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128-466: During the Dutch East Indies period, Ciracas was a part of Meester Cornelis . In 1976, Ciracas was incorporated into Pasar Rebo subdistrict, East Jakarta . Subsequently, in 1991 Pasar Rebo was split into two districts, Pasar Rebo itself and Ciracas as a new district. The district of Ciracas is divided into 5 administrative villages ( kelurahan ): This Jakarta location article

256-810: A Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In December 1949 the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ). Sukarno 's government campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963. In 2013

384-742: A cease-fire on 14 October (a month after its arrival in Batavia) and a draft agreement on 15 November with the negotiators for the Republik Sutan Sjahrir , Prime Minister, Amir Sjarifuddin , Defense Minister, and Johannes Leimena , Junior Minister of Health, chairman of the Indonesian Christian Party. This so-called Linggadjati Agreement was first "elucidated" by the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs Jan Jonkman on 10 December, and in this form accepted by

512-484: A political orientation when choosing a name for the western half of the island of New Guinea . The official name of the region is "Papua" according to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Independence activists refer to the region as " West Papua ", while Indonesian officials have also used " West Papua " to name the western province of the region since 2007. Historically,

640-466: A problem until the mid-19th century. Finally, in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1806, with the Netherlands under Imperial French domination, Emperor Napoleon I appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which led to the 1808 appointment of Marshal Herman Willem Daendels as Governor-General of

768-538: A small portion of the indigenous population was able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad

896-547: A steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The tree line is around 4,000 m (13,100 ft) and the tallest peaks feature small glaciers and are snowbound year-round. Both north and west of the central ranges, the land remains mountainous – mostly 1,000 to 2,000 metres (3,300 to 6,600 feet) high with a warm humid climate year-round. The highland areas feature alpine grasslands, jagged bare peaks, montane forests , rainforests, fast-flowing rivers, and gorges. Swamps and low-lying alluvial plains with fertile soil dominate

1024-691: A treaty outlining "spheres of influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere. The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil. On 10 January 1942, during the Dutch East Indies Campaign , Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the Pacific War . The rubber plantations and oil fields of

1152-422: Is Indonesian , with Papuan Malay the most used lingua franca . Estimates of the number of local languages in the region range from 200 to over 700, with the most widely spoken including Dani , Yali , Ekari and Biak . The predominant official religion is Christianity , followed by Islam . The main industries include agriculture , fishing , oil production , and mining . Speakers align themselves with

1280-565: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies , also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( Dutch : Nederlands(ch)-Indië ; Indonesian : Hindia Belanda ), was a Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia , which declared independence on 17 August 1945. Following the Indonesian War of Independence , Indonesia and

1408-533: Is also a substantial practice of animism among the major religions, but this is not recorded by the census. There are 6 main Y-chromosome haplogroups in Western New Guinea; Y-chromosome haplogroup M , Y-chromosome haplogroup O , and Y-chromosome haplogroup S across the mountain highlands; meanwhile, D, C2 and C4 are of negligible numbers. Papuans have significant cultural affinities with

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1536-547: Is predominantly covered with rainforest where traditional peoples live, including the Dani of the Baliem Valley . A large proportion of the population live in or near coastal areas. The largest city is Jayapura . In the late 1940s, territories of the Dutch East Indies became the independent country of Indonesia , except Western New Guinea. The Dutch retained sovereignty over Western New Guinea ( Dutch New Guinea ) until

1664-629: Is the western half of the island of New Guinea , formerly Dutch and granted to Indonesia in 1962. Given the island is alternatively named Papua, the region is also called West Papua ( Indonesian : Papua Barat ). Lying to the west of Papua New Guinea and geographically a part of the Australian continent , the territory is almost entirely in the Southern Hemisphere and includes the Biak and Raja Ampat archipelagoes. The region

1792-646: The Amung - Damal , Bauzi , Biak (or Byak), Korowai , Lani , Mee , Mek , Sawi , and Yali . Estimates of the number of distinct languages spoken in the region range from 200 to 700. A number of these languages are permanently disappearing. As in Papua New Guinea and some surrounding east Indonesian provinces, a large majority of the population is Christian. In the 2010 census, 65.48% identified themselves as Protestant, 17.67% as Catholic, 15.89% as Muslim, and less than 1% as either Hindu or Buddhist. There

1920-611: The Asmat people . Lying in the Asia-Australian transition zone near Wallacea , the region's flora and fauna include Asiatic, Australian, and endemic species. The region is 75% forest and has a high degree of biodiversity. The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plants, 124 genera of which are endemic. The mountainous areas and the north are covered with dense rainforest. Highland vegetation also includes alpine grasslands, heath, pine forests, bush and scrub. The vegetation of

