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99-555: In 1754 he and his group came to what is now Alberta with a mission to meet the Blackfoot and encourage them to trade with the Hudson's Bay Company. They travelled some 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) by canoe and some 1,400 kilometres (900 mi) by foot. Henday and his group travelled 1,400 kilometres (900 mi) to within sight of the mighty Rocky Mountains and back another 1,400 kilometres (900 mi) in just six days less than

198-717: A Cree"), in their local groups. Loosely allied with the Nehiyaw-Pwat , but politically independent, were neighboring tribes like the Ktunaxa , Secwepemc and in particular the arch enemy of the Blackfoot, the Crow, or Indian trading partners like the Nez Perce and Flathead. The Shoshone acquired horses much sooner than the Blackfoot and soon occupied much of present-day Alberta, most of Montana, and parts of Wyoming, and raided

297-540: A greater speed. They could be ridden for hunting and travel. Horses revolutionised life on the Great Plains and soon came to be regarded as a measure of wealth. Warriors regularly raided other tribes for their best horses. Horses were generally used as universal standards of barter. Medicine men were paid for cures and healing with horses. Those who designed shields or war bonnets were also paid in horses. The men gave horses to those who were owed gifts as well as to

396-563: A gun from a living enemy and or touching him directly; capturing lances, and bows; scalping an enemy; killing an enemy; freeing a tied horse from in front of an enemy lodge; leading a war party; scouting for a war party; stealing headdresses, shields, pipes (sacred ceremonial pipes); and driving a herd of stolen horses back to camp. The Niitsitapi were enemies of the Crow , Cheyenne ( kiihtsipimiitapi – ″Pinto People″), and Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota) (called pinaapisinaa – "East Cree") on

495-546: A head start (famously known in the annals of the West as "Colter's Run.") He eventually escaped by reaching a river five miles away and diving under either an island of driftwood or a beaver dam , where he remained concealed until after nightfall. He trekked another 300 miles to a fort. In the context of shifting tribal politics due to the spread of horses and guns, the Niitsitapi initially tried to increase their trade with

594-574: A member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, returned to Blackfoot country soon after, he barely escaped with his life. In 1809, Colter and his companion were trapping on the Jefferson River by canoe when they were surrounded by hundreds of Blackfoot warriors on horseback on both sides of the river bank. Colter's companion, John Potts, did not surrender and was killed. Colter was stripped of his clothes and forced to run for his life, after being given

693-452: A period of great struggle and economic hardship; the Niitsitapi had to try to adapt to a completely new way of life. They suffered a high rate of fatalities when exposed to Eurasian diseases, for which they had no natural immunity. Eventually, they established a viable economy based on farming, ranching, and light industry. Their population has increased to about 16,000 in Canada and 15,000 in

792-455: A respected leader , possibly his brothers and parents, and others who were not related. Since the band was defined by place of residence, rather than by kinship, a person was free to leave one band and join another, which tended to ameliorate leadership disputes. Also, should a band fall upon hard times, its members could split up and join other bands. In practice, bands were constantly forming and breaking up. The system maximized flexibility and

891-528: A while north of the Great Lakes in present-day Canada, but had to compete for resources with existing tribes. They left the Great Lakes area and kept moving west. When they moved, they usually packed their belongings on an A-shaped sled called a travois . The travois was designed for transport over dry land. The Blackfoot had relied on dogs to pull the travois ; they did not acquire horses until

990-430: A wooded river valley. They were located perhaps a day's march apart, not moving camp unless food for the people and horses, or firewood became depleted. Where there was adequate wood and game resources, some bands would camp together. During this part of the year, buffalo also wintered in wooded areas, where they were partially sheltered from storms and snow. They were easier prey as their movements were hampered. In spring

1089-675: A year. His purpose was to encourage First Nations in the upper watershed of the Saskatchewan River to come to Hudson Bay to trade, but the great distance involved, their inability to build canoes and paddle them, and fear of attack by Cree along the river caused Blackfoot and other western prairie First Nations to be reluctant to make the journey. Henday was from the Isle of Wight , England . He may have been baptised in Shorwell on 24 December 1725. A convicted smuggler, Henday joined

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1188-856: Is a historic collective name for linguistically related groups that make up the Blackfoot or Blackfeet people: the Siksika ("Blackfoot"), the Kainai or Blood ("Many Chiefs"), and two sections of the Peigan or Piikani ("Splotchy Robe") – the Northern Piikani ( Aapátohsipikáni ) and the Southern Piikani ( Amskapi Piikani or Pikuni ). Broader definitions include groups such as the Tsúùtínà ( Sarcee ) and A'aninin ( Gros Ventre ) who spoke quite different languages but allied with or joined

1287-401: Is great uncertainty of his route – his original journal of his trip and any notes in his own hand cannot be found. His journal was copied by others in four different and contradictory versions. His trip as presented in the four versions cannot always be put in a modern context, due to there being no landmarks he identified that are still extant today. He does record sighting what

