prayed. To commemorate the event, Vladimir built the first stone church of Kievan Rus', called the Church of the Tithes , where his body and the body of his new wife were to repose. Another church was built on top of the hill where pagan statues stood before. The baptism of Kiev was followed by similar ceremonies in other urban centres of the country. The Ioakim Chronicle says that Vladimir's uncle, Dobrynya , forced

9570-523: The only surviving work of lay literature, The Tale of Igor's Campaign , indicates that a degree of pagan worldview remained under Christian Kievan Rus'. In 1988, the faithful of the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox churches which have roots in the baptism of Kiev celebrated a millennium of Eastern Slavic Christianity. The great celebrations in Moscow changed the character of relationship between

9680-454: The outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Sea of Marmara occurs near the surface. According to Gregg (2002), the outflow is 16,000 cubic metres per second (570,000 cubic feet per second) or around 500 cubic kilometres per year (120 cubic miles per year), and the inflow is 11,000 m /s (390,000 cu ft/s) or around 350 km /a (84 cu mi/a). The following water budget can be estimated: The southern sill of

9790-507: The peak of the Khvalinian transgression, on the shelf shallow-water sands and coquina mixed with silty sands and brackish-water fauna, and inside the Black Sea Depression hydrotroilite silts. The middle layers on the shelf are sands with brackish-water mollusc shells. Of continental origin, the lower level on the shelf is mostly alluvial sands with pebbles, mixed with less common lacustrine silts and freshwater mollusc shells . Inside

9900-488: The photic zone, enhancing productivity. In total, the Black Sea's biodiversity contains around one-third of the Mediterranean's and is experiencing natural and artificial invasions or "Mediterranizations". The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea are dinoflagellates , diatoms , coccolithophores and cyanobacteria . Generally, the annual cycle of phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate-dominated spring production, followed by

10010-488: The present day. In 2013 UNESCO listed Chersonesus as a World Heritage Site . In the 5th century BC, Dorians from Heraclea Pontica on the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor founded the sea port of Chersonesos in southwestern Crimea (outside modern Sevastopol ). It was a site with good deep-water harbors located at the edge of the territory of the indigenous Taurians. During much of the Classical Period, Chersonesus

10120-528: The presumed victory to the Intercession of the Theotokos . This conviction dictated the following interpretation: awed by the miracles they witnessed under the walls of the imperial capital and grief-stricken at the disaster that befell them, the Rus' sent envoys to Photius and asked him to send a bishop to their land. According to Constantine VII , who authored a biography of his grandfather, Basil

10230-419: The prophets did not prophecy here' . Secondly, the legend of Andrew travelling through Scythia dates from the 3rd or 4th century, and it was not until the 9th century that the monk Epiphanius wrote a vita in Greek about Andrew that mentions the cities of Sinope and Kherson for the first time. Moreover, the external evidence suggests nobody was aware of the legend of Andrew blessing the future site of Kyiv until

10340-493: The region. As a result of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology , as ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered, such as the Byzantine wreck Sinop D , located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey . Modelling shows that, in the event of an asteroid impact on the Black Sea, the release of hydrogen sulfide clouds would pose

10450-584: The regional topography , as depressions and storm systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosporus, with the Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as waveguides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region. The Black Sea is divided into two depositional basins—the Western Black Sea and Eastern Black Sea—separated by

10560-430: The reserve on UNESCO's list of world heritage sites . In 2017, archaeologists discovered on the outskirts of Sevastopol, fragments of an ancient Greek altar with figures of gods. In 2022, researchers analyzed human skeletal remains from a necropolis in the northern part of Chersonesus, dating to the earliest period of the colony (between the 5th and the 4th century BC). Most of the deceased individuals were positioned in

10670-570: The residents of his capital to the Dnieper river for baptism . This mass baptism became the iconic inaugural event in the Christianization of the state of Kievan Rus' , and is sometimes called the Baptism of Rus'. At first, Vladimir baptized his twelve sons and many boyars . He destroyed the wooden statues of Slavic pagan gods (which he had himself raised just eight years earlier). They were either burnt or hacked into pieces, and