2048-530: The Bird's Head Peninsula and surrounding islands to its west. In 2011, Indonesia submitted an application for membership to the Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG) for the two Papua provinces (as well as 3 other melanesian dominated provinces) and was granted observer status. The West Papua National Council for Liberation independence movement made an unsuccessful application for membership to

2176-597: The Bird's Head Peninsula , each of which had over 100,000 inhabitants in 2022. The region is home to around 312 different tribes, including some uncontacted peoples . The Dani (or Hubula) , from the Baliem Valley , are one of the most populous tribes of the region. The Arfak in Arfak Mountains , and the Marind from Merauke. The semi-nomadic Asmat inhabit the mangrove and tidal river areas near Agats and are renowned for their woodcarving. Other tribes include

2304-687: The Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated. All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by the Japanese as POWs . Twenty-five percent of the POWs did not survive their internment. Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law and order". Despite two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948–1949, Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and

2432-633: The Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL soldiers included: Suharto , second president of Indonesia; A. H. Nasution , commander of the Siliwangi Division and Chief of Staff of the Indonesian army; and A. E. Kawilarang , founder of the elite special forces Kopassus . Western New Guinea Western New Guinea , also known as Papua , Indonesian New Guinea , and Indonesian Papua ,

2560-532: The Morning Star flag raised on 1 December, with independence planned in exactly nine years' time. Sukarno made the takeover of Western New Guinea a focus of his continuing struggle against Dutch imperialism and part of a broader Third World conflict with the West. Although Indonesian seaborne and paratroop incursions into the territory met with little success, the Dutch knew that a military campaign to retain

2688-469: The Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies with the exception of Dutch New Guinea , the issue of which was to be discussed within a year. The Dutch successfully argued that Western New Guinea was "geographically very different" from Indonesia and the people were also very ethnically different. In an attempt to prevent Indonesia taking control of the region and to prepare

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2816-688: The New York Agreement on 15 August 1962, which granted the region to Indonesia. The region became the province of Irian Barat (West Irian) before being renamed Irian Jaya (literally "Glorious Irian") in 1973 and Papua in 2002. The following year, a second province was created from the western part of Papua Province; this was called West Papua , with its administrative capital as Manokwari . Both provinces were granted special autonomous status by Indonesian legislation . In November 2022 three additional provinces were created from parts of Papua Province – Central Papua , Highland Papua , and South Papua – while another additional province, Southwest Papua ,

2944-721: The Portuguese in 1512 who established a network of trading posts and fortresses throughout the region, including at the spice islands of the Maluku islands . In 1580 Portugal formed a union with Spain , and therewith entered the war with the Dutch Republic . Following disruption of Dutch access to spices, the first Dutch expedition set sail to reach the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. After many skirmishes and hardships , only one third of

3072-507: The Strait of Malacca . Britain was a protector of Aceh and it granted the Dutch request to conduct their anti-piracy campaign. The campaign quickly drove out the Sultan, but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades of expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on both sides. Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against

3200-627: The Teluk Cenderawasih National Park . Western New Guinea is currently administered as six Indonesian provinces: Papuan habitation of the region is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. Research indicates that the highlands were an early and independent center of agriculture, and show that agriculture developed gradually over several thousands of years; the banana has been cultivated in this region for at least 7,000 years. Austronesian peoples migrating through Maritime Southeast Asia settled in

3328-516: The 17th and 18th century. Punishments for slaves could be extremely harsh— for instance, runaway slaves and their accomplices could be subject to whipping, chain gangs, or death. Other punishments included the cutting of hands, ears, breasts and noses, forms of scaphism , being burned alive and the breaking wheel . In theory, slave masters did not have free rein to punish their own slaves as they wished. Punishments of slaves had to be decided in court, and certain punishments could only be applied when

3456-644: The 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s. Another source of profit were the so-called coolies , a name for low-wage indentured laborers. After the abolition of the Cultivation System in 1870, the economy shifted to private companies such as the Deli Company , which was founded on Sumatra in 1869. Large-scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese, Chinese, Malay, Batak and Indian people were shipped to

3584-463: The 19th century, and coal and oil exploration in the 20th century. The colonial social order was rigidly racial with the Dutch elite living separately from but linked to their native subjects. The term Indonesia was used for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals conceived Indonesia as a nation state , setting the stage for an independence movement. Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of