1386-555: Is known as the Blackfoot Confederacy, meaning that they have banded together to help one another. The nations have their own separate governments ruled by a head chief, but regularly come together for religious and social celebrations. Originally the Blackfoot/Plains Confederacy consisted of three peoples ("nation", "tribes", "tribal nations") based on kinship and dialect , but all speaking

1485-651: Is located today, quite possibly at Sherlock Lake. The following day, September 11, he crossed over from Saskatchewan into present-day Alberta. On October 11, he arrived at Waskesew River, perhaps the Red Deer River . Waskesew is an anglicization of the Cree word for elk. In Cree the Red Deer River is called wâwâskêsiw-sîpiy . Henday may not have been aware that the Blackfoot and the Cree were enemies. There

1584-664: Is no feat in all the story of Northwestern travel that surpasses this” and that “His trip led to further development of the West for it gave his company a new outlook.” Anthony Henday Drive , a large ring road in Edmonton , is named in his honour, as is Henday Hall , one of the residence towers in the main student residence complex at the University of Alberta in that city. Blackfoot The Blackfoot Confederacy , Niitsitapi , or Siksikaitsitapi ( ᖹᐟᒧᐧᒣᑯ , meaning "the people" or " Blackfoot-speaking real people" ),

1683-426: Is part of the larger Saskatchewan / Nelson system that empties into Hudson Bay . The river has a total length of 724 km (450 mi) and a drainage area of 45,100 km (17,400 sq mi). Its mean discharge is 70 m /s (2,500 cu ft/s). The river is named for the translation of a native term for the river, wâwâskêsiw sîpiy, which means "elk river" in the Cree language . "Red deer"

1782-650: Is some indication in Henday's journal entries that his Cree companions were wary of the people they and Henday encountered as their journey progressed into present-day south-central Alberta. Henday encountered what he called "Asinepoets" (thought by some to be Assiniboines ) on September 20 and "Archithinues" (the Blackfoot or other group of the Blackfoot Confederacy) on September 29. Henday was told these people had never been in contact with any Europeans. He noted that his Cree companions were afraid of them. That

1881-650: Is the water source for the City of Red Deer and the surrounding area. Pipelines cross under the river and there have been leaks disrupting access to potable water. Increased water flow of the Red Deer River system during heavy rainfall in June 2008 eroded supporting soil, freely exposing a section of Pembina Pipeline Corporation's Cremona crude oil pipeline to the Red Deer River currents. About 75 to 125 barrels (11,900 to 19,900 L; 2,600 to 4,400 imp gal; 3,200 to 5,200 US gal) of crude oil flowed upstream from

1980-573: Is thought to be the Rockies, which the Natives he met called "Arsinie Watchie." "Had a fine view of Arsinie Watchie att a farr distance, it being the last sight that I ever shall have of it this year." (Henday's Journal, 1754, Dec. 24, 1754). But the Native term and Henday himself could have been referring to a series of high hills, not in fact to the majestic mountains. The puzzle is further deepened by

2079-590: The American Fur Company entered the Upper Missouri region from the south for the first time, without Niitsitapiksi permission. This led to tensions and conflict until 1830, when peaceful trade was established. This was followed by the opening of Fort Piegan as the first American trading post in Niitsitapi territory in 1831, joined by Fort MacKenzie in 1833. The Americans offered better terms of trade and were more interested in buffalo skins than

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2178-859: The Blackfeet Nation is a federally recognized Native American tribe of Southern Piikani in Montana , United States. Additionally, the Gros Ventre are members of the federally recognized Fort Belknap Indian Community of the Fort Belknap Reservation of Montana in the United States and the Tsuutʼina Nation is a First Nation band government in Alberta, Canada. The four Blackfoot nations come together to make up what

2277-566: The Bow River . In the first half of the 18th century, they acquired horses and firearms from white traders and their Cree and Assiniboine go-betweens . The Blackfoot used these to expand their territory at the expense of neighboring tribes. Today, three Blackfoot First Nation band governments (the Siksika, Kainai, and Piikani Nations) reside in the Canadian province of Alberta , while

2376-589: The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) in 1750 as a net-maker and labourer. Being described by company officials as being "bold and enterprising". From the 1600s to the late 1800s the HBC had the right to exclusive fur trade within the Hudson Bay watershed. This region was known as Rupert's Land . For the furs that HBC desired they wanted to trade commodities such as tobacco, kettles, axes, mirrors, beads, and alcohol. The HBC

2475-609: The North Saskatchewan River from which to proceed downriver and eastward. They state that on March 3, 1755, he reached the North Saskatchewan at the mouth of the Sturgeon River near present-day Fort Saskatchewan . “Here he camped while canoes were made and more fur-laden Indians arrived. When the ice left the river, a brigade of 70 canoes started downstream-but Henday's woes were not over. At

