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72-548: After the death of Ferdinand VII and his bequest of the Spanish Crown to his daughter Isabella II , his brother, Don Carlos de Bourbon , lay claim to the Spanish throne. Spanish Liberals and Progressives flocked to the claim of Isabella, hoping to resist the reactionary Don Carlos and his supporters, and Maria Christiana assented to liberal political demands in exchange for their support of her daughters claim. Following

144-717: A crushing defeat of the Neapolitan Royal Army at the Battle of Campo Tenese , effectively destroying it as a fighting force and securing the entire mainland for the French. On 30 March 1806 Napoleon issued a decree installing Joseph Bonaparte as King of Naples and Sicily ; the decree said as follows: "Napoleon, by the Grace of God and the constitutions. Emperor of the French and King of Italy, to all those to whom these presents come, greetings. The interests of our people,

216-565: A daughter who lived only five months, and a stillborn daughter. On 20 October 1819, in Madrid , Ferdinand married the daughter of his father's first cousin Maximilian, Prince of Saxony and of his mother's first cousin Caroline of Parma , Princess Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony (1803–1829). They had no children. Lastly, on 27 May 1829, Ferdinand married another niece, Maria Christina of

288-592: A picture of the condition of his kingdom. Upon returning to Naples , Bonaparte received a deputation from the French Senate congratulating him upon his accession. The King formed a ministry staffed by many competent and talented men; he was determined to follow a reforming agenda and bring Naples the benefits of the French Revolution , without its excesses. Saliceti was appointed Minister of Police, Roederer Minister of Finance, Miot Minister of

360-662: A politician and diplomat, he served in the Cinq-Cents and as the French ambassador to Rome . On 30 September 1800, as Minister Plenipotentiary , he signed a treaty of friendship and commerce between France and the United States at Mortefontaine, Oise , alongside Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu , and Pierre Louis Roederer . In 1795 Bonaparte was a member of the Council of Five Hundred . Four years later, he used this position to help his brother Napoleon to overthrow

432-570: A tour of his new realm. The principal object of the tour was to assess the feasibility of an immediate invasion of Sicily and the expulsion of Ferdinand and Maria-Carolina from their refuge in Palermo . But, upon reviewing the situation at the Strait of Messina , Joseph was forced to admit the impossibility of such an enterprise, the Bourbons having carried off all boats and transports from along

504-564: A unicameral body, instead of in three chambers representing the three estates : the clergy, the nobility and the cities.) Ferdinand initially promised to convene a traditional Cortes, but never did so, thereby reasserting the Bourbon doctrine that sovereign authority resided in his person only. Meanwhile, the wars of independence had broken out in the Americas, and although many of the republican rebels were divided and royalist sentiment

576-612: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ferdinand VII Ferdinand VII ( Spanish : Fernando VII ; 14 October 1784 – 29 September 1833) was King of Spain during the early 19th century. He reigned briefly in 1808 and then again from 1813 to his death in 1833. Before 1813 he was known as el Deseado (the Desired), and after, as el Rey Felón (the Criminal King). Born in Madrid at El Escorial , Ferdinand

648-542: Is about the middle height, but round and corpulent. In the form of his head and features there certainly exists a resemblance to Napoleon, but in the expression of the countenance there is none. I remember, at the Pergola Theatre of Florence, discovering Louis Bonaparte from his likeness to the Emperor, which is very striking, but I am by no means confident that I should have been equally successful with Joseph. There

720-487: Is nothing about him indicative of high intellect. His eye is dull and heavy; his manner ungraceful and deficient in that ease and dignity which we vulgar people are apt to number among the necessary attributes of majesty. **** I am told he converses without any appearance of reserve on the circumstances of his short and troubled reign — if reign, indeed, it can be called — in Spain. He attributes more than half his misfortunes, to

792-767: The British forces on the peninsula , the first Protestant member of the order. During the aftermath of the Mexican War of Independence , the general of the Army of the Three Guarantees , Agustín de Iturbide , and Jefe Superior Juan O'Donojú , signed the Treaty of Córdoba , which concluded the war of independence and established the First Mexican Empire . The imperial constitution contemplated that