3712-526: The 19th century, the Cultivation System ("Cultuurstelsel") was implemented in 1830. Under this system it was stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for the cultivation of cash crops for export such as indigo, coffee and sugar. Through this system considerable profits were made; the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at 4% of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue. The system proved disastrous for

3840-475: The 19th century, the Dutch fought many wars against indigenous rulers and peoples, which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths. Dutch rule reached its greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century with the occupation of Western New Guinea . The Dutch East Indies was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule, though its profits depended on exploitative labor. The colony contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in

3968-631: The British secured the Dutch settlement of Singapore as well as Dutch possessions in the Malay Peninsula ( Malaya ) and Dutch India . The resulting borders between former British and Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia. Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. Graaf van den Bosch 's governor-generalship (1830–1835) confirmed profitability as

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4096-645: The Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies Army surrendered in Java. Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda and the Indonesian National Awakening , a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from

4224-547: The Dutch East Indies. In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor-General Jan Willem Janssens , but shortly after his arrival, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including the Spice islands in 1810 and Java the following year , leading to Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles becoming Lieutenant Governor. Following Napoleon's defeat at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna , independent Dutch control

4352-563: The Dutch Parliament on 20 December 1946. It was formally signed by the parties on 25 March 1947 in Djakarta, with the Indonesian side rejecting the "elucidation". After this high point in the relations between the two countries, the situation rapidly deteriorated. On both sides more extreme parties got the upper hand. The Dutch unilaterally instituted an interim government for the colony on a "federal" basis, with representation for

4480-594: The Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared independence , instigating the Indonesian National Revolution . The Dutch, aiming to re-establish control of the archipelago, responded by deploying roughly 220,000 troops, who fought the Indonesian nationalists in attrition warfare . The United States threatened to terminate financial aid for

4608-478: The Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost de facto control, their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew. This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects. From 1910,

4736-541: The Dutch created the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia . Politically, the highly centralised power structure established by the Dutch administration, including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship, was carried over into the new Indonesian republic. A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918. The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and only

4864-925: The English as the Dutch East Indies , to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies . The name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Company 's documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië , Indies , the Dutch East Indies , the Netherlands Indies , and colonial Indonesia interchangeably. At the time when Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states (the most important were Srivijaya and Majapahit ). Since centuries BCE

4992-499: The European legal class and in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a 'Home guard' ( Dutch : Landstorm ) for European conscripts older than 32. Petitions by Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people were rejected. In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia of 18,000 by a majority of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After

5120-757: The Indies. During the occupation, the Njai and their mixed-race children were forcefully separated from European men, who were put into internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia, the Njai were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia. The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and Japan were Axis allies. On 27 September 1940, Germany, Hungary , Italy and Japan signed

5248-657: The Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four-and-a-half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. The Netherlands committed war crimes: summary and arbitrary killings of Indonesian villagers and farmers, torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented

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5376-430: The Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links among the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations. According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation. Following

5504-644: The MSG in 2013 after which the United Liberation Movement for West Papua (ULMWP) was established in December 2014 to unite the three main political independence movements under a single umbrella organisation. In June 2015, the ULMWP was granted MSG observer status as representative of West Papuans outside the country while Indonesia was upgraded to associate member. In 2016, at the 71st Session of

5632-529: The Netherlands made peace in 1949. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 , the Dutch ceded the governorate of Dutch Malacca to Britain, leading to its eventual incorporation into Malacca (state) of modern Malaysia . The Dutch East Indies was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company , which came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800. During

5760-404: The Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King Willem-Alexander on a state visit in 2020. To this day, the colonial war is commonly referred to as "police actions" in the Netherlands. Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of the governor-general. During the Dutch East Indies era

5888-493: The Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949. The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military . At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army. Key officers in

6016-526: The Netherlands under the Marshall Plan if they did not agree to transfer sovereignty to Indonesia, leading to Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty at the 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Indonesia became one of the leading nations of the Asian independence movement after World War II. During the revolution and after Indonesian independence, almost all Dutch citizens repatriated to

6144-476: The Netherlands. In 1962, the Dutch turned over their last possession in Southeast Asia, Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ), to Indonesia under the provisions of the New York Agreement . At that point, the entirety of the colony ceased to exist. The word Indies comes from Latin : Indus ( Names for India ). The original name Dutch Indies ( Dutch : Nederlandsch-Indië ) was translated by

6272-592: The Philippines. Papuan men and resources were used to support the Allied war effort in the Pacific. After the war's end, the Dutch regained possession of the region. Since the early twentieth century, Indonesian nationalists had sought an independent Indonesia based on all Dutch colonial possessions in the Indies, including western New Guinea. Some even founded local-based political parties, such as Indonesian Irian Independence Party (PKII) in 1946. In December 1949,