2574-602: The North Saskatchewan River , on the northern boundary of their territory. In the 1830s the Rocky Mountain region and the wider Saskatchewan District were the HBC's most profitable, and Rocky Mountain House was the HBC's busiest post. It was primarily used by the Piikani. Other Niitsitapiksi nations traded more in pemmican and buffalo skins than beaver, and visited other posts such as Fort Edmonton . Meanwhile, in 1822,

2673-659: The Rocky Mountains (called Miistakistsi ) and along the South Saskatchewan River to the present Alberta-Saskatchewan border (called Kaayihkimikoyi ), east past the Cypress Hills . They called their tribal territory Niitsitpiis-stahkoii (ᖹᐟᒧᐧᐨᑯᐧ ᓴᐦᖾᐟ)- "Original People s Land." To the east, the Innu and Naskapi called their territory Nitassinan – "Our Land." They had adopted the use of

2772-622: The 18th century. From the Great Lakes area, they continued to move west and eventually settled in the Great Plains. The Plains had covered approximately 780,000 square miles (2,000,000 km ) with the Saskatchewan River to the north, the Rio Grande to the south, the Mississippi River to the east, and the Rocky Mountains to the west. Adopting the use of the horse, the Niitsitapi established themselves as one of

2871-578: The 4a plant hardiness zone . Summers are typically warm and rainy with cool nights. Winters are typically long, cold, and very dry. Empress is located in the steppe region known as Palliser's Triangle and experiences a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk ). Winters are long, cold and dry, while summers are short, but with average daytime highs that are warm to hot, though nighttime lows are cool. Spring and autumn are quite short, essentially transition periods between winter and summer. Wide diurnal temperature ranges are regular, due to

2970-974: The Alberta/Saskatchewan border, which it crosses at Empress . It flows for 16 km (9.9 mi) through Saskatchewan before it merges into the South Saskatchewan River . The waters of Ewing Lake, Little Fish Lake also flow into the Red Deer River. Sport fish include: walleye , northern pike , sauger , lake whitefish , yellow perch , burbot , lake sturgeon , mountain whitefish , goldeye , brown trout , bull trout , rainbow trout , brook trout , and cutthroat trout . Other fish include: emerald shiner , river shiner , spottail shiner , flathead chub , longnose dace , quillback (quillback carpsucker), longnose sucker , white sucker , shorthead redhorse , silver redhorse , perch , spoonhead sculpin , lake chub , northern pearl dace , northern redbelly dace , finescale dace , fathead minnow and brook stickleback . The Red Deer River

3069-513: The Archithinues were riding horses was a surprising revelation, and when Henday reported it upon his return to civilization, the report was disbelieved. On October 14 Henday arrived at a massive Archithinues (Blackfoot) encampment that by Henday's count numbered 322 tepees sited on the top of a hill. The 322-teepee encampment is thought to have been located a few miles west of Pine Lake, near present-day Innisfail. (A cairn in Henday's honour

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3168-460: The Blackfoot Confederacy. Historically, the member peoples of the Confederacy were nomadic bison hunters and trout fishermen, who ranged across large areas of the northern Great Plains of western North America, specifically the semi-arid shortgrass prairie ecological region. They followed the bison herds as they migrated between what are now the United States and Canada, as far north as

3267-468: The Blackfoot frequently. Once the Piegan gained access to horses of their own and guns, obtained from the HBC via the Cree and Assiniboine, the situation changed. By 1787 David Thompson reports that the Blackfoot had completely conquered most of Shoshone territory, and frequently captured Shoshone women and children and forcibly assimilated them into Blackfoot society, further increasing their advantages over

3366-529: The Blackfoot traveled by foot and used dogs to carry and pull some of their goods. They had not seen horses in their previous lands, but were introduced to them on the Plains, as other tribes, such as the Shoshone , had already adopted their use. They saw the advantages of horses and wanted some. The Blackfoot called the horses ponokamita (elk dogs). The horses could carry much more weight than dogs and moved at

3465-759: The Canadian and English fur trade before meeting the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1806. Lewis and Clark and their men had embarked on mapping the Louisiana Territory and upper Missouri River for the United States government . On their return trip from the Pacific Coast, Lewis and three of his men encountered a group of young Blackfoot warriors with a large herd of horses, and it was clear to Meriwether Lewis that they were not far from much larger groups of warriors. Lewis explained to them that

3564-506: The Europeans caused a spread of infectious diseases to the Niitsitapi, mostly cholera and smallpox . In one instance in 1837, an American Fur Company steamboat, the St. Peter's , was headed to Fort Union and several passengers contracted smallpox on the way. They continued to send a smaller vessel with supplies farther up the river to posts among the Niitsitapi. The Niitsitapi contracted

3663-670: The French forts of La Corne and Paskoya, gifts of brandy from residents there persuaded the Indians to trade most of their prime furs, and they were lost to Henday's company” He celebrated St. George's Day (April 23). Some say that day he was at the mouth of the Sturgeon Creek; he may have been at the mouth of a river entering the North Saskatchewan River west of Edmonton; others say he was where Tail Creek joins

