101-505: Chinese Manichaeism , also known as Monijiao ( Chinese : 摩尼教 ; pinyin : Móníjiào ; Wade–Giles : Mo-ni Chiao ; lit. 'religion of Moni ') or Mingjiao (Chinese: 明教 ; pinyin: Míngjiào ; Wade–Giles: Ming-Chiao ; lit. 'religion of light or 'bright religion'), is the form of Manichaeism transmitted to and currently practiced in China . Chinese Manichaeism rose to prominence during
202-509: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from
303-740: A king who sits on a throne at the highest of the heavens. In the Manichaean description, this being, the "Great King of Honor", becomes a deity who guards the entrance to the World of Light placed at the seventh of ten heavens. In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, overall, and in the original Syriac section of Manichaean scriptures quoted by Theodore bar Konai , he is called malkā rabbā d-iqārā ("the Great King of Honor"). Mani
404-704: A paragraph that explains how the text was ordered by the Tang dynasty on July 16, 731, and in a later passage mentions how Mani was a reincarnation of Lao-tzu . The discovery of the Xiapu Manichaean manuscripts was made known to the public in October 2008. The texts are used for Manichaean rituals in Baiyang Township , Xiapu County . Painting is a Manichaean tradition that traces its roots back to Mani himself ( Arzhang ), who elevated art-making to
505-490: A reform of Zarathrusta's ancient teachings. This was of great fascination to the king, for it perfectly fit Sabuhr's dream of creating a large empire that incorporated all people and their different creeds. Thus, Manichaeism became widespread and flourished throughout the Sasanian Empire for thirty years. An apologia for Manichaeism ascribed to ibn al-Muqaffa' defended its phantasmagorical cosmogony and attacked
606-745: A religion. It was his "Twin" who brought Mani to self-realization . Mani claimed to be the Paraclete of the Truth promised by Jesus in the New Testament. Manichaeism's views on Jesus are described by historians: Jesus in Manichaeism possessed three separate identities: (1) Jesus the Luminous, (2) Jesus the Messiah and (3) Jesus patibilis (the suffering Jesus). (1) As Jesus
707-678: A report that the proclamation of Manichaeism as the state religion was met with enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq. In an inscription in which the Kaghan speaks for himself, he promised the Manichaen high priests (the "Elect") that if they gave orders, he would promptly follow them and respond to their requests. An incomplete manuscript found in the Turfan Oasis gives Boku Tekin the title of zahag-i Mani ("Emanation of Mani" or "Descendant of Mani"),
808-613: A representation of the prophet Mani . In modern China, Manichaean groups are still active in southern provinces, especially in Quanzhou and the rest of Fujian and around the Cao'an , the most noted Manichaean temple that has survived until today. Today, rituals conducted for the Lin Deng 林瞪 (1003–1059), a Chinese Manichaean leader who lived during the Song dynasty, are still conducted in
909-575: A revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his "Twin" ( Imperial Aramaic : תאומא tɑʔwmɑ , from which is also derived the Greek name of Thomas the Apostle , Didymus; the "twin"), Syzygos ( Koinē Greek : σύζυγος "spouse, partner", in the Cologne Mani-Codex ), "Double," "Protective Angel," or "Divine Self." This spirit taught him wisdom that he then developed into
1010-808: A sacred forest in Otuken . The conversion to Manichaeism led to an explosion of manuscript production in the Tarim Basin and Gansu (the region between the Tibetan and the Huangtu plateaus), which lasted well into the early 11th century. In 840, the Uyghur Khaganate collapsed under the attacks of the Yenisei Kyrgyz , and the new Uyghur state of Qocho was established with a capital in the city of Qocho . Al-Jahiz (776–868 or 869) believed that
1111-613: A standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of
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#17327652023061212-691: A title of majestic prestige among the Manichaeans of Central Asia. Nonetheless, and despite the apparently willing conversion of the Uyghurs to Manichaeanism, traces and signs of the previous shamanistic practices persisted. For instance, in 765, only two years after the official conversion, during a military campaign in China, the Uyghur troops called forth magicians to perform a number of specific rituals. Manichaean Uyghurs continued to treat with great respect
1313-869: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;
1414-525: Is a dualistic religion that believes in the eternal fight between the principles of good/light and evil/darkness, the former being represented by a God known as Shangdi , Míngzūn ( 明尊 ; 'Radiant Lord') or Zhēnshén ( 真神 ; 'True God'). Salvation is delivered by the Living Spirit ( 淨活風 ; Jìnghuófēng ) of God, of whom there have been many manifestations in human form, including Mani ( 摩尼 ; Móní ). Due to how adaptable
1515-612: Is called a Manichaean , Manichean , or Manichee , the last especially in older sources. Mani was an Iranian born in 216 CE in or near Ctesiphon (now al-Mada'in , Iraq) in the Parthian Empire . According to the Cologne Mani-Codex , Mani's parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites . Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in