6400-549: The Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six councils of justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the European legal class and only indirectly with the indigenous population. The land councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population

6528-644: The UN General Assembly , leaders of several Pacific Island countries called for UN action on alleged human rights abuses committed against Papua's indigenous Melanesians, with some leaders calling for self-determination for West Papua. Indonesia accused the countries of interfering with Indonesia's national sovereignty. In 2017, at the 72nd Session , the leaders called again for an investigation into killings and various alleged human rights abuses by Indonesian security forces. The 2019 Papua protests began on 19 August 2019, and mainly took place across

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6656-751: The VOC arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, they started to use and expand upon the then-existing indigenous system of slavery. In certain places slaves were used on plantations such as on the Maluku islands, namely the Banda islands where most of the local population had been deported or exterminated by the VOC to be replaced with slaves. Dutch slaves worked in agriculture, manufacturing, and services, but most were used as domestic servants including housemaids and houseboys, cooks, seamstresses, musicians, and concubines. Slaves could be acquired through trade at indigenous slave markets or captured on raids. In certain cases

6784-414: The VOC stirred up ethnic tensions between rivalling populations in the hope they could cheaply buy war captives at slave markets after the conflict. Slaves were transported from islands in Indonesia itself, or from other countries such as India and China. Estimates of the scale of the slave trade in the Dutch East Indies are scant, but it is suggested that around 1 million slaves were active during its peak in

6912-514: The absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any Court of Law. Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925)

7040-756: The archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during the European push for colonial possessions . As exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control or influence. The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War (1821–38) and the Java War (1825–30) ended significant Javanese resistance. The Banjarmasin War (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan resulted in

7168-442: The area at least 3,000 years ago, and populated especially in Cenderawasih Bay . Diverse cultures and languages have developed in situ; there are over 300 languages and two hundred additional dialects in the region ( see Papuan languages , Austronesian languages , Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages ). The 14th-century Majapahit poem Nagarakretagama mentioned Wwanin or Onin and Sran as recognized territories in

7296-400: The area's rich oil reserves in the 1930s. In 1942, the northern coast of West New Guinea and the nearby islands were occupied by Japan . In 1944, Allied forces gained control of the region through a four-phase campaign from neighbouring Papua New Guinea. The United States constructed a headquarters for MacArthur at Hollandia (Jayapura), intended as a staging point for operations to retake

7424-458: The bankruptcy of the VOC in 1798, but continued under Dutch state rule. Due to growing international criticism slavery was eventually abolished in the Dutch East Indies in 1860. In reality this was mostly limited to the slaves present on Java and Madura, whose masters were financially compensated for the loss of their workforce. However, on many other islands where slave masters were more often indigenous rulers, little changed. The main reason for this

7552-707: The border with Papua New Guinea follows the 141st meridian east until it reaches the Fly River . The island of New Guinea was once part of the Australian landmass and lay on the continent of Sahul . The collision between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate resulted in the formation of the Maoke Mountains , which run through the centre of the region and are 600 km (373 mi) long and 100 km (62 mi) across. The range includes about ten peaks over 4,000 metres (13,000 feet), including Puncak Jaya (4,884 m or 16,024 ft), Puncak Mandala (4,760 m or 15,620 ft) and Puncak Trikora (4,750 m or 15,580 ft). This range ensures

7680-446: The colonial Government Navy . The KNIL was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army , but a separate military arm commanded by the governor-general and funded by the colonial budget. The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a ' Foreign Legion ' recruiting not only Dutch volunteers, but many other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries). While most officers were Europeans,

7808-429: The colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government. The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime. Although the top positions were held by

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7936-558: The colonial justice system. The Coolie Ordinances ("Poenale sanctie") of 1880, which allowed the plantation owners to serve as judge, jury and executioner resulted in widespread atrocities. It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically punish their coolies as they saw fit. Punishments that were used against coolies included whippings or beatings, after which the open wounds were rubbed with salt. Other punishments used were electrocution, crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke. Medical care for

8064-464: The colony from 1913, and quasi-diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies. The governor-general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials: the residents, the assistant residents, and district officers called controllers . Traditional rulers who survived displacement by

8192-469: The coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work or be tortured more extensively. Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common. The coolie system was heavily criticized, especially after 1900 with the rise of the so-called "Ethical Politics". A critical pamphlet named "De miljoenen uit Deli" was published by J. van den Brand. The document described abuses committed against coolies including

