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137-490: The term Proto-Malay , primeval Malays , proto-Hesperonesians , first-wave Hesperonesians or primeval Hesperonesians , which translates to Melayu Asli (aboriginal Malay) or Melayu Purba (ancient Malay) or Melayu Tua (old Malay), refers to Austronesian speakers who moved from mainland Asia, to the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago in a long series of migrations between 2500 and 1500 BCE, before that of

274-717: A census of the Spanish-Philippines based on the tribute counts (representing an average family of seven to ten children and two parents per tribute) and came upon the following statistics: The Spanish-Filipino population as a proportion of the provinces widely varied; with as high as 19% of the population of Tondo province (The most populous province and former name of Manila), to Pampanga 13.7%, Cavite at 13%, Laguna 2.28%, Batangas 3%, Bulacan 10.79%, Bataan 16.72%, Ilocos 1.38%, Pangasinan 3.49%, Albay 1.16%, Cebu 2.17%, Samar 3.27%, Iloilo 1%, Capiz 1%, Bicol 20%, and Zamboanga 40%. According to

411-590: A colonial middle-class group known as the Mestizo de Sangley ( Chinese mestizos ) descend from. Its descendants during the late 19th century produced a major part of the ilustrado intelligentsia of the late Spanish Colonial Philippines , that were very influential with the creation of Filipino nationalism and the sparking of the Philippine Revolution . There are also Japanese people , which include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled

548-573: A coordinate branch with Malayo-Polynesian, rather than a sister family to Austronesian. Sagart's resulting classification is: The Malayo-Polynesian languages are—among other things—characterized by certain sound changes, such as the mergers of Proto-Austronesian (PAN) *t/*C to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) *t, and PAN *n/*N to PMP *n, and the shift of PAN *S to PMP *h. There appear to have been two great migrations of Austronesian languages that quickly covered large areas, resulting in multiple local groups with little large-scale structure. The first

685-500: A few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages , are indigenous to mainland Asia. Many Austronesian languages have very few speakers, but the major Austronesian languages are spoken by tens of millions of people. For example, Indonesian is spoken by around 197.7 million people. This makes it the eleventh most-spoken language in the world . Approximately twenty Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries (see

822-535: A given language family can be traced from the area of greatest linguistic variety to that of the least. For example, English in North America has large numbers of speakers, but relatively low dialectal diversity, while English in Great Britain has much higher diversity; such low linguistic variety by Sapir's thesis suggests a more recent spread of English in North America. While some scholars suspect that

959-548: A major language during the short-lived Republic of Zamboanga . Most Maranaos with part- Tausug or Yakan from Zamboanga and Basilan are conversant, specifically the Zamboanga dialect known as Zamboangueño . The Iranun /Ilanun are a Moro ethnic group native to Mindanao , Philippines , and the west coast of Sabah . The modern Iranun are believed to be descendants of Maranao who left Lake Lanao and settled elsewhere. These migrations were usually of merchant clans of

1096-521: A mechanism for the initiation, maintenance, renewal and reinforcement of kinship and social ties. They also speak different Kalinga tribal languages , Ilocano , Tagalog and English . The Balangao tribe inhabits a barangay in Natonin , Mountain Province , Philippines . The tribe, focuses primarily on farming; which is performed either in rice terraces or from lands that were cleared by fire. At

1233-634: A mixture of Proto-Malay and Melanesian and the Sakai people from Riau , which were originally pure Proto-Malay until later they were forced into the interior by the Deutero-Malays which led to their mixing with the Negritos . Off the west coast of Bengkulu , Sumatra Island, the indigenous people of Enggano Island known as the Enggano people are considered largely Proto-Malays. In Malaysia ,

1370-549: A presumed sister language of Proto-Austronesian . The linguist Ann Kumar (2009) proposed that some Austronesians might have migrated to Japan, possibly an elite-group from Java , and created the Japanese-hierarchical society. She also identifies 82 possible cognates between Austronesian and Japanese, however her theory remains very controversial. The linguist Asha Pereltsvaig criticized Kumar's theory on several points. The archaeological problem with that theory

1507-745: A relatively high number of affixes , and clear morpheme boundaries. Most affixes are prefixes ( Malay and Indonesian ber-jalan 'walk' < jalan 'road'), with a smaller number of suffixes ( Tagalog titis-án 'ashtray' < títis 'ash') and infixes ( Roviana t<in>avete 'work (noun)' < tavete 'work (verb)'). Reduplication is commonly employed in Austronesian languages. This includes full reduplication ( Malay and Indonesian anak-anak 'children' < anak 'child'; Karo Batak nipe-nipe 'caterpillar' < nipe 'snake') or partial reduplication ( Agta taktakki 'legs' < takki 'leg', at-atu 'puppy' < atu 'dog'). It