1616-573: Is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-century Muslim historians like al-Biruni and ibn al-Nadim in his al-Fihrist ; the latter "ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets." However, given the Islamic milieu of Arabia and Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaens would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, not Muhammad , was the "Seal of
1717-653: Is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of Sām , Narīmān , etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in
1818-493: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to
1919-551: The Babylonian Talmud ), Mandaean (the language of Mandaeism ), and Syriac, which was the language of Mani as well as the Syriac Christians . While Manichaeism was spreading, existing religions such as Zoroastrianism were still prevalent, and Christianity was gaining social and political influence. Although having fewer adherents, Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures. With
2020-691: The Book of Enoch literature), and by the Syriac dualist -Gnostic writer Bardaisan (who lived a generation before Mani). With the discovery of the Mani-Codex, it also became clear that he was raised in the Jewish Christian sect of the Elcasaites and possibly influenced by their writings. According to biographies preserved by ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni , Mani received
2121-630: The Greco-Roman world because of it. Mani taught how the soul of a righteous individual returns to Paradise upon dying, but "the soul of the person who persisted in things of the flesh – fornication, procreation, possessions, cultivation, harvesting, eating of meat, drinking of wine – is condemned to rebirth in a succession of bodies." Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements such as Mandaeism , Aramaic translations of Jewish apocalyptic works similar to those found at Qumran (e.g.,
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#17327652023062222-651: The Kensiu language . Manichaeism Manichaeism ( / ˌ m æ n ɪ ˈ k iː ɪ z əm / ; in Persian : آئین مانی Āʾīn-ī Mānī ; Chinese : 摩尼教 ; pinyin : Móníjiào ) is a Gnostic former major world religion , founded in the 3rd century CE by the Parthian prophet Mani (216–274 CE), in the Sasanian Empire . Manichaeism teaches an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing
2323-622: The Manichaean alphabet that was used in all of the Manichaean works written within the Sasanian Empire , whether they were in Syriac or Middle Persian , as well as most of the works written within the Uyghur Khaganate . The primary language of Babylon (and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire) at that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic , which included three main dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (the language of
2424-652: The Mongol -led Yuan dynasty , where the religion enjoyed a stable existence while the Sakya sect of Tibetan Buddhism served as the ‘’de facto’’ state religion of the Yuan. Two elaborate silk paintings survive from this era: Manichaean Diagram of the Universe and Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation . These works provide an insight into Yuan-era cosmology of Chinese Manichaeism. Manichaeism survived among
2525-640: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝ 'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for
2626-660: The Tang dynasty and despite frequent persecutions, it has continued long after the other forms of Manichaeism were eradicated in the West . The most complete set of surviving Manichaean writings were written in Chinese sometime before the 9th century and were found in the Mogao Caves among the Dunhuang manuscripts . Chinese Manichaeism represents a set of teachings with the purpose of inducing awakening ( 佛 ; fó ), and it
2727-637: The Tarim Basin region) draws from three texts compiled before the end of the 9th century: the Traité , the Hymnscroll , and the Compendium . Besides a few absent opening lines, the Traité ( Chinese : 摩尼教殘經 ; pinyin : Móníjiào cán jīng ; lit. 'fragmentary Manichean scripture') is in excellent condition and corresponds with Manichaean texts found in other languages. Within
2828-405: The Traité are discourses attributed to Mani in response to questions from a disciple (named "A-to" or "Addā" ) on the nature of Manichaean cosmogony and ethics. The first discourse primarily concerns the creation of the universe via the salvation of primal man by the powers of light, a subsequent attack by the prince of darkness, and the eventual triumph of light over the darkness. Themes such as
2929-457: The entire world , calling his teachings the "Religion of Light". Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was twelve years old and again when he was 24, and over this period, he grew dissatisfied with the Elcesaites , the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect he was born into. Some researchers also point to an important Jain influence on Mani as extreme degrees of asceticism and some specific features of Jain doctrine made