3762-488: The French trading post of Fort Basqua (The Pas). Henday's visit, and his visit the next spring to Fort Basqua's sister fort, Fort Poskoyac (La Corne), are the only two recorded visits by a British explorer or trader to any French fort west of Lake Superior, up to the close of French rule in Canada. Burpee supposed that Henday got as far west as about Airdrie in the autumn of 1754. Turning north he spent February, March and April along today's Red Deer River, building canoes. When

3861-564: The Great Plains; and the Shoshone , Flathead , Kalispel , Kootenai (called kotonáá'wa ) and Nez Perce (called komonóítapiikoan ) in the mountain country to their west and southwest. Their most mighty and most dangerous enemy, however, were the political/military/trading alliance of the Iron Confederacy or Nehiyaw-Pwat (in Plains Cree : Nehiyaw – 'Cree' and Pwat or Pwat-sak – 'Sioux, i.e. Assiniboine') – named after

3960-593: The Gros Ventre attacked and burned in 1793 South Branch House of the HBC on the South Saskatchewan River near the present village of St. Louis, Saskatchewan . Then, the tribe moved southward to the Milk River in Montana and allied themselves with the Blackfoot. The area between the North Saskatchewan River and Battle River (the name derives from the war fought between these two tribal groups)

4059-666: The HBC traders in Rupert's Land whilst blocking access to the HBC by neighboring peoples to the West. But the HBC trade eventually reached into what is now inland British Columbia. By the late 1820s, [this prompted] the Niitsitapiksi, and in particular the Piikani, whose territory was rich in beaver, [to] temporarily put aside cultural prohibitions and environmental constraints to trap enormous numbers of these animals and, in turn, receive greater quantities of trade items. The HBC encouraged Niitsitapiksi to trade by setting up posts on

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4158-402: The HBC, which brought them more trade from the Niitsitapi. The HBC responded by building Bow Fort (Peigan Post) on the Bow River in 1832, but it was not a success. In 1833, German explorer Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied and Swiss painter Karl Bodmer spent months with the Niitsitapi to get a sense of their culture. Bodmer portrayed their society in paintings and drawings. Contact with

4257-593: The Lakota then to be refugees and was sympathetic to their strife, but retained his anti-war stance. Sitting Bull and Crowfoot fostered peace between the two nations by a ceremonial offering of tobacco, ending hostilities between them. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him. The Blackfoot also chose to stay out of the North-West Rebellion , led by the famous Métis leader Louis Riel . Louis Riel and his men added to

4356-529: The NWMP to fight them if they came north into Blackfoot country again. News of Crowfoot's loyalty reached Ottawa and from there London ; Queen Victoria praised Crowfoot and the Blackfoot for their loyalty. Despite his threats, Crowfoot later met those Lakota who had fled with Sitting Bull into Canada after defeating George Armstrong Custer and his battalion at the Battle of Little Big Horn . Crowfoot considered

4455-663: The Niitsitapi Confederacy. During the so-called Buffalo Wars (about 1850 – 1870), they penetrated further and further into the territory from the Niitsitapi Confederacy in search for the buffalo, so that the Piegan were forced to give way in the region of the Missouri River (in Cree: Pikano Sipi – "Muddy River", "Muddy, turbid River"), the Kainai withdrew to the Bow River and Belly River ; only

4554-439: The Niitsitapi began in 1800 a long phase of keen competition in the fur trade with their former Cree allies, which often escalated militarily. In addition both groups had adapted to using horses about 1730, so by mid-century an adequate supply of horses became a question of survival. Horse theft was at this stage not only a proof of courage, but often a desperate contribution to survival, for many ethnic groups competed for hunting in

4653-584: The Niitsitapi did not originate in the Great Plains of the Midwest North America, but migrated from the upper Northeastern part of the country. They coalesced as a group while living in the forests of what is now the Northeastern United States. They were mostly located around the modern-day border between Canada and the state of Maine. By 1200, the Niitsitapi were moving in search of more land. They moved west and settled for

4752-407: The Queen back in London. The cabinet of John A. Macdonald (the current Prime Minister of Canada at the time) gave Crowfoot a round of applause. During the mid-1800s, the Niitsitapi faced a dwindling food supply, as European-American hunters were hired by the U.S. government to kill bison so the Blackfeet would remain in their reservation. Settlers were also encroaching on their territory. Without

4851-431: The Red Deer River. Red Deer has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb ), with something of a semi-arid influence due to the city's location within Palliser's Triangle . The highest temperature ever recorded in Red Deer was 37.2 °C (99.0 °F) on 8 July 1906, 2 July 1924, and 28 & 29 June 1937. The lowest recorded temperature was −50.6 °C (−59.1 °F) on 17 December 1924. The city lies in

4950-468: The Red Deer River. He set off downriver on April 27. If he was on the North Saskatchewan River, the place of embarkation may or may not have been upriver of present-day Edmonton. Henday arrived at Fort Paskoya "Pasqua" or "Paskoway Yay" on May 26 and York Fort on June 23. As Henday travelled inland to the Blackfoot country and back to York Factory, he talked about the First Nations having problems with alcohol. He mentions on one day that his whole company