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864-594: The Directory . Upon the outbreak of war between France and Austria in 1805, Ferdinand IV of Naples had agreed to a treaty of neutrality with Napoleon but, a few days later, declared his support for Austria. He permitted a large Anglo-Russian force to land in his kingdom. Napoleon, however, was soon victorious. After the War of the Third Coalition was shattered on 5 December at the Battle of Austerlitz , Ferdinand

936-545: The Jesuits upon his return, but now they had become identified with repression and absolutism among the liberals, who attacked them: twenty-five Jesuits were slain in Madrid in 1822. For the rest of the 19th century, liberal political regimes expelled the Jesuits, and authoritarian regimes reinstated them. Ferdinand VII was an ardent opponent of Freemasonry in Spain , seeing it as a vehicle for liberal revolutions, an enemy of

1008-716: The Ominous Decade ) saw the restoration of absolutism, the re-establishment of traditional university programs and the suppression of any opposition, both by the Liberal Party and by the reactionary revolt (known as " War of the Agraviados ") which broke out in 1827 in Catalonia and other regions. In May 1830, Ferdinand VII published the Pragmatic Sanction , again allowing daughters to succeed to

1080-613: The liberal constitution of 1812 . A revolt in 1820 led by Rafael del Riego forced him to restore the constitution, starting the Liberal Triennium , a three-year period of liberal rule. In 1823 the Congress of Verona authorized a successful French intervention , restoring him to absolute power for the second time. He suppressed the liberal press from 1814 to 1833, jailing many of its editors and writers. Under his rule, Spain lost nearly all of its American possessions , and

1152-575: The "second-finest house in America" after the White House . At Point Breeze, Bonaparte entertained many of the leading intellectuals and politicians of his day. In the summer of 1825, the Quaker scientist Reuben Haines III described Bonaparte's estate at Point Breeze, in a letter to his cousin: "I partook of royal fare on solid silver and attended by six waiters who supplied me with 9 courses of

1224-593: The British government acknowledged Ferdinand VII as king of Spain. Five years later after experiencing serious setbacks on many fronts, Napoleon agreed on 11 December 1813 to acknowledge Ferdinand VII as king of Spain, and signed the Treaty of Valençay so that the king could return to Spain. The Spanish people, blaming the policies of the Francophiles ( afrancesados ) for causing the Napoleonic occupation and

1296-580: The Countess of Atri : Bonaparte had two American daughters born at Point Breeze, his estate in Bordentown, New Jersey , by his mistress, Annette Savage ("Madame de la Folie"): Joseph Bonaparte was admitted to Marseille 's lodge la Parfaite Sincérité in 1793. He was asked by his brother Napoleon to monitor freemasonry as Grand Master of the Grand Orient of France (1804–1815). He founded

1368-459: The French invasion force of forty-thousand men crossed into Naples. The centre and right of the army under Masséna and General Reynier advanced south from Rome , while Giuseppe Lechi led a force down the Adriatic coast from Ancona . On his brother's recommendation, Bonaparte attached himself to Reynier . The French advance faced little resistance. Even before any French troops had crossed

1440-521: The Interior and General Dumas Minister of War. Marshal Jourdan was also confirmed as Governor of Naples, an appointment made by Napoleon , and served as Bonaparte's foremost military adviser. Bonaparte embarked on an ambitious programme of reform and regeneration, in order to raise Naples to the level of a modern state in the mould of Napoleonic France. Monastic orders were suppressed, their property nationalised , and their funds confiscated to steady

1512-689: The Masonic Lodges suppressed. Ferdinand blamed Freemasonry for the 1820 coup, the Trienio Liberal , as well as for the loss of Spanish colonies in Latin America , with his return to the throne for the so-called " Ominous Decade ", the Anti-Masonic campaign stepped up and members who would not renounce Freemasonry were hanged. He had his police compile reports on Freemasons and former Freemasons active in Spanish society. In