3030-612: The fideism of Islam and other monotheistic religions. The Manichaeans had sufficient structure to have a head of their community. Tolerance toward Manichaeism decreased after the death of Sabuhr I. His son, Ohrmazd , who became king, still allowed for Manichaeism in the empire, but he also greatly trusted the Zoroastrian priest, Kirdir. After Ohrmazd's short reign, his oldest brother, Wahram I , became king. Wahram I held Kirdir in high esteem, and he also had many different religious ideals than Ohrmazd and his father, Sabuhr I. Due to
3131-541: The late-Aramaic Syriac language . The seventh, the Shabuhragan , was written by Mani in Middle Persian and presented by him to Sasanian emperor Shapur I . Although there is no proof Shapur I was a Manichaean, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries. According to one tradition, Mani invented the unique version of the Syriac script known as
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3232-506: The north-western Uyghur territory . Due to the peace between the Uyghurs and Han populations during this time, the Tang government relaxed its restraints on Manichaeism, allowing it to flourish with monasteries built by the Uyghurs in places such as Shaoxing , Yangzhou , Nanjing , and Jingzhou , with the first being built in 768. The years of prosperity for Manichaeism came to an end in
3333-609: The struggle between a good , spiritual world of light , and an evil , material world of darkness . Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. Mani's teaching was intended to "combine", succeed, and surpass the teachings of Platonism , Christianity , Zoroastrianism , Buddhism , Marcionism , Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism , Gnostic movements , Ancient Greek religion , Babylonian and other Mesopotamian religions , and mystery cults . It reveres Mani as
3434-580: The 14th century, some Chinese Manichaeans involved themselves with the Pure Land school of Mahayana Buddhism in southern China . Those Manichaeans practiced their rituals so closely alongside the Mahayana Buddhists that over the years the two sects became indistinguishable. The Cao'an temple in Fujian stands as an example this synthesis, as a statue of the "Buddha of Light" is thought to be
3535-485: The Book of Enoch entitled The Book of Giants . Mani quoted the latter directly and expanded upon it, becoming one of the six original Syriac writings of the Manichaean Church. Besides short references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original sources of The Book of Giants (which is actually part six of the Book of Enoch) were available until the 20th century. Scattered fragments of both
3636-681: The Buddha of Infinite Light, does not appear in Chinese Manichaeism and seems to have been replaced by another deity. Manichaeism reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq in 280, who was also in Egypt in 244 and 251. It flourished in the Faiyum in 290. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 during the time of Pope Miltiades . In 291, persecution arose in the Sasanian Empire with
3737-449: The Buddhist sangha . The Kushan monk Lokakṣema began translating Pure Land Buddhist texts into Chinese in the century prior to Mani arriving there. The Chinese texts of Manichaeism are full of uniquely Buddhist terms taken directly from these Chinese Pure Land scriptures, including the term " pure land " ( Chinese : 淨土 ; pinyin : jìngtǔ ) itself. However, the central object of veneration in Pure Land Buddhism, Amitābha ,
3838-594: The East in Ming China , there is a growing corpus of evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, especially in Fujian , where numerous Manichaean relics have been discovered over time. The currently known sects are notably secretive and protective of their belief system, in an effort to remain undetected. This stems from fears relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Chinese history. While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. An adherent of Manichaeism
3939-443: The Luminous ... his primary role was as supreme revealer and guide and it was he who woke Adam from his slumber and revealed to him the divine origins of his soul and its painful captivity by the body and mixture with matter. (2) Jesus the Messiah was an historical being who was the prophet of the Jews and the forerunner of Mani. However, the Manichaeans believed he was wholly divine, and that he never experienced human birth, as
4040-431: The Manichaean population is estimated to have been killed due to Emperor Wuzong's Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution . Two years after the persecution began, a total ban on foreign relations caused Manichaeism to hide underground, from which it has never regained its past prominence. Though they participated in rebellions against the government during the Song dynasty , the Chinese Manichaeans were continually stamped down by
4141-473: The Manichaeans [...] have set up new and hitherto unheard-of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by the divine favour for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine. They have sprung forth very recently like new and unexpected monstrosities among the race of the Persians – a nation still hostile to us – and have made their way into our empire, where they are committing many outrages, disturbing
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4242-451: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China