5049-425: The Shoshone. Thompson reports that Blackfoot territory in 1787 was from the North Saskatchewan River in the north to the Missouri River in the South, and from Rocky Mountains in the west out to a distance of 300 miles (480 km) to the east. Between 1790 and 1850, the Nehiyaw-Pwat were at the height of their power; they could successfully defend their territories against the Sioux (Lakota, Nakota and Dakota) and

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5148-446: The Siksika could hold their tribal lands along the Red Deer River . Around 1870, the alliance between the Blackfoot and the Gros Ventre broke, and the latter began to look to their former enemies, the Southern Assiniboine (or Plains Assiniboine), for protection. Anthony Henday of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) met a large Blackfoot group in 1754 in what is now Alberta . The Blackfoot had established dealings with traders connected to

5247-405: The U.S. today. With their new economic stability, the Niitsitapi have been free to adapt their culture and traditions to their new circumstances, renewing their connection to their ancient roots. The Niitsitapi, also known as the Blackfoot or Blackfeet Indians, reside in the Great Plains of Montana and the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Originally, only one of the Niitsitapi tribes

5346-420: The United States and "bands" or "First Nations" in Canada). The Piegan were divided into the North Peigan in Alberta, and the South Peigan in Montana. The Confederacy had a territory that stretched from the North Saskatchewan River (called Ponoká'sisaahta ) along what is now Edmonton , Alberta, in Canada , to the Yellowstone River (called Otahkoiitahtayi ) of Montana in the United States , and from

5445-584: The United States government wanted peace with all Indian nations, and that the US leaders had successfully formed alliances with other Indian nations. The group camped together that night, and at dawn there was a scuffle as it was discovered that the Blackfoot were trying to steal guns and run off with their horses while the Americans slept. In the ensuing struggle, one warrior was fatally stabbed and another shot by Lewis and presumed killed. In subsequent years, American mountain men trapping in Blackfoot country generally encountered hostility. When John Colter ,

5544-399: The already unsettled conditions facing the Blackfoot by camping near them. They tried to spread discontent with the government and gain a powerful ally. The North-West Rebellion was made up mostly of Métis, Assiniboine (Nakota) and Plains Cree , who all fought against European encroachment and destruction of Bison herds. The Plains Cree were one of the Blackfoot's most hated enemies; however,

5643-418: The aridity and moderately high elevation. Low humidity is prevalent throughout the year. Annual precipitation is very low, with an average of 311.6 mm (12.27 in), and is heavily concentrated in the warmer months. On average, the coldest month is January, with a mean temperature of −12 °C (10 °F), while the warmest is July, with a mean temperature of 19.8 °C (67.6 °F). The driest month

5742-750: The break point under a Red Deer River channel, leaving an oily sheen on Gleniffer Reservoir and 6,800 kg (15,000 lb) of oil-soaked debris. The remediation was not completed until 2011. Heavy rains in early June 2012 caused a similar but larger leak on a Plains Midstream Canada 46-year-old pipeline on a Red Deer River tributary, Jackson Creek , Alberta ( 51°52′19″N 114°36′23″W  /  51.87194°N 114.60639°W  / 51.87194; -114.60639  ( Jackson Creek ) ) near Gleniffer Lake and Dickson Dam , which spilled approximately 1,000 and 3,000 barrels (160,000 and 480,000 L; 35,000 and 105,000 imp gal; 42,000 and 126,000 US gal) of light sour crude oil into

5841-427: The brutality of the Marias Massacre discouraged the Blackfoot from engaging in wars against Canada and the United States. When the Lakota , together with their Cheyenne and Arapaho allies, were fighting the United States Army, they sent runners into Blackfoot territory, urging them to join the fight. Crowfoot , one of the most influential Blackfoot chiefs, dismissed the Lakota messengers. He threatened to ally with

5940-399: The buffalo moved out onto the grasslands to forage on new spring growth. The Blackfoot did not follow immediately, for fear of late blizzards . As dried food or game became depleted, the bands would split up and begin to hunt the buffalo. In midsummer, when the chokecherries ripened, the people regrouped for their major ceremony, the Okan ( Sun Dance ). This was the only time of year when

6039-633: The buffalo, preparing dried meat, and combining it for nutrition and flavor with dried fruits into pemmican , to last them through winter and other times when hunting was poor. At the end of the fall, the Blackfoot would move to their winter camps. The women worked the buffalo and other game skins for clothing, as well as to reinforce their dwellings; other elements were used to make warm fur robes, leggings, cords and other needed items. Animal sinews were used to tie arrow points and lances to throwing sticks, or for bridles for horses. The Niitsitapi maintained this traditional way of life based on hunting bison, until