8320-485: The correctional facility. In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was established in New Guinea . As of 1927, political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands. The Dutch East Indies was divided into three gouvernementen —Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra—and three provincies in Java. Provincies and gouvernementen were both divided into residencies, but while

8448-481: The declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous. Although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh , Bali , Lombok and Borneo . There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces. Piracy remained

8576-411: The declaration of war with Japan, over 100,000 natives volunteered. The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform them into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During

8704-409: The defeat of the Sultan. After failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848 , an 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912. Disturbances continued to break out on both Java and Sumatra during

8832-424: The democratic culture of the Papuan people themselves at the time, there was a system known as noken , within a community in the central highlands of Papua, in which the vote is represented by the tribal chief. Soon after, as of United Nations Resolution 2504 (XXIV) the region became the 26th province of Indonesia. The 1969 Act of Free Choice is considered contentious, with even United Nations observers recognizing

8960-481: The east, today identified as Onin peninsula in Fakfak Regency in the western part of the larger Bomberai Peninsula south of the Bird's Head region of Western New Guinea. Wwanin or Onin was probably the oldest name in recorded history to refer to the western part of the island of New Guinea. Meanwhile Sran refer to an ancient local kingdom of Sran Eman Muun , located in the southern part of Bomberai Peninsula called Koiwai (modern day Kaimana Regency ), which

9088-509: The elders were placed under duress and forced to vote yes. The Free Papua Movement (OPM) has engaged in a pro-independence conflict with the Indonesian military since the 1960s. This has been in response to the initial take over of the region and multiple killings and other human rights violations by Indonesian troops, causing many West Papuans and international organisations to describe the situation in West Papua as "genocide". Rebellions occurred in remote mountainous areas in 1969, 1977, and

9216-482: The end of the sixteenth century, the Sultanate of Ternate under Sultan Baabullah (1570–1583) had influence over parts of Papua. In 1660, the Dutch recognised the Sultan of Tidore 's sovereignty over New Guinea . New Guinea thus became notionally Dutch as the Dutch held power over Tidore. In 1793, Britain established a settlement near Manokwari . However, it failed. By 1824 Britain and the Netherlands agreed that

9344-474: The equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored. In February 2005, a team of scientists exploring the Foja Mountains discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including a species of rhododendron that may have the largest bloom of the genus. Environmental issues include deforestation, the spread of the introduced crab-eating macaque , which now threatens

9472-618: The existence of native species, and discarded copper and gold tailings from the Grasberg mine . The Bird's Head Peninsula , also known as the Doberai Peninsula, is covered by the Vogelkop montanerainforests ecoregion . It includes more than 22,000 km of montane forests at elevations of 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and higher. Over 50% of these forests are located within protected areas. There are over 300 bird species on

9600-423: The foundation of official policy, restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and Bangka . However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands. Motivations included the protection of areas already held, the intervention of Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion, and the aim to establish Dutch claims throughout

9728-400: The governor-general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief of the colonial army ( KNIL ). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets. Until 1815 the governor-general had

9856-611: The governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van Indie (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague . From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king. In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with its treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by

9984-543: The highlands, the koteka (penis gourd) is worn by males in ceremonies. The use of the holim (Dani's koteka) as everyday dress by Dani males in Western New Guinea is uncommon. As of 2019, it is estimated that only 10% highland population (in Central Papua and Highland Papua ) regularly uses koteka, and it is only used during cultural festival or as a souvenir. A culture of inter-tribal warfare and animosity between neighboring tribes has long been present in

10112-491: The highlands. The Indonesian government is very strict in giving foreign journalists permission to enter Western New Guinea, considering that this region is very vulnerable to separatist movements. As formerly in East Timor, Indonesia's former territory, the Indonesian administration takes great efforts to filter the information that gets out of Western New Guinea. However, there is no prohibition for journalists to go to

10240-474: The house they worked in as so-called "Indigenous Furniture" ( Inlands Meubel ). Njai were also not allowed custody of the children they had with their Dutch masters, and when they were fired, their children would be taken away. By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased, although prostitution had become more prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied

10368-554: The inhabitants of Papua New Guinea. As in Papua New Guinea, the peoples of the highlands have traditions and languages distinct from the peoples of the coast. Example being sago as the staple food of the coastal Papuans, a tradition shared with many people in the Eastern Indonesia , while in the highlands where sago do not grow, tubers ( sweet potato , yam , and taro ) are the staple foods. In some parts of