4343-400: The Prophets". In reality, for Mani the metaphorical expression "Seal of Prophets" is not a reference to his finality in a long succession of prophets as it is used in Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who testify or attest to his message as a "seal"). Other sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic originals of the Book of Enoch , 2 Enoch , and an otherwise unknown section of
4444-409: The Song dynasty, the Manichaeans were derogatorily referred by the Chinese as Chīcài shìmó ( Chinese : 吃菜事魔 , meaning that they "abstain from meat and worship demons"). An account in Fozu Tongji , an important historiography of Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–1269, says that the Manichaeans worshipped the "White Buddha" and their leader wore a violet headgear, while
4545-417: The Syriac language. By comparing the cosmology of the books of Enoch to the Book of Giants, as well as the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based, in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail within the Enochic literature. This literature describes the being that the prophets saw in their ascent to Heaven as
4646-419: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,
4747-403: The Uyghur Khaganate in 840. In the east it spread along trade routes as far as Chang'an , the capital of Tang China . After the Tang dynasty, some Manichaean groups participated in peasant movements . Many rebel leaders used religion to mobilize followers. In Song and Yuan China, remnants of Manichaeism continued to leave a legacy contributing to sects such as the Red Turbans . During
4848-401: The Uyghurs in Turfan may be detected in fragments of Uyghur Manichaean manuscripts. In fact, Manicheism continued to rival the influence of Buddhism among the Uyghurs until the 13th century. The Mongols gave the final blow to the Manichaeism among the Uyghurs. Manichaeism spread to Tibet during the Tibetan Empire . There was a serious attempt made to introduce the religion to the Tibetans as
4949-425: The Western barbarian peoples as the prophet Mani. Manichaeism was introduced into China during the Tang dynasty through Central Asian communities and was regarded as an improper form of Buddhism by the Tang authorities. Although religions of the Western peoples (including those of Bactria and Sogdia ) were not outlawed, they were prohibited from spreading among the native Chinese population. However, Manichaeism
5050-602: The Zoroastrians. Due to the appeal of its teachings, many Sasanians adopted the ideas of its theology and some even became dualists. Not only were the citizens of the Sasanian Empire intrigued by Manichaeism, but so was the ruler at the time of its introduction, Sabuhr l . As the Denkard reports, Sabuhr, the first King of Kings , was very well-known for gaining and seeking knowledge of any kind. Because of this, Mani knew that Sabuhr would lend an ear to his teachings and accept him. Mani had explicitly stated while introducing his teachings to Sabuhr, that his religion should be seen as
5151-467: The assistance of the Sasanian Empire, Mani began missionary expeditions. After failing to win the favour of the next generation of Persian royalty and incurring the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani is reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by the Persian emperor Bahram I . The date of his death is estimated at 276–277 CE. Mani believed that the teachings of Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus were incomplete, and that his revelations were for
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#17327652023065252-500: The basis for the Chinese language versions. The Hymnscroll ( Chinese : 下部讚 ; pinyin : Xiàbùzàn ; lit. 'the lower (second?) section of the Manichean hymns') consists of thirty hymns that were likely directly translated from Parthian into the Chinese language, as several of the hymns are phonetic transcriptions of the original Parthian hymns, unintelligible to the common Chinese reader. The scroll finishes with an appeal for blessing. The text indicates that it
5353-444: The beginning of his proselytizing career, Richard Foltz postulates Buddhist influences in Manichaeism: Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect") and lay followers (the "hearers") who supported them, appears to be based on that of
5454-413: The captive soul is exquisitely expressed in one of the Coptic Manichaean psalms. Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ". Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras such as the Buddha, Krishna , and Zoroaster in addition to Jesus himself. Academics note that much of what
5555-449: The clergy, and specifically executed seventy Manichaean nuns in Chang'an . Instead of their traditional clothing, the Manichaean priests were ordered to wear the hanfu , as the typical attire of Manichaeism was deemed un-Chinese. In some cases, the Manichaeans were ordered by Tang authorities to dress like Buddhist monks and, since Manichaean priests were known for their long hair, they were forced to have their heads shaven. Over half of