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6138-446: The buffalo, the Niitsitapi were forced to depend on the United States government for food supplies. In 1855, the Niitsitapi chief Lame Bull made a peace treaty with the United States government. The Lame Bull Treaty promised the Niitsitapi $ 20,000 annually in goods and services in exchange for their moving onto a reservation. In 1860, very few buffalo were left, and the Niitsitapi became completely dependent on government supplies. Often

6237-420: The city of Red Deer , where it turns east, and then south before Stettler . It flows south with its valley protected by provincial and regional parks such as Tolman Badlands Heritage Rangeland , Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park , Dry Island Corridor and Midland Provincial Park . At Drumheller it has a south-east direction, and while it flows through Dinosaur Provincial Park it turns east and flows to

6336-569: The common language of Blackfoot , one of the Algonquian languages family. The three were the Piikáni (historically called "Piegan Blackfeet" in English-language sources), the Káínaa (called "Bloods"), and the Siksikáwa ("Blackfoot"). They later allied with the unrelated Tsuu T'ina ("Sarcee"), who became merged into the Confederacy and, (for a time) with the Atsina, or A'aninin ( Gros Ventre ). Each of these highly decentralized peoples were divided into many bands , which ranged in size from 10 to 30 lodges , or about 80 to 240 persons. The band

6435-422: The disease and eventually 6,000 died, marking an end to their dominance among tribes over the Plains. The Hudson's Bay Company did not require or help their employees get vaccinated; the English doctor Edward Jenner had developed a technique 41 years before but its use was not yet widespread. Like many other Great Plains Indian nations, the Niitsitapi often had hostile relationships with white settlers. Despite

6534-569: The dominating Plains Cree (called Asinaa ) and Assiniboine (called Niitsísinaa – "Original Cree"). These included the Stoney (called Saahsáísso'kitaki or Sahsi-sokitaki – ″Sarcee trying to cut″), Saulteaux (or Plains Ojibwe ), and Métis to the north, east and southeast. With the expansion of the Nehiyaw-Pwat to the north, west and southwest, they integrated larger groups of Iroquois , Chipewyan , Danezaa ( Dunneza – 'The real (prototypical) people'), Ktunaxa, Flathead, and later Gros Ventre (called atsíína – "Gut People" or "like

6633-521: The fact that one version of his journal states (Oct. 29, 1754): "I had a fine prospect of Muscuty or Arsinee Warchee Country, and seed the Archithinues smoak; this will be the time I shall see that delightful country this trip inland." But it is evident that he brought much trade to York Factory. Henday left the service of the HBC in 1762 largely because his efforts for the company, at least in his estimation, had not been properly recognized. Historians commenting on Henday's brave journey write that “there

6732-466: The fall, the people would gradually shift to their wintering areas. The men would prepare the buffalo jumps and pounds for capturing or driving the bison for hunting. Several groups of people might join at particularly good sites, such as Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump . As the buffalo were naturally driven into the area by the gradual late summer drying off of the open grasslands, the Blackfoot would carry out great communal buffalo kills. The women processed

6831-399: The food was spoiled by the time they received it, or supplies failed to arrive at all. Hungry and desperate, Blackfoot raided white settlements for food and supplies, and outlaws on both sides stirred up trouble. Red Deer River The Red Deer River is a river in Alberta and a small portion of Saskatchewan , Canada. It is a major tributary of the South Saskatchewan River and

6930-451: The four nations would assemble. The gathering reinforced the bonds among the various groups and linked individuals with the nations. Communal buffalo hunts provided food for the people, as well as offerings of the bulls' tongues (a delicacy) for the ceremonies. These ceremonies are sacred to the people. After the Okan , the people again separated to follow the buffalo. They used the buffalo hides to make their dwellings and temporary tipis. In

7029-554: The grasslands. The Cree and Assiniboine continued horse raiding against the Gros Ventre (in Cree: Pawistiko Iyiniwak – "Rapids People" – "People of the Rapids"), allies of the Niitsitapi. The Gros Ventres were also known as Niya Wati Inew , Naywattamee ("They Live in Holes People"), because their tribal lands were along the Saskatchewan River Forks (the confluence of North and South Saskatchewan River). They had to withstand attacks of enemies with guns. In retaliation for Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) supplying their enemies with weapons,

7128-510: The horse from other Plains tribes, probably by the early eighteenth century, which gave them expanded range and mobility, as well as advantages in hunting. The basic social unit of the Niitsitapi above the family was the band , varying from about 10 to 30 lodges, about 80 to 241 people. This size group was large enough to defend against attack and to undertake communal hunts, but was also small enough for flexibility. Each band consisted of

7227-705: The hostilities, the Blackfoot stayed largely out of the Great Plains Indian Wars, neither fighting against nor scouting for the United States army. One of their friendly bands, however, was attacked by mistake and nearly destroyed by the US Army in the Marias Massacre on 23 January 1870, undertaken as an action to suppress violence against settlers. A friendly relationship with the North-West Mounted Police and learning of