10496-412: The islands were part of migratory and commercial exchange within Southeast Asia , India , Arabian peninsula and east-Africa . From classical antiquity onwards the archipelago was also a major part of the global spice trade . For centuries Hindu-Buddhist civilizations were dominant; however, increasing trade links instigated the spread of Islam . By the 16th century, a large part of the archipelago

10624-407: The late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia, leading to a shortage of available women, as most immigrants were men. The Dutch then bought the "Njai", who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as concubines . While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed few rights. They could be bought and sold together with

10752-473: The local population; at its height, over 1 million farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20% of their farmland, or the most fertile land, for cultivation of cash crops. The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s. According to one estimate,

10880-456: The majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were Javanese and Sundanese . Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in Aceh , in northern Sumatra, where the Sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in

11008-505: The mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden, documented later the execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede . The independence movement during the later phases of the Bersiap also targeted Dutch and Eurasian civilians, particularly under the direction of Sutomo who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians. After

11136-617: The mid-1980s, occasionally spilling over into Papua New Guinea . In 1980, the Trans Irian Jaya Highway, currently Trans-Papua Highway , began construction. The highway would link unconnected cities and regions across the region, which were previously only accessible by sea or, for inland areas, by air. However, some experts suggested prioritizing development of local indigenous people over infrastructure development in order to be parallel with non-Papuan migrants, who were progressively inhabiting Western New Guinea's cities at

11264-576: The mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period. Due to widespread criticism of the system, it was abolished in 1870. According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished. The introduction of trucks, railways, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java which had historically been common. Java experienced rapid population growth during

11392-486: The ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java , parts of Sumatra , much of Maluku , and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar , Manado and Kupang ) were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. When

11520-536: The original crew made it back to Holland and other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC). In March 1602 the VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make treaties across Asia. A capital

11648-560: The parts of the colony not represented by the Republik. This was unacceptable to Sukarno. Sjahrir proposed a compromise, but this was rejected by the Dutch. Sjahrir resigned and was replaced by Sjarifuddin. Sukarno declared a state of emergency in the areas that were in the hands of the Republik and assumed charge of the negotiations. The situation deteriorated further, and the Dutch resorted to military intervention under Operation Product (or first "politionele actie" ). The Commission General

11776-467: The peninsula, of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion, and some live only in very restricted areas. These include the grey-banded munia , Vogelkop bowerbird , and the king bird-of-paradise . Road construction , illegal logging , commercial agricultural expansion , and ranching potentially threaten the integrity of the ecoregion. The southeastern coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula forms part of

11904-802: The plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor. It is estimated that over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century. The precise death rate among coolie laborers is hard to estimate due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as 25% in certain places, with a possible death toll of many tens of thousands. While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will, in practice their circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They were often misled when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts or were criminals sentenced to forced labour by

12032-645: The political situation in Indonesia devolved into a deadlock the new Dutch government, led by Louis Beel of the Catholic People's Party, formed a Commissie-Generaal voor Nederlands-Indië (Commission General for the Dutch Indies) on 14 September 1946. This Commission-General consisted of Willem Schermerhorn , Dutch Prime Minister from 1945 to 1946; F. De Boer, Liberal politician; Max van Poll, Catholic Party politician; and Hubertus van Mook , Lieutenant-Governor General (ex officio). The Commission achieved

12160-412: The population by means of a 'strategy of awe'. When a guerrilla war did take place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a campaign of destruction. By 1900 the archipelago was considered "pacified" and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks. The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all male conscripts in

12288-608: The region Ilhas dos Papuas (Islands of Papuans). In 1545 the Spaniard Yñigo Ortiz de Retez sailed along the north coast as far as the Mamberamo River near which he landed, naming the island Nueva Guinea . In 1606 Portuguese navigator Luís Vaz de Torres sailed in the name of Spain along the southwestern part of the island in present-day Papua , and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain. Near

12416-473: The region for independence, the Dutch significantly raised development spending from its low base, began investing in Papuan education, and encouraged Papuan nationalism. A small western elite developed with a growing political awareness attuned to the idea of Papuan independence, with close links to neighbouring eastern New Guinea, which was administered by Australia. A national parliament was elected in 1961 and

12544-640: The region has had the official names of Netherlands New Guinea (1895–1962), West New Guinea or West Irian (1962–1973), Irian Jaya (1973–2002), and Papua (2002–present). The expected Indonesian translation of "Western New Guinea", Nugini Barat , is currently only used in historical contexts such as kampanye Nugini Barat " Western New Guinea campaign ". The region is 1,200 kilometres (750 miles) from east to west and 736 kilometres (457 miles) from north to south. It has an area of 412,214.61 square kilometres (159,157 square miles ), which equates to approximately 22% of Indonesia's land area. The northern part of