5656-412: The competition to replace classical polytheism before the spread of Islam . Under the Roman Dominate , Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire. Manichaeism survived longer in the east than it did in the west. Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th century in South China , contemporary to the decline of the Church of
5757-403: The emperor issued a series of edicts to suppress Manichaeism and punish its followers. Augustine of Hippo (354–430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism in the year 387. This was shortly after the Roman emperor Theodosius I issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391. Due to
5858-452: The esteem of the divine spirit, believed that meditating on beauty brought one closer to god, and ultimately saw the practicality of pictures as a transcultural method of teaching. Just as the pristine-condition Manichaean texts come from Chinese Manichaeism, so, too, do the remaining examples of Manichaean artwork, in the forms of fragments and full hanging-scrolls. Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are
5959-437: The final prophet after Zoroaster , the Buddha and Jesus . Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through Aramaic -speaking regions. It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire . It was briefly the main rival to early Christianity in
6060-427: The flames. We direct their followers, if they continue recalcitrant, shall suffer capital punishment, and their goods be forfeited to the imperial treasury. And if those who have gone over to that hitherto unheard-of, scandalous and wholly infamous creed, or to that of the Persians, are persons who hold public office, or are of any rank or of superior social status, you will see to it that their estates are confiscated and
6161-432: The followers wore white costumes. Many Manichaeans took part in rebellions against the Song government and were eventually quelled. After that, all governments were suppressive against Manichaeism and its followers, and the religion was banned in Ming China in 1370. While it had long been thought that Manichaeism arrived in China only at the end of the seventh century, a recent archaeological discovery demonstrated that it
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#17327652023066262-493: The heavy persecution, the religion almost disappeared from Western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century. According to his Confessions , after nine or ten years of adhering to the Manichaean faith as a member of the group of "hearers", Augustine of Hippo became a Christian and potent adversary of Manichaeism (which he expressed in writing against his Manichaean opponent Faustus of Mileve ), seeing their beliefs that knowledge
6363-408: The hostility to the flesh and sexual activity, and his dualistic theology. Some Sogdians in Central Asia believed in the religion. Uyghur khagan Boku Tekin (759–780) converted to the religion in 763 after a three-day discussion with its preachers, the Babylonian headquarters sent high-rank clerics to Uyghur, and Manichaeism remained the state religion for about a century before the collapse of
6464-452: The influence of Mahāvīra's religious community more plausible than even the Buddha. Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of plant souls, were transmitted from Western Kshatrapa territories to Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs. Mani wore colorful clothing abnormal for the time that reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persian magus or warlord , earning him ire from
6565-438: The influence of Kirdir, Zoroastrianism was strengthened throughout the empire, which in turn caused Manichaeism to be diminished. Wahram sentenced Mani to prison, and he died there. Under the eighth-century Abbasid Caliphate , Arabic zindīq and the adjectival term zandaqa could denote many different things, but it seems to have primarily—or at least initially—signified a follower of Manichaeism; however its true meaning
6666-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from
6767-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as
6868-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In
6969-916: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often
7070-425: The murder of the apostle Sisin by Emperor Bahram II and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. Then, in 302, the first official reaction and legislation against Manichaeism from the Roman state was issued under Diocletian . In an official edict called the De Maleficiis et Manichaeis compiled in the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum and addressed to the proconsul of Africa , Diocletian wrote: We have heard that
7171-445: The offenders sent to the (quarry) at Phaeno or the mines at Proconnesus . And in order that this plague of iniquity shall be completely extirpated from this our most happy age, let your devotion hasten to carry out our orders and commands. By 354, Hilary of Poitiers wrote that Manichaeism was a significant force in Roman Gaul . In 381, Christians requested Theodosius I to strip Manichaeans of their civil rights . Starting in 382,
7272-677: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as