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1584-836: The Mexican throne. The imperial crown was consequently given to Iturbide himself, but the Mexican Empire collapsed and was replaced by the First Mexican Republic a few years later. There were several pronunciamientos , or military uprisings, during the king's second reign. The first came in in September 1814, three months after the end of the Peninsular War , and was led by General Espoz y Mina in Pamplona. Juan Díaz Porlier revolted at La Coruña in

1656-479: The Peninsular War by allying Spain too closely to France, at first welcomed Fernando . Ferdinand soon found that in the intervening years a new world had been born of foreign invasion and domestic revolution. In his name Spain fought for its independence and in his name as well juntas had governed Spanish America. Spain was no longer the absolute monarchy he had relinquished six years earlier. Instead he

1728-552: The Queen of Sweden [Joseph's sister-in-law Desiree Clary Bernadotte] or ranging [?] through the different appartments of the mansion through a suite of rooms 15 ft. in [height] decorated with the finest productions of the pencils of Coregeo [sic]! Titian! Rubens! Vandyke! Vernet! Tenniers [sic] and Paul Potter and a library of the most splended books I ever beheld." Another visitor a few years later, British writer Thomas Hamilton , described Bonaparte himself: Joseph Bonaparte, in person,

1800-643: The Spanish Crown and the Catholic faith, subordinated to foreign interests (the Grand Orient of France primarily). After reinstating the Spanish Inquisition and the Jesuits, on 4 May 1814 he publicly declared all Spanish freemasons to be traitors. The same year Pope Pius VII issued a decree against Freemasonry, approved by Ferdinand VII and became an edict of the Spanish Inquisition. Freemasons in high places in Spanish society were arrested and

1872-495: The Spanish throne as well as sons. This decree had originally been approved by the Cortes in 1789, but it had never been officially promulgated. On 10 October 1830, Ferdinand's wife gave birth to a daughter, Isabella , who thereupon displaced her uncle, Carlos, in the line of succession. After Ferdinand's death, Carlos revolted and said he was the legitimate king. Needing support, Maria Christina, as regent for her daughter, turned to

1944-569: The Spanish throne, hoping that Napoleon would sanction his return to the Neapolitan Throne he had formerly occupied. Napoleon dismissed Joseph's misgivings out of hand, and to back up the raw and ill-trained levies he had initially allocated to Spain, the Emperor sent heavy French reinforcements to assist Joseph in maintaining his position as King of Spain. Despite the easy recapture of Madrid , and nominal control by Joseph's government over many cities and provinces, Joseph's reign over Spain

2016-680: The Two Sicilies (1806–1878), daughter of his younger sister Maria Isabella of Spain and of their first cousin Francis I of the Two Sicilies , who was also the brother of Ferdinand's first wife. They had two surviving daughters, the older of whom succeeded Ferdinand upon his death. Joseph Bonaparte Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Giuseppe di Buonaparte , Italian: [dʒuˈzɛppe di ˌbwɔnaˈparte] ; Corsican : Ghjuseppe Napulione Bonaparte ; Spanish : José Napoleón Bonaparte ; 7 January 1768 – 28 July 1844)

2088-722: The United States only intermittently. In 1844, he died in Florence , Italy. His body was returned to France and buried in Les Invalides , in Paris. Bonaparte married Marie Julie Clary , daughter of François Clary and his wife, on 1 August 1794 in Cuges-les-Pins , France. They had three daughters: He identified the two surviving daughters as his heirs. He also fathered two children with Maria Giulia Colonna ,

2160-475: The army sent to dispossess Ferdinand of his throne. Although Bonaparte was the nominal commander-in-chief of the expedition, Marshal Masséna was in effective command of operations, with General St. Cyr second. But, St. Cyr, who had previously held the senior command of French troops in the region, soon resigned in protest at being made subordinate to Masséna and left for Paris. An outraged Napoleon ordered St. Cyr to return to his post at once. On 8 February 1806