12672-464: The region in response to the arrests of 43 Papuan students in Surabaya for allegedly disrespecting the Indonesian flag . In July 2022 three additional provinces were created from parts of the existing Papua Province. The new provinces were Central Papua , Highland Papua and South Papua . In November 2022, Southwest Papua was created from the western part of West Papua Province. Thus, including

12800-468: The region would require protracted jungle warfare, and, unwilling to see a repeat of their futile efforts in the armed struggle for Indonesian independence in the 1940s, agreed to American mediation. The United States President John F. Kennedy wrote to the then Dutch Prime Minister Jan de Quay , encouraging the Netherlands to relinquish control of Western New Guinea to Indonesia and warning of Indonesia's potential alliance with communist powers if Sukarno

12928-506: The region. In 2012, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs received 11 applications for permission to cover Papua from a number of foreign media. Of 11 requests, five were approved while the other six were rejected. Meanwhile, in 2013, requests for permission to cover Papua by foreign media soared to 28. At that time, the ministry approved 21 letters of application and rejected the other seven. The process of admitting foreign press and NGOs, which

13056-526: The remainder of the 19th century. This included the Banten Peasant's Revolt in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894, and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895. Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as

13184-703: The remaining independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908 , as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara . Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan) and Palembang in Sumatra , requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule. The Bird's Head Peninsula ( Western New Guinea ),

13312-639: The residencies under the provincies were divided again into regentschappen , residencies under gouvermenten were divided into afdeelingen first before being subdivided into regentschappen . The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) and its air arm, the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (ML-KNIL), were established in 1814 and 1915, respectively. Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy were based in Surabaya , supplemented by

13440-419: The residual West Papua Province and Papua Province, there were then six provinces covering Western New Guinea. The population of the region was estimated to be 5,601,888 in mid 2022. The interior is predominantly populated by ethnic Papuans while coastal towns are inhabited by descendants of intermarriages between Papuans, Melanesians, and Austronesians, including other Indonesian ethnic groups. Migrants from

13568-529: The rest of Indonesia also tend to inhabit the coastal regions. The largest cities in the territory are Jayapura in the region's northeast, and Sorong in the northwest of the Bird's Head Peninsula . By 2022 Jayapura had a population of over 400,000 and Sorong nearly 300,000; other major towns are Timika and Nabire in Central Papua, Merauke in South Papua, and Manokwari in the northeast of

13696-476: The second politionele actie, or Operation Kraai , in December 1948. This was militarily successful (the Dutch managed to capture Sukarno), but again international political pressure forced the Dutch to back down and be party to the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement (7 May 1949). The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference then started on 22 August 1949, which led to the agreement to transfer sovereignty to

13824-484: The slave was found guilty in an official court case. In reality however abuse of slaves by their masters was rampant and often went unpunished. Beatings and whippings were a commonplace punishment for disobedient slaves. Rape of female slaves by their masters was a common occurrence as well, as these women and girls were obliged to provide sexual services for their masters. Refusing to do so could result in severe physical punishment. Slavery and its excesses did not end with

13952-536: The south coast includes mangroves and sago palms and in the drier southeastern section, eucalypts, paperbarks, and acacias. Marsupial species dominate the region; there are an estimated 70 marsupial species (including possums , wallabies , tree-kangaroos , and cuscus ), and 180 other mammal species (including the endangered long-beaked echidna ). The region is the only part of Indonesia to have kangaroos, marsupial mice, bandicoots, and ring-tailed possums. The approximately 700 bird species include cassowaries (along

14080-543: The southeastern section around the town of Merauke . Swamps also extend 300 kilometres (190 miles) around the Asmat region. The Mamberamo River is the region's largest and runs through the length of Papua Province. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region. The southern lowlands, habitats of which included mangrove, tidal and freshwater swamp forest, and lowland rainforest, are home to populations of fishermen and gatherers such as

14208-701: The southern coastal areas), bowerbirds , kingfishers , crowned pigeons , parrots, and cockatoos . Approximately 450 of these species are endemic. Birds-of-paradise can be found in Kepala Burung and Yapen . The region is also home to around 800 species of spiders, 200 frogs, 30,000 beetles, and 70 bats, as well as one of the world's longest lizards (the Papuan monitor ) and some of the world's largest butterflies. The waterways and wetlands of Papua provide habitat for salt and freshwater crocodiles , tree monitors, flying foxes , ospreys , and other animals, while

14336-399: The technology gap widened. Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law. Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from