7373-654: The original Aramaic Book of Giants (which were analyzed and published by Józef Milik in 1976) and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published by Walter Bruno Henning in 1943) were discovered along with the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Judaean desert in the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of the Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in Turpan . Henning wrote in his analysis of them: It
7474-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as
7575-542: The other hand, was real and immanent. This was symbolized by the mystic placing of the Cross whereby the wounds of the passion of our souls are set forth. On this mystical Cross of Light was suspended the Suffering Jesus (Jesus patibilis) who was the life and salvation of Man. This mystica crucifixio was present in every tree, herb, fruit, vegetable and even stones and the soil. This constant and universal suffering of
7676-412: The peaceful lifestyle that Manicheism brought to the Uyghurs was responsible for their later lack of military skills and eventual decline. This, however, is contradicted by the political and military consequences of the conversion. After the migration of the Uyghurs to Turfan in the ninth century, the nobility maintained Manichaean beliefs for a while before converting to Buddhism. Traces of Manicheism among
7777-564: The physical realities surrounding the notions of his conception and his birth filled the Manichaeans with horror. However, the Christian doctrine of virgin birth was also regarded as obscene. Since Jesus the Messiah was the light of the world, where was this light, they reasoned, when Jesus was in the womb of the Virgin? Jesus the Messiah, they believed, was truly born only at his baptism, as it
7878-693: The population and had a profound influence on the tradition of the Chinese salvationist religions , integrating with the Maitreyan beliefs such as the White Lotus Sect . Chinese Manichaeism took inspiration from Taoism as well as forms of Buddhism including Chinese Buddhism . Due to the rise of the Ming dynasty , the name for Manichaeism , Mingjiao, was seen as offensive to the Emperor, so it received particular persecution. During and after
7979-833: The predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to
8080-697: The religion during the first century of Islamic rule. During the early caliphates, Manichaeism attracted many followers. It had a significant appeal among Muslim society, especially among the elites. A part of Manichaeism that specifically appealed to the Sasanians was the Manichaean gods' names. The names Mani had assigned to the gods of his religion show identification with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, even though some divine beings he incorporates are non-Iranian. For example, Jesus, Adam, and Eve were named Xradesahr, Gehmurd, and Murdiyanag. Because of these familiar names, Manichaeism did not feel completely foreign to
8181-624: The result was a text known as the Compendium of the Teachings of Mani, the Awakened One of Light . The text interprets the prophet Mani as an incarnation of Laozi (although Manichaeans clashed with the local Chinese Buddhists, they maintained good relations with their Taoist neighbors); a version of the Taoist Huahujing from the 8th century shares the same perspective as the Compendium , stating that Laozi reincarnated among
8282-589: The successive Chinese dynasties, with the Confucian authorities of the Song era disregarding the local Manichaeans as “vegetarian demon-worshippers" ( Chinese : 吃菜事魔 ). During this time, they had a "holy book" that discussed the natures of light and dark, as well as the past, present, and future, which were viewed as separate "worlds". Manichaeans of this era were buried naked, "would not touch liquor...[,] eat meat, [and would not consume] milk and cheese" and did not worship Buddha . Their fortunes changed during
8383-524: The symbol of trees and the enumeration of nights and days are found in other western Manichaean texts, namely those written in Coptic . More precise parallels can be drawn between the fragments of Turkish-Manichaean texts. In 1983, Werner Sundermann detailed how twenty-two Parthian manuscripts served as the original compositions of the texts, which were subsequently translated into Turkish and Sogdian , and then one of those Central Asian translations served as
8484-469: The teachings and beliefs of Manichaeism are, they were able to spread across a vast expanse of different cultures , from the Roman Empire to the west and China to the east. The religion arrived alongside Christianity through the various south-eastern Chinese seaports and overland Silk Road trade routes from the western desert regions. Sources state that Manichaeism was first brought into China in
8585-662: The text Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures (a text attributed to the Tibetan Emperor Trisong Detsen ) makes a great effort to attack Manichaeism by stating that Mani was a heretic who engaged in religious syncretism into a deviating and inauthentic form. Manichaeans in Iran tried to assimilate their religion along with Islam in the Muslim caliphates . Relatively little is known about
8686-420: The three villages of Baiyang 柏洋村 , Shangwan 上万村 , and Tahou 塔后村 in Baiyang Township , Xiapu County , Fujian. Although there is no shortage of documentation of Manichaeism in southern China (mostly in the form of highly critical books about the religion), doctrinal and liturgical writings remain rare. Nearly all present knowledge of the beliefs and teachings of Chinese Manichaeism (including its presence in