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1644-540: A result of acculturation and inter-marriage with most of the people they come in contact with such as Orang Asli tribes such as the Semang and Senoi peoples. The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Early History has pointed out three theories of the origin of the Proto-Malay: Some historical linguists have concluded that there is scant linguistic basis for a Proto-/Deutero-Malay split. The findings suggests that

1781-499: A significant presence throughout the country's history. The Muslim-majority ethnic groups ethnolinguistic groups of Mindanao, Sulu , and Palawan are collectively referred to as the Moro people , a broad category that includes some Indigenous people groups and some non-Indigenous people groups. With a population of over 5 million people, they comprise about 5% of the country's total population. The Spanish called them Moros after

1918-460: A total number of 18 consonants. Complete absence of final consonants is observed e.g. in Nias , Malagasy and many Oceanic languages . Tonal contrasts are rare in Austronesian languages, although Moken–Moklen and a few languages of the Chamic , South Halmahera–West New Guinea and New Caledonian subgroups do show lexical tone. Most Austronesian languages are agglutinative languages with

2055-588: A traditional horse culture . They are renowned for their weaving traditions. The Tausūg people (known as Suluk in Sabah ) are an ethnic group of the Philippines , Malaysia and Indonesia . The Tausūg are a Visayan subgroup that mostly converted to Islam in the late AD 1300s, and are closely related to the Surigaonon and Butuanon people . The Muslim Tausugs originally had an independent state known as

2192-634: Is a South-Central Cordilleran dialect . They have an indigenous Itneg religion with its own pantheon. The Kalinga , also known as "iKalinga", inhabit the drainage basin of the middle Chico River in Kalinga Province . The Kalinga are sub-divided into Southern and Northern groups; the latter is considered the most heavily ornamented people of the northern Philippines. The Kalinga practice both wet and dry rice farming. They also developed an institution of peace pacts called Bodong which has minimised traditional warfare and headhunting and serves as

2329-516: Is a broad consensus that the homeland of the Austronesians was in Taiwan. This homeland area may have also included the P'eng-hu (Pescadores) islands between Taiwan and China and possibly even sites on the coast of mainland China, especially if one were to view the early Austronesians as a population of related dialect communities living in scattered coastal settlements. Linguistic analysis of

2466-514: Is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. Very broadly, one can divide the Austronesian languages into three groups: Philippine-type languages, Indonesian-type languages and post-Indonesian type languages: The Austronesian language family has been established by the linguistic comparative method on the basis of cognate sets , sets of words from multiple languages, which are similar in sound and meaning which can be shown to be descended from

2603-446: Is disyllabic with the shape CV(C)CVC (C = consonant; V = vowel), and is still found in many Austronesian languages. In most languages, consonant clusters are only allowed in medial position, and often, there are restrictions for the first element of the cluster. There is a common drift to reduce the number of consonants which can appear in final position, e.g. Buginese , which only allows the two consonants /ŋ/ and /ʔ/ as finals, out of

2740-495: Is estimated at 32,227 (NM 1994). The generalized culture is lowland central Philippines focused on wet rice cultivation, and some localized swidden cultivation. Adaptation to the marine environment is made, but mostly in terms of domestic fishing. The Maranao people ( Maranao: [ˈmәranaw] ; Filipino : Maranaw ), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to

2877-555: Is heavily influenced by the Sulu Sultanate . They are relatively isolated and do not usually consider themselves as Sama. Banguingui , also known as Sama Banguingui or Samal Banguingui (alternative spellings include Bangingi’, Bangingi, Banguingui, Balanguingui, and Balangingi) is a distinct ethno-linguistic group dispersed throughout the Greater Sulu Archipelago and southern and western coastal regions of

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3014-512: Is highly controversial. Sagart (2004) proposes that the numerals of the Formosan languages reflect a nested series of innovations, from languages in the northwest (near the putative landfall of the Austronesian migration from the mainland), which share only the numerals 1–4 with proto-Malayo-Polynesian, counter-clockwise to the eastern languages (purple on map), which share all numerals 1–10. Sagart (2021) finds other shared innovations that follow

3151-618: Is sometimes considered offensive. Their preferred endonym is simply "Sama", but they can also be called as Sama Deya or Sama Darat. These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in island interiors. Some examples are the Sama Sibutu and the Sama Sanga-Sanga. They are usually farmers who cultivate rice , sweet potato , cassava , and coconuts for copra through traditional slash-and-burn agriculture (in contrast to