7326-436: The hunters could get close to the herd. When close enough, the hunters would attack with arrows or spears to kill wounded animals. The people used virtually all parts of the body and skin. The women prepared the meat for food: by boiling, roasting or drying for jerky . This processed it to last a long time without spoiling, and they depended on bison meat to get through the winters. The winters were long, harsh, and cold due to

7425-635: The ice broke up in the spring, he paddled down the Red Deer to where it joins the South Saskatchewan just east of today's Empress, Alberta, and then down the South Saskatchewan River, then the Saskatchewan River, back to York Factory. It is documented Henday's group passed the French Fort Paskoya "Pasqua"/"Basquia" or "Paskoway Yay," today's The Pas , on July 15, 1754, as recorded in his journal. There he may have met La Corne ,

7524-560: The introduction of horses, the Niitsitapi needed other ways to get in range. The buffalo jump was one of the most common ways. The hunters would round up the buffalo into V-shaped pens, and drive them over a cliff (they hunted pronghorn antelopes in the same way). Afterwards the hunters would go to the bottom and take as much meat as they could carry back to camp. They also used camouflage for hunting. The hunters would take buffalo skins from previous hunting trips and drape them over their bodies to blend in and mask their scent. By subtle moves,

7623-403: The lack of trees in the Plains, so people stockpiled meat in summer. As a ritual, hunters often ate the bison heart minutes after the kill. The women tanned and prepared the skins to cover the tepees. These were made of log poles, with the skins draped over it. The tepee remained warm in the winter and cool in the summer, and was a great shield against the wind. The women also made clothing from

7722-588: The late 1700s. (Matthew Cocking covered some of the same ground as Henday in 1772. [2] ) Instead the fur trade gradually built westward to a point where there were posts built inside Alberta, such as Buckingham House and Acton House, both built near Elk Point in 1792, and the first Fort Edmonton being built in 1795. Peter Fidler travelled through central Alberta in 1792, definitively mapping the location of rivers and lakes, many of which Henday had likely visited 40 years earlier. Others postulate that in spring 1755 Henday set off to return to York Factory by going north to

7821-587: The most powerful Indian tribes on the Plains in the late 18th century, earning themselves the name "The Lords of the Plains." Niitsitapi stories trace their residence and possession of their plains territory to "time immemorial." The Niitsitapi main source of food on the plains was the American bison (buffalo), the largest mammal in North America, standing about 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 feet (2.0 m) tall and weighing up to 2,000 pounds (910 kg). Before

7920-753: The near extirpation of the bison by 1881 forced them to adapt their ways of life in response to the encroachment of the European settlers and their descendants. In the United States, they were restricted to land assigned in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 . Nearly three decades later, they were given a distinct reservation in the Sweetgrass Hills Treaty of 1887. In 1877, the Canadian Niitsitapi signed Treaty 7 and settled on reserves in southern Alberta. This began

8019-474: The needy. An individual's wealth rose with the number of horses accumulated, but a man did not keep an abundance of them. The individual's prestige and status was judged by the number of horses that he could give away. For the Indians who lived on the Plains, the principal value of property was to share it with others. After driving the hostile Shoshone and Arapaho from the Northwestern Plains,

8118-501: The next few autumn and winter months made short journeys in the area just to get provisions and furs. After receiving an indefinite answer from the Blackfoot leader (which Henday took as a "no"), Henday returned to York Factory with news he had explored the area and met with the Blackfoot. Since the answer had been unsure and because Henday's trip did not subsequently produce any large increase in furs arriving at York Factory, there were few expeditions to what would eventually be Alberta in

8217-784: The only group who chose to settle in Montana. The other three Blackfoot-speaking peoples and the Sarcee are located in Alberta. Together, the Blackfoot-speakers call themselves the Niitsítapi (the "Original People"). After leaving the Confederacy, the Gros Ventres also settled on a reservation in Montana. When these peoples were forced to end their nomadic traditions, their social structures changed. Tribal nations, which had formerly been mostly ethnic associations, were institutionalized as governments (referred to as "tribes" in

8316-649: The region were displaced. The river originates on the eastern slopes of the Canadian Rockies , in the Sawback Range near the Skoki Valley inside Banff National Park , and then flows east through the mountains and foothills region. It turns north-east before Sundre and flows to an artificial reservoir named Gleniffer Lake , created in 1983 by the Dickson Dam and keeps this heading to

8415-712: The scenic badlands bearing the dinosaur and other Cretaceous fossils. Joseph Tyrrell discovered a huge coal seam here in 1883, besides large dinosaur skeletons. In June 2013, Alberta, Canada, experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow , Elbow , Highwood , Oldman , and Red Deer rivers and tributaries. Twenty-four municipalities declared local states of emergency as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police stated four people may have drowned near High River . Over 100,000 people in

8514-400: The skins, such as robes and moccasins, and made soap from the fat. Both men and women made utensils, sewing needles and tools from the bones, using tendon for fastening and binding. The stomach and bladder were cleaned and prepared for use for storing liquids. Dried bison dung was fuel for the fires. The Niitsitapi considered the animal sacred and integral to their lives. Up until around 1730,