8787-636: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with
8888-1040: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write
8989-544: The tranquility of our people and even inflicting grave damage to the civic communities. We have cause to fear that with the passage of time they will endeavour, as usually happens, to infect the modest and tranquil of an innocent nature with the damnable customs and perverse laws of the Persians as with the poison of a malignant (serpent) ... We order that the authors and leaders of these sects be subjected to severe punishment, and, together with their abominable writings, burnt in
9090-518: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being
9191-564: The wake of the Kyrgyz's defeat of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 and a rising resentment for non-Chinese foreigners. Manichaeism was officially banned and persecuted through the suppression of non-Chinese religions started by the Emperor Wuzong of Tang in 843. During that year, the Tang dynasty government confiscated all of the property belonging to the Manichaean monasteries, destroyed the temples, burnt their scriptures, laicized or killed
9292-587: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c. 200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c. the 5th century . Although
9393-606: The year 694, but this may have happened much earlier. Since its introduction, Manichaeism has been deeply sinicised in its style, adapting to the Chinese cultural context. According to the Chinese Manichaeans of the Ming dynasty, their religion entered the country through Mōzak during the reign of the Emperor Gaozong of Tang (650–683). The pupil of Mōzak, bishop Mihr-Ohrmazd, followed his leader into China and
9494-641: Was a popular faith in northern China during the Tang dynasty. The north-western Uyghur Khaganate learned of Manichaeism from Sogdian foreigners. After the Khagan Bögü Qaghan (759–780) held a three-day discussion with members of the Manichaean clergy, he converted to the religion in 763. Manichaeism subsequently became the official religion of the Khaganate, prompting the Babylonian headquarters of Manichaeism to send high-ranking clerics to
9595-571: Was already known there in the second half of the 6th century. The nomadic Uyghur Khaganate lasted for less than a century (744–840) in the southern Siberian steppe, with the fortified city of Ordu-Baliq on the Upper Orkhon River as its capital. Before the end of the year (763), Manichaeism was declared the official religion of the Uyghur state. Boku Tekin banned all the shamanistic rituals that had previously been in use. His subjects likely accepted his decision. That much results from
9696-526: Was also influenced by writings of the gnostic Bardaisan (154–222 CE), who, like Mani, wrote in Syriac and presented a dualistic interpretation of the world in terms of light and darkness in combination with elements from Christianity. Mani was heavily inspired by Iranian Zoroastrian theology. Noting Mani's travels to the Kushan Empire (several religious paintings in Bamyan are attributed to him) at
9797-603: Was granted an audience with Wu Zetian (who held de facto power in the Tang dynasty between 684 and 690, and ruled as emperor of the Wu Zhou dynasty from 690 to 705) where, according to later Buddhist sources, he presented the Shabuhragan which ended up becoming the most popular text of the country's Manichaeans. In 731, the Emperor Xuanzong asked a Manichaean to summarize their foreign religious doctrines, and
9898-455: Was on that occasion that the Father openly acknowledged his sonship. The suffering, death and resurrection of this Jesus were in appearance only as they had no salvific value but were an exemplum of the suffering and eventual deliverance of the human soul and a prefiguration of Mani's own martyrdom. (3) The pain suffered by the imprisoned Light-Particles in the whole of the visible universe, on
9999-403: Was that it was all my own self, and my own impiety had divided me against myself. My sin was all the more incurable because I did not think myself a sinner. Some modern scholars have suggested that Manichaean ways of thinking influenced the development of some of Augustine's ideas, such as the nature of good and evil, the idea of hell, the separation of groups into elect, hearers, and sinners, and
10100-400: Was the key to salvation as too passive and unable to affect any change in one's life. I still thought that it is not we who sin but some other nature that sins within us. It flattered my pride to think that I incurred no guilt and, when I did wrong, not to confess it ... I preferred to excuse myself and blame this unknown thing which was in me but was not part of me. The truth, of course,
10201-510: Was translated and compiled in Turfan . The Compendium ( Chinese : 摩尼光佛教法儀略 ; pinyin : Móní guāng fójiào fǎ yí lüè ; lit. 'outline of the teachings and rules of Mani', 'Buddha of Light') begins with an account of Mani's birth that is directly based on the life of the Buddha and then provides a summarization of Manichaean doctrines. The text opens with
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