3288-510: Is that, contrary to the claim that there was no rice farming in China and Korea in prehistoric times , excavations have indicated that rice farming has been practiced in this area since at least 5000 BC. There are also genetic problems. The pre-Yayoi Japanese lineage was not shared with Southeast Asians, but was shared with Northwest Chinese, Tibetans and Central Asians . Linguistic problems were also pointed out. Kumar did not claim that Japanese

3425-665: Is the Sama Simunul. They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi . They have a more flexible lifestyle than the Sama-Gimba (Sama Dilaut Origin), and will farm when there is available land. They usually act as middlemen in trade between the Sama Dilaut and other land-based peoples. The Sama Dilaut (Bajau) are part of the Sama-Bajau peoples and are the dominant ethnic group of the islands of Tawi-Tawi in

3562-561: Is the first attestation of any Austronesian language. The Austronesian languages overall possess phoneme inventories which are smaller than the world average. Around 90% of the Austronesian languages have inventories of 19–25 sounds (15–20 consonants and 4–5 vowels), thus lying at the lower end of the global typical range of 20–37 sounds. However, extreme inventories are also found, such as Nemi ( New Caledonia ) with 43 consonants. The canonical root type in Proto-Austronesian

3699-529: Is their most prized agricultural crop. The word Malubog means "murky or turbid water". The Molbog are likely a migrant people from nearby Sabah , North Borneo . Based on their dialect and some socio-cultural practices, they seem to be related to the Orang Tidung or Tirum (Camucone in Spanish), an Islamized ethnolinguistic group native to the lower east coast of Sabah and upper East Kalimantan . They speak

3836-534: The Aeta of Luzon, the Negrito population was estimated at 31,000 as of 2004. There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos, starting with the " Waves of Migration " hypothesis of H. Otley Beyer in 1948, which claimed that Filipinos were "Indonesians" and "Malays" who migrated to the islands. This is completely rejected by modern anthropologists and is not supported by any evidence, but

3973-615: The Cordillera Administrative Region , Caraballo Mountains , and Sierra Madre . The Isnag people (also Isneg or Apayao) are native to Apayao Province in the Cordillera Administrative Region . Their native language is Isneg (also called Isnag), although most Isnag also speak Ilokano . Two major sub-groups among the Isnag are known: the Ymandaya, mostly concentrated in the municipality of Calanasan ; and

4110-844: The Cordillera Administrative Region , but can also be found in Nueva Vizcaya , Nueva Ecija , and Pangasinan . They speak the Kalanguya language or "Kallahan", which was once the most spoken language in most parts of today's Benguet , Nueva Vizcaya, Ifugao , Mt. Province , and some parts of Nueva Ecija but is no longer due to ethnocentrism. The Kalanguya population in Nueva Vizcaya has also been identified in anthropological literature as "Ikal-lahan". Those who reside in Tinoc and Buguias call themselves Kalangoya. Those who reside in Nueva Vizcaya and Quirino call themselves Ikalahans. In

4247-624: The Deutero-Malays about a thousand years later. The Proto-Malays are descendants of the first humans living in Southeast Asia, and are "ancestral" for humans in east Asia and the Americas. The Proto-Malays are believed to have been seafarers knowledgeable in oceanography who possessed advanced fishing as well as basic agricultural skills. Over the years, they settled in various places and adopted various customs and religions as

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4384-546: The Ibaloy and Ikalahan . The characteristic village enclosing fences are sometimes composed in part of the houses with the front entry facing inward. Pig sties are part of the residential architecture. The Iwak are found principally in the municipalities of Boyasyas and Kayapa , province of Nueva Vizcaya . The subgroups are: (1) Lallang ni I’Wak, (2) Ibomanggi, (3) Italiti, (4) Alagot, (5) Itangdalan, (6) Ialsas, (7) Iliaban, (8)Yumanggi, (9) Ayahas, and (10) Idangatan. They speak

4521-977: The Ilocano , the Pangasinense , the Kapampangan , the Tagalog , the Bicolano , and the Visayans (including the Cebuano , the Boholano , the Hiligaynon/Ilonggo , and the Waray ). Many of these groups converted to Christianity , particularly both the native and migrant lowland-coastal groups, and adopted foreign elements of culture throughout the country's history. Due to the past history of