10780-529: The river Dnipro , and reached the future location of Kyiv , where he erected a cross. Next, he is said to have journeyed north to the Slovenes near the future site of Veliky Novgorod , although he had a negative attitude towards their customs (particularly their washing in a hot steam bath, banya ); then he visited Rome and returned to Sinope. In a later passage of the Primary Chronicle under

10890-527: The sea was called the "Inhospitable Sea Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos by the inhabitants of the Pontus region of the southern shoreline before Greek colonisation due to its difficult navigation and hostile barbarian natives (7.3.6), and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians colonised the region, bringing it into the Greek world. Popular supposition derives "Black Sea" from

11000-471: The statue of Perun — the supreme god — was thrown into the Dnieper. Then Vladimir sent a message to all residents of Kiev, "rich, and poor, and beggars, and slaves", to come to the river on the following day, lest they risk becoming the "prince's enemies". Large numbers of people came; some even brought infants with them. They were sent into the water while priests, who came from Chersonesos for

11110-461: The stories of Frankish historians about the multiple " baptisms " of the Norsemen , whose true intention was to get hold of the rich gifts accompanying the Christianization rituals. The date and rationale for the Christianization are also shrouded in controversy. Grigory Litavrin views the event as "a formal and diplomatic act making it easier to obtain advantageous agreements with the ruler of

11220-454: The territory of the Preserve which had been approved by governor Menyaylo without the permits necessary for construction works in protected areas . Eventually, under pressure from the workers and locals, Father Sergiy stepped down. Black Sea Unrecognised states: The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia , east of the Balkans , south of

11330-408: The two layers. Surface water leaves the Black Sea with a salinity of 17 practical salinity units (PSU) and reaches the Mediterranean with a salinity of 34 PSU. Likewise, an inflow of the Mediterranean with salinity 38.5 PSU experiences a decrease to about 34 PSU. Mean surface circulation is cyclonic ; waters around the perimeter of the Black Sea circulate in a basin-wide shelfbreak gyre known as

11440-599: The westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian and East Anatolian faults dictates the current tectonic regime, which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region. These geological mechanisms, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of the Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system. The large shelf to

11550-683: The year 6404 (898; page 28), makes confusing claims about how a certain Andronicus, supposedly a disciple of Paul the Apostle , was the "Apostle of the Slavs", because he preached amongst the "Moravians" in "Illyricum", and the "Rus ' " supposedly descended from the "Slavs", contradicting a whole lot of claims made elsewhere in the same Primary Chronicle . For one, the chronicle says explicitly sub anno 6491 (983): 'the Apostles were not by body here'; 'the apostles did not teach here; and also

11660-486: Was a democracy ruled by a group of elected archons and a council called the Demiurgi. As time passed the government grew more oligarchic, with power concentrated in the hands of the archons. Up to the middle of the 4th century BC, Chersonesos remained a small city. It then expanded to lands in northwest Crimea, incorporating the colony of Kerkinitida and constructing numerous fortifications. After defending itself against

11770-510: Was considered an ill omen and was euphemized to its opposite, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos (Hospitable Sea), also first attested in Pindar. This became the commonly used designation in Greek, although in mythological contexts the "true" name Póntos Áxeinos remained favoured. Strabo 's Geographica (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often simply called "the Sea" ( ὁ πόντος ho Pontos ). He thought that

11880-410: Was determined by the ancestry of the deceased, with flexed burials belonging to local Taurians, and extended burials belonging to Greek colonists. The 1935 basilica is the most famous basilica excavated in Chersonesus. The original name is unknown so "1935" refers to the year it was uncovered. The basilica was probably built in the 6th century on the site of an earlier temple, assumed by historians to be

11990-575: Was established, but it appears that it had only a bishop, a Dominican called Richard the Englishman. It is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular archbishopric , and is called specifically Chersonesus in Zechia to avoid confusion with other sees called Chersonesus . Chersonesus's ancient ruins are presently located in one of Sevastopol's suburbs. They were excavated by the Russian government, starting from 1827. They are today

12100-521: Was outside of Kievan control, except for Tmutarakan ), although the Hunnic invasion of the 370s halted Christianisation for several centuries. The Primary Chronicle (pages 7.21–9.4) records the legend of Andrew the Apostle 's mission to these coastal settlements, as well as blessing the site of present-day Kyiv . Andrew supposedly travelled from Sinope towards Chersonesus (Korsun) in Crimea , up

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