14464-521: The terms of the New York Agreement , all Western New Guinean men and women were to be given a plebiscite; this was to be called the Act of Free Choice . However, when the act was due to take place under the new president Suharto , the Indonesian government used a musyawarah or traditional consensus to decide the region's status. The 1,026 elders were hand-picked by the Indonesian government and many were coerced into voting for union with Indonesia. However, in

14592-444: The time. In the post-Suharto era , the national government began a process of decentralisation of the provinces, including, in December 2001, a special autonomy status for Papua province and a reinvestment into the region of 80% of the taxation receipts generated by the region, in addition of special autonomy fund. In 2003, a new province of West Papua was created from the western regencies of Papua (province) , comprising lands in

14720-478: The torture and sexual abuse of a 15-year-old female coolie who had rejected sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer. The penal sanction was eventually abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s. During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch colonials, but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery. In

14848-600: The unruliest inmates. In the Sawahlunto prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built for juveniles (West Java) and for women. In the Bulu women's prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession during their detention, such as sewing, weaving and making batik . This training was held in high esteem and helped re-socialise women once they were outside

14976-433: The western half of the island would become part of the Dutch East Indies . In 1828 the Dutch established the settlement of Fort Du Bus at Lobo (near Kaimana ), which also failed. Great Britain and Germany had recognised the Dutch claims on western New Guinea in treaties of 1885 and 1895. Dutch activity in the region remained minimal in the first half of the twentieth century. Dutch, US, and Japanese mining companies explored

15104-473: Was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia . The colonial wars in the Dutch East Indies exacted a heavy toll on the Indonesian population, with around 3 to 4 million deaths including both direct war casualties and indirect victims of war due to famine and disease. Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in

15232-498: Was created from part of West Papua Province; these received the same special autonomous status as (the residual) West Papua and Papua Provinces, the latter now reduced to northern Papua and the groups of islands in Cenderawasih Bay . In 2020, West Papua and Papua provinces had a census population of 5,437,775, the majority of whom are indigenous ; the official estimate as of mid-2022 was 5,601,888. The official language

15360-478: Was dissolved in 1942 during the Japanese occupation. The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch colonial administration— Europeans, Foreign Orientals (Arabs and the Chinese) and the indigenous— which were subject to their own legal systems that were all simultaneously in force. The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony. The highest court of law,

15488-518: Was dissolved on 15 November 1947 after Schermerhorn and Van Poll resigned. The Politionele Actie did not achieve its goals, and international pressure forced the Dutch government to accept a cease-fire and the Renville Agreement (17 January 1948). This agreement, however, did not lead to a solution. Provocative actions from both sides led to a tense military situation, and the Dutch for the second time resorted to military intervention with

15616-476: Was established in Batavia (now Jakarta ), which became the center of the VOC's Asian trading network. To their original monopolies on nutmeg , peppers , cloves and cinnamon , the company and later colonial administrations introduced non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory. Smuggling,

15744-409: Was financial, as the Dutch state at that time did not want to spend the money necessary to free the slaves on the more distant islands. Another reason was to appease local rulers and to prevent political turmoil. Due to the lax policy of the Dutch state slavery persisted in parts of the Dutch East Indies well into the 20th century. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to

15872-497: Was not appeased. The negotiations resulted in the UN-ratified New York Agreement of September 1962, which transferred administration to a United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) and proposed that the administration could be assumed by Indonesia until such time as a plebiscite could be organized to allow Papuans to determine whether they wanted independence or union with Indonesia. Under

16000-509: Was restored in 1816 on the basis of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 . The Commissioners-General of the Dutch East Indies reformed the public finances of the colony and drew up a new Regeringsreglement that would define the government of the colony for a century. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty the Dutch secured the Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak and British settlements such as Bengkulu , both in Sumatra , and

16128-560: Was ruled under Islamic kingdoms , except Bali that retained a Hindu majority. Sultanates, city states , local kingdoms and tribes were all connected through trade, creating a mixed Hindu-Buddhist-Islamic culture , and Malay as a lingua franca throughout the region. The islands were known to the Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Italians Marco Polo in 1292 and Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. The first Europeans to establish themselves in Indonesia were

16256-439: Was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges. Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established. By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the colony. The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated

16384-491: Was the predecessor of local Papuan kingdoms in the area. In 1526–27, the Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes accidentally came upon the principal island in the Biak archipelago and is credited with naming it Papua , from a Malay word pepuah , for the frizzled quality of Melanesian hair. Heading east, he eventually reported the northern coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula and the Waigeo Island , and named

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