4658-598: The Japonic languages to the proposal as well. A link with the Austroasiatic languages in an ' Austric ' phylum is based mostly on typological evidence. However, there is also morphological evidence of a connection between the conservative Nicobarese languages and Austronesian languages of the Philippines. Robert Blust supports the hypothesis which connects the lower Yangtze neolithic Austro-Tai entity with

4795-545: The Kra-Dai family considered to be a branch of Austronesian, and "Yangzian" to be a new sister branch of Sino-Tibetan consisting of the Austroasiatic and Hmong-Mien languages. This proposal was further researched on by linguists such as Michael D. Larish in 2006, who also included the Japonic and Koreanic languages in the macrofamily. The proposal has since been adopted by linguists such as George van Driem , albeit without

4932-468: The Kra-Dai languages of the southeastern continental Asian mainland was first proposed by Paul K. Benedict , and is supported by Weera Ostapirat, Roger Blench , and Laurent Sagart, based on the traditional comparative method . Ostapirat (2005) proposes a series of regular correspondences linking the two families and assumes a primary split, with Kra-Dai speakers being the people who stayed behind in their Chinese homeland. Blench (2004) suggests that, if

5069-573: The Malagasy people . Aside from language and genetics, they also share common cultural markers like multihull and outrigger boats , tattooing , rice cultivation , wetland agriculture , teeth blackening , jade carving, betel nut chewing , ancestor worship , and the same domesticated plants and animals (including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams, bananas, sugarcane, and coconuts). Prehistoric Tabon Man , found in Palawan in 1962 was, until 2007,

5206-644: The Manobo people who live in inland Mindanao, and the other in the Sama-Bajau and related people of the Sulu archipelago, Zamboanga Peninsula, and Palawan. The admixture found in the Sama people indicates a relationship with the Lua and Mlabri people of mainland Southeast Asia, and reflects a similar genetic signal found in western Indonesia. These happened sometime after 15,000 years ago and 12,000 years ago respectively, around

5343-573: The Maranao and Iranun . These three groups speak related languages belonging to the Danao language family .They live primarily in Maguindanao , Soccsksargen , Davao Region and Zamboanga Peninsula and speak Maguindanaon with second languages as Hiligaynon , Cebuano , Tagalog and Arabic and/or English . Because of the mass influx of Cebuano and Hiligaynon migrants to Mindanao, many of

5480-411: The Maranao and live in the provinces of Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur . Because of the mass influx of Cebuano migrants to Mindanao, many Maranaos are also fluent in Cebuano . They also use Arabic as a liturgical language of Islam . Most Maranaos, however, do not know Arabic beyond its religious use. Some also know Chavacano , which is a Philippine Spanish Creole that gained popularity as

5617-604: The Molbog language , which is related to Bonggi , spoken in Sabah, Malaysia . However, some Sama words (of the Jama Mapun variant) and Tausug words are found in the Molbog dialect after a long period of exposure with those ethnics. This plus a few characteristics of their socio-cultural life style distinguish them from the Orang Tidung . Molbog livelihood includes subsistence farming, fishing and occasional barter trading with

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5754-781: The Moluccans came under the Proto-Malay classification with a admixture with Melanesian. However, António Mendes Correia 's findings re-classified the Timorese in Alfred Russel Wallace's ethnological chart as predominantly Proto-Malay. This is evidenced by the striking similarity in the architectural designs of traditional houses in Lospalos , East Timor with the Batak and Toraja people. In Sulawesi , not only are

5891-466: The Moors , despite no resemblance or cultural ties to them apart from their religion. About 142 of the Philippines' Indigenous people groups are not classified as Moro peoples. Some of these people groups are commonly grouped together due to their strong association with a shared geographic area, although these broad categorizations are not always welcomed by the ethnic groups themselves. For example,

6028-645: The Moros and neighbouring ethnolinguistic groups in Sabah. In the past, both the Molbog and the Palawanon Muslims were ruled by Sulu datus , thus forming the outer political periphery of the Sulu Sultanate . Intermarriage between Tausug and the Molbog hastened the Islamization of the Molbog. The offsprings of these intermarriages are known as kolibugan or "half-breed". The Kolibugan resulted from

6165-686: The Philippines , the Mariana Islands , Indonesia , Malaysia , Chams or Champa (in Thailand , Cambodia , and Vietnam ), East Timor , Papua , New Zealand , Hawaii , Madagascar , Borneo , Kiribati , Caroline Islands , and Tuvalu . saésé jalma, jalmi rorompok, bumi nahaon Ethnic groups in the Philippines The Philippines is inhabited by more than 182 ethnolinguistic groups, many of which are classified as "Indigenous Peoples" under