8613-468: The two nations made peace when Crowfoot adopted Poundmaker , an influential Cree chief and great peacemaker, as his son. Although he refused to fight, Crowfoot had sympathy for those with the rebellion, especially the Cree led by such notable chiefs as Poundmaker, Big Bear , Wandering Spirit and Fine-Day . When news of continued Blackfoot neutrality reached Ottawa, Lord Lansdowne , the governor general, expressed his thanks to Crowfoot again on behalf of

8712-419: The western commander, or likely did the next spring on his way back to York Factory. Burpee postulated that Henday crossed the South Saskatchewan River (what Henday noted his Cree companions called Wapasewcopet seepee) on August 21, 1754, likely near the later site of Clarke's Crossing. [1] On September 10, 1754, Henday and his party camped approximately 29 kilometres (18 mi) north-east of where Chauvin

8811-495: The western prairies), and several other Cree set out on foot to travel from York Factory westward, crossing present-day Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and entering today's Alberta . His route is not clear. It is variously thought he travelled as far west as present-day Red Deer , Balermo, Innisfail, Stettler, Eckville, or the Calgary area – all or only some of those places. A conjecture of Henday's route in detail

8910-474: Was an alternative name for elk , referring to a closely related Eurasian species . Communities located along the Red Deer River include Sundre , Red Deer , Drumheller , and Empress , The city of Brooks , as well as Dinosaur Provincial Park , are also located in the Red Deer River Basin. A glacial flood about 18,000 years ago eroded out a portion of this basin and apparently all or most of

9009-402: Was an ideal organization for a hunting people on the northwestern Great Plains . During the summer, the people assembled for nation gatherings. In these large assemblies, warrior societies played an important role for the men. Membership into these societies was based on brave acts and deeds. For almost half the year in the long northern winter, the Niitsitapi lived in their winter camps along

9108-406: Was called Blackfoot or Siksika. The name is said to have come from the color of the peoples' moccasins , made of leather. They had typically dyed or painted the soles of their moccasins black. One legendary story claimed that the Siksika walked through ashes of prairie fires, which in turn colored the bottoms of their moccasins black. Due to language and cultural patterns, anthropologists believe

9207-604: Was concerned that La Vérendrye and other French entrepreneurs were funnelling the fur trade from Rupert's Land away from the English posts at Hudson Bay. Eventually, James Isham , chief factor at York Fort, suggested an expedition to the western Prairies to encourage First Nations to trade at Hudson Bay. The HBC authorized and funded Henday to explore the interior of what is now western Canada, using York Factory as his base. On June 26, 1754, Henday, Attickasish (a Cree man able to interpret for Henday in communicating with Natives of

9306-473: Was erected there later.) The tent or teepee of the "king" was large enough to hold 50 people, Henday reported. Henday was invited int that tent and smoked a peace pipe with the "king" and 20 elders. Through his interpreter Attickasish, he imparted the purpose of his mission. Henday invited some of the Archithinues go with them back to York Factory. The Archithinue leader turned down the offer, explaining that his people did not paddle canoes and that York Factory

9405-620: Was formulated and presented to the public by L.J. Burpee in 1907, under the name "York Factory to the Blackfeet Country." Using the HBC Journals as his source, Burpee had the explorer's name as Hendry. He supposed that Henday passed through Walker Lake (which Henday called Christineaux Lake), not Lake Winnipeg as is sometimes supposed, then up the Minago River to Moose Lake, then to the Saskatchewan River, and travelling past

9504-450: Was the basic unit of organization for hunting and defence. The Confederacy occupied a large territory where they hunted and foraged; in the 19th century it was divided by the current Canada–US international border. But during the late nineteenth century, both governments forced the peoples to end their nomadic traditions and settle on " Indian reserves " (Canadian terminology) or " Indian reservations " (US terminology). The South Peigan are

9603-438: Was the limit of the now warring tribal alliances. Blackfoot war parties would ride hundreds of miles on raids. A boy on his first war party was given a silly or derogatory name. But after he had stolen his first horse or killed an enemy, he was given a name to honor him. Warriors would strive to perform various acts of bravery called counting coup , in order to move up in social rank. The coups in order of importance were: taking

9702-564: Was too far away. The leader of the Archithinue, probably, knew that his people would be travelling uninvited through Cree territory and would risk being killed by Cree or other enemies. Henday urged the residents there to build up their stocks of fur by going into the woods to hunt and trap, but he reported that they instead preferred to take their ease, staying in camp and "enjoying their primitive entertainment of drumming and conjuring ." Henday himself did not expore further west but over

9801-437: Was unable to travel because everyone was drinking. On 30 May 1755 Henday remarked in his journal that he is unable to continue their travels back to York Factory because his First Nations companions "drank too much" He also noted ruefully that they were trading their best furs to the French in exchange for alcohol. This trip, and later ones, took Henday across much of the prairies of what is now Saskatchewan and Alberta. There

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