2232-622: The border, the Anglo-Russian forces had beaten a prudent retreat, the British withdrawing to Sicily , and the Russians to Corfu . Abandoned by his allies, King Ferdinand had also already set sail for Palermo on 23 January. Queen Maria-Carolina lingered a little longer in the capital but, on 11 February, fled to join her husband. The first obstacle the French encountered was the fortress of Gaeta ; its governor, Prince Louis of Hesse-Philippsthal , refused to surrender his charge. There

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2304-440: The coast and concentrated their remaining forces, alongside the British, on the opposite side. Unable to possess himself of Sicily , Joseph was nevertheless master of the mainland and he continued his progress through Calabria and on to Lucania and Apulia , visiting the main villages and meeting the local notables, clergy and people, allowing his people to grow accustomed to their new king and enabling himself to form first-hand

2376-686: The commonwealth." Ferdinand VII married four times. His first wife died of tuberculosis , the second died in childbirth , and the third died of "a fever". His fourth wife outlived him by 45 years. In 1802, he married his first cousin Princess Maria Antonia of Naples and Sicily (1784–1806), daughter of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and Marie Caroline of Austria . Her two pregnancies in 1804 and 1805 both ended in miscarriages . In 1816, Ferdinand married his niece Maria Isabel of Portugal (1797–1818), daughter of his older sister Carlota Joaquina and John VI of Portugal . They had

2448-401: The counsellors. Joseph thus presided over Naples in the best traditions of Enlightened absolutism , doubling the revenue of the crown from seven to fourteen million ducats in his brief two-year reign while all the time seeking to lighten the burdens of his people rather than increase them. Joseph ruled Naples for two years before being replaced by his sister's husband, Joachim Murat . Joseph

2520-430: The country entered into a large-scale civil war upon his death. His political legacy has remained contested since his death; some historians regard him as incompetent, despotic, and short-sighted. Ferdinand was the eldest surviving son of Charles IV of Spain and Maria Luisa of Parma . Ferdinand was born in the palace of El Escorial near Madrid . In his youth Ferdinand occupied the position of an heir apparent who

2592-424: The education of young girls was established in each province. A central college was founded at Aversa for the daughters of public functionaries, and the ablest from the provincial schools, to be admitted under the personal patronage of Queen Julie . The practice of forcibly recruiting prisoners into the army was abolished. To suppress and control robbers in the mountains, military commissions were established with

2664-622: The end of the First Carlist War, the larger coalition of Liberals that were the Christinos, now being the overwhelming majority of legitimate political force within Spain, politically fractured into the various liberal political factions that would characterize Isabelline Spain, both being an extension of older liberal political factions from the Trienio Liberal from 1820-1823. This Spanish history –related article

2736-525: The fact that Joseph was abstemious. His arrival as a foreign sovereign sparked a massive Spanish revolt against French rule, and the beginning of the Peninsular War . Thompson says the Spanish revolt was, "a reaction against new institutions and ideas, a movement for loyalty to the old order: to the hereditary crown of the Most Catholic kings, which Napoleon, an excommunicated enemy of the Pope, had put on

2808-576: The first system of public street-lighting in Naples, modelled on that operating in Paris . Although the kingdom was not at that time furnished with a constitution, and thus Joseph's will as monarch reigned supreme, there is yet no instance of him ever adopting a measure of policy without prior discussion of the matter in the Council of State and the passing of a majority vote in favour his course of action by

2880-604: The following year. General Luis Lacy led an uprising in Barcelona in 1817, and General Juan Van Halen did the same in Valencia in 1818. In 1820 Rafael del Riego undertook the most successful pronunciamiento , leading to the Trienio Liberal . In 1820 a revolt broke out in favor of the Constitution of 1812 , beginning with a mutiny of the troops under Riego. The king was quickly taken prisoner. Ferdinand had restored