6302-530: The Philippines . They are known as the "sea Sama" or "ocean Sama". In the Philippines, they are more popularly known as the Bajau or Badjao / Bajaw, but their preferred ethnonym is Sama Dilaut or Sama Mandilaut / Sama Pala'u; while in Malaysia, they usually identify as Bajau Laut. This subgroup originally lived exclusively on elaborately crafted houseboats called lepa , but almost all have taken to living on land in

6439-588: The Sangihe and Talaud Islands (now part of Indonesia ) and parts of Davao Occidental (particularly in the Sarangani Islands ), Davao del Norte , Davao del Sur , Sultan Kudarat , South Cotabato , and North Cotabato . Their populations (much like the Sama-Bajau ) were separated when borders were drawn between the Philippines and Indonesia during the colonial era . The Sangil people are traditionally animistic, much like other Lumad peoples . During

6576-588: The Sangirese language . The exact population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown, but is estimated to be around 10,000 people. Indonesian Sangir live in the Philippines, particularly Balut Island, Davao del Sur , Davao del Norte , Davao Oriental , Sarangani , Sultan Kudarat , North Cotabato , South Cotabato , General Santos and Davao City , because of its proximity to Indonesia; they speak Cebuano & Tagalog as second languages & are Protestant Christians by faith. The Yakan people are among

6713-442: The Senate of the Philippines , there were approximately 1.35 million ethnic (or pure) Chinese within the Philippine population, while Filipinos with any Chinese descent comprised 22.8 million of the population. The results of a massive DNA study conducted by the National Geographic 's "The Genographic Project", based on genetic testings of 80,000 Filipino people by the National Geographic in 2008–2009, found that

6850-440: The Spanish held territories along the way. The Maguindanao people are the historical people of the Sultanate of Maguindanao . The word Maguindanao or Magindanaw means "people of the flood plains", from the word Magi'inged , which means "people or citizen", and danaw , which means "lake or marsh". Thus Maguindanao or Magindanaw can also be translated as "people of the lake", identical to their closely related neighbors,

6987-501: The Sulu Archipelago . The Tausūg in Sabah refer to themselves as Tausūg but refers to their ethnic group as "Suluk" as documented in official documents such as birth certificates in Sabah , which are written Malay . Because of the mass arrival of Cebuano settlers to Mindanao, many Tausug people are exposed in the Cebuano language easily enough to be able to speak it as Tausug & Cebuano languages belong to Visayan languages. Some Tausug in Sulu & Tawi-Tawi speak Chabacano, specifically

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7124-537: The Sulu Sultanate , which once exercised sovereignty over the present day provinces of Sulu , coastal areas of Basilan , southern Palawan , Tawi-Tawi , some coastal areas of the Zamboanga Peninsula , and the eastern part of the Malaysian state of Sabah (formerly North Borneo ) and North Kalimantan in Indonesia. "Tausug" means "the people of the current", from the word tau which means "man" or "people" and sūg (alternatively spelled sulug or suluk ) which means "[sea] currents". This refers to their homelands in

7261-443: The Toraja people are regarded as part of the ancient Proto-Malay, but their neighboring Minahasan people as well who have migrated to the island in the megalithic period. In Sumatra , a little known pygmy tribe called the Mante people of Aceh are regarded as Proto-Malay and are thought to be extinct. Other ethnic groups that are closely related to the Proto-Malay are such as the Nage people from Flores , which are considered

7398-406: The Zamboanga Peninsula in Mindanao , Philippines . They are one of the ethnic groups usually collectively known as the Sama-Bajau peoples . The Sama Dea (Samal/Sama) are part of the Sama-Bajau peoples , more accurately a general subgroup of "Land Sama" native to the Philippines. They are popularly known as Samal (also spelled "Siamal" or "Siyamal"), which is a Tausūg and Cebuano term that

7535-524: The colonial period . It ranged from Madagascar off the southeastern coast of Africa to Easter Island in the eastern Pacific. Hawaiian , Rapa Nui , Māori , and Malagasy (spoken on Madagascar) are the geographic outliers. According to Robert Blust (1999), Austronesian is divided into several primary branches, all but one of which are found exclusively in Taiwan. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian languages spoken outside

7672-492: The comparative method to the Austronesian languages. The first extensive study on the history of the phonology was made by the German linguist Otto Dempwolff . It included a reconstruction of the Proto-Austronesian lexicon. The term Austronesian was coined (as German austronesisch ) by Wilhelm Schmidt , deriving it from