2952-568: The head of a Frenchman; to the Catholic Church persecuted by republicans who had desecrated churches, murdered priests, and enforced a "loi des cultes" (law of religion); and to local and provincial rights and privileges threatened by an efficiently centralized government. Joseph temporarily retreated with much of the French Army to northern Spain. Feeling himself in an ignominious position, Joseph then proposed his own abdication from

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3024-680: The honor of our Crown, and the tranquility of the Continent of Europe requiring that we should assure, in a stable and definite manner, the lot of the people of Naples and of Sicily, who have fallen into our power by the right of conquest, and who constitute a part of the Grand Empire, we declare that we recognize, as King of Naples and of Sicily, our well-beloved brother, Joseph Napoleon, Grand Elector of France. This Crown will be hereditary, by order of primogeniture, in his descendants male, legitimate, and natural, etc." Joseph's arrival in Naples

3096-602: The houses of his prime ministers, arrests them, and hands them over to their cruel enemies;" and again, on 14 January 1815, "the king has so debased himself that he has become no more than the leading police agent and prison warden of his country." The king did recognize the efforts of foreign powers on his behalf. As the head of the Spanish Order of the Golden Fleece , Ferdinand made the Duke of Wellington , head of

3168-437: The jealousies and intrigues of the unruly marshals, over whom he could exercise no authority. He admits the full extent of his unpopularity, but claims credit for a sincere desire to benefit the people. Reputedly some Mexican revolutionaries offered to crown Bonaparte as Emperor of Mexico in 1820, but he declined. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. In 1832, Bonaparte moved to London, returning to his estate in

3240-546: The liberals. She issued a decree of amnesty on 23 October 1833. Liberals who had been in exile returned and dominated Spanish politics for decades, leading to the Carlist Wars . Ferdinand VII's reign is typically criticized by historians, even in his own country. Historian Stanley G. Payne wrote that Ferdinand was "in many ways the basest king in Spanish history. Cowardly, selfish, grasping, suspicious, and vengeful, D. Fernando seemed almost incapable of any perception of

3312-413: The majestic European swans. Stopping to visit the Aviary enlivened by the most beautiful English pheasants, passing by alcoves ornamented with statues and busts of Parian marble, our course enlivened by the footsteps of the tame deer and the flight of the Woodcock , and when alighting stopping to admire the graceful form of two splendid Etruscan vases of Porphyry 3 ft. high & 2 in diameter presented by

3384-406: The monarch would be "a Spanish prince," and Iturbide and O'Donojú intended to offer the Mexican Imperial Crown to Ferdinand VII himself to rule Mexico in personal union with Spain. However, Ferdinand, refusing to recognize Mexican independence or be bound by a constitution, decreed that the Mexican constitution was "void", declined the Mexican crown, and stated that no European prince could accede to

3456-422: The most delicious viands, many of which I could not possibly tell what they were composed of; spending the intermediate time in Charles' private rooms looking over the Herbarium and Portfolios of the Princess, or riding with her and the Prince drawn by two Elegant Horses along the ever varying roads of the park amidst splendid Rhododendrons on the margin of the artificial lake on whose smooth surface gently glided

3528-424: The new French king. After the Battle of Bailén proved that the Spanish could resist the French, the Council of Castile reversed itself and declared null and void the abdications of Bayonne on 11 August 1808. On 24 August, Ferdinand VII was proclaimed king of Spain again, and negotiations between the council and the provincial juntas for the establishment of a Supreme Central Junta were completed. On 14 January 1809

3600-415: The owner of the château, for his lack of interest in Spanish affairs. While the upper echelons of the Spanish government accepted his abdication and Napoleon's choice of his brother Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain, the Spanish people did not. Uprisings broke out throughout the country, marking the beginning of the Peninsular War . Provincial juntas were established to control regions in opposition to

3672-408: The power to judge and execute, without appeal, all those brigands arrested with arms in their possession. Public works programmes were begun to provide employment to the poor and invest in improvements to the kingdom. Highways were built to Reggio . The project of a Calabrian road was completed under Bonaparte within the year after decades of delay. In the second year of his reign, Bonaparte installed

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3744-499: The royal finances. Feudal privileges and taxes were abolished; however, the nobility was compensated by an indemnity in the form of a certificate that could be exchanged in return for lands nationalised from the Church . Provincial intendants were instructed to engage those dispossessed former monks who were willing to work in public education, and to ensure that elderly monks no longer able to support themselves could move into communal establishments founded for their care. A college for

3816-410: The spring of 1823, the restored Bourbon French King Louis XVIII of France invaded Spain , "invoking the God of St. Louis , for the sake of preserving the throne of Spain to a fellow descendant of Henry IV of France , and of reconciling that fine kingdom with Europe." In May 1823 the revolutionary party moved Ferdinand to Cádiz , where he continued to make promises of constitutional amendment until he

3888-455: The title Lieutenant General of the Empire. As a result, he was again in nominal command of the French Army that was defeated at the Battle of Paris . He was seen by some Bonapartists as the rightful Emperor of the French after the death of Napoleon's own son Napoleon II in 1832, although he did little to advance his claim. Bonaparte travelled to America onboard the Commerce under the name of M. Bouchard. British naval officers had searched

3960-520: The vessel three times but never found Bonaparte on board and the ship arrived on 15 July 1815. In the period 1817–1832, Bonaparte lived primarily in the United States (where he sold the jewels he had taken from Spain). He first settled in New York City and Philadelphia , where his house became the centre of activity for French migrants . In 1823, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society . Later he purchased an estate, called Point Breeze and formerly owned by Stephen Sayre . It

4032-406: Was heir apparent to the Spanish throne in his youth. Following the 1808 Tumult of Aranjuez , he ascended the throne. That year Napoleon overthrew him; he linked his monarchy to counter-revolution and reactionary policies that produced a deep rift in Spain between his forces on the right and liberals on the left. Back in power in December 1813, he re-established the absolutist monarchy and rejected

4104-444: Was a French statesman, lawyer, diplomat and older brother of Napoleon Bonaparte . During the Napoleonic Wars , the latter made him King of Naples (1806–1808), and then King of Spain (1808–1813). After the fall of Napoleon, Joseph styled himself Comte de Survilliers and emigrated to the United States , where he settled near Bordentown, New Jersey , on an estate overlooking the Delaware River not far from Philadelphia . Joseph

4176-443: Was always tenuous at best, and was plagued with near-constant conflict with pro-Bourbon guerrillas . Joseph and his supporters never established complete control over the country, and after a series of failed military campaigns, he would eventually abdicate the throne. King Joseph's Spanish supporters were called josefinos or afrancesados (frenchified). During his reign, he ended the Spanish Inquisition , partly because Napoleon

4248-472: Was at odds with Pope Pius VII at the time. Despite such efforts to win popularity, Joseph's foreign birth and support, plus his membership of a Masonic lodge, virtually guaranteed he would never be accepted as legitimate by the bulk of the Spanish people. During Joseph's rule of Spain, Venezuela declared independence from Spain. The king had virtually no influence over the course of the ongoing Peninsular War: Joseph's nominal command of French forces in Spain

4320-418: Was born in 1768 as Giuseppe Buonaparte to Carlo Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino at Corte , the capital of the Corsican Republic . In the year of his birth, Corsica was invaded by France and conquered the following year. His father was originally a follower of the Corsican patriot leader Pasquale Paoli , but later became a supporter of French rule. Bonaparte trained as a lawyer. In that role and as

4392-468: Was discovered, Ferdinand submitted to his parents. Following a popular riot at Aranjuez Charles IV abdicated in March 1808. Ferdinand ascended the throne and turned to Napoleon for support. He abdicated on 6 May 1808, and thereafter Napoleon kept Ferdinand under guard in France for six years at the Château de Valençay . Historian Charles Oman records that the choice of Valençay was a practical joke by Napoleon on his former foreign minister Talleyrand ,

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4464-399: Was encouraged by conservatives and the Church hierarchy to reject the constitution. On 4 May he ordered its abolition, and on 10 May had the liberal leaders responsible for the constitution arrested. Ferdinand justified his actions by claiming that the constitution had been made by a Cortes illegally assembled in his absence, without his consent and without the traditional form. (It had met as

4536-400: Was excluded from any participation in government by his parents and their favourite advisor and Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy . National discontent with the government produced a rebellion in 1805. In October 1807, Ferdinand was arrested for his complicity in the El Escorial Conspiracy in which the rebels aimed at securing foreign support from the French Emperor Napoleon . When the conspiracy

4608-410: Was free. When Ferdinand was freed after the Battle of Trocadero and the fall of Cádiz, reprisals followed. The Duc d'Angoulême made known his protest against Ferdinand's actions by refusing the Spanish decorations Ferdinand offered him for his military services. During his last years, Ferdinand's political appointments became more stable. The last ten years of his reign (sometimes referred to as

4680-420: Was in Bordentown, New Jersey , on the east side of the Delaware River . It was located near the confluence of Crosswicks Creek and the Delaware. He considerably expanded Sayre's home and created extensive gardens in the picturesque style. When his first home was destroyed by fire in January 1820 he converted his stables into a second grand house. On completion, it was generally viewed – perhaps diplomatically – as

4752-448: Was mostly illusory, as the French commanders theoretically subordinate to King Joseph insisted on checking with Napoleon before carrying out Joseph's instructions. King Joseph abdicated the Spanish throne and returned to France after the main French forces were defeated by a British-led coalition at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813. During the closing campaign of the War of the Sixth Coalition , Napoleon left his brother to govern Paris with

4824-412: Was no meaningful delay of the invaders, as Masséna detached a small force to besiege the garrison before continuing south. Capua opened its gates after only token resistance. On 14 February Masséna took possession of Naples and, the following day, Bonaparte staged a triumphant entrance into the city. Reynier was quickly dispatched to seize control of the Strait of Messina and, on 9 March, inflicted

4896-423: Was now asked to rule under the liberal Constitution of 1812 . Before being allowed onto Spanish soil, Ferdinand had to guarantee the liberals that he would govern on the basis of the constitution, but only gave lukewarm indications he would do so. On 24 March the French handed him over to the Spanish Army in Girona , and thus began his procession towards Madrid. During this process and in the following months, he

4968-421: Was strong in many areas, the Spanish treasure fleets – carrying tax revenues from the Spanish Empire – were interrupted. Spain was all but bankrupt. Ferdinand's restored autocracy was guided by a small camarilla of his favorites, although his government seemed unstable. Whimsical and ferocious by turns, he changed his ministers every few months. "The king," wrote Friedrich von Gentz in 1814, "himself enters

5040-416: Was subject to Napoleon's wrath. On 27 December 1805, Napoleon issued a proclamation from the Schönbrunn declaring Ferdinand to have forfeited his kingdom. He said that a French invasion would soon follow to ensure 'that the finest of countries is relieved from the yoke of the most faithless of men.' On 31 December Napoleon commanded Joseph Bonaparte to move to Rome, where he would be assigned to command

5112-427: Was then made King of Spain in August 1808, soon after the French invasion. Joseph somewhat reluctantly left Naples, where he was popular, and arrived in Spain, where he was extremely unpopular. Joseph came under heavy fire from his opponents in Spain, who tried to smear his reputation by calling him Pepe Botella (Joe Bottle) for his alleged heavy drinking, an accusation echoed by later Spanish historiography, despite

5184-489: Was warmly greeted with cheers and he was eager to be a monarch well liked by his subjects. Seeking to win the favour of the local elites, he maintained in their posts the vast majority of those who had held office and position under the Bourbons and was anxious to not in any way appear a foreign oppressor. With a provisional government set up in the capital, Joseph then immediately set off, accompanied by General Lamarque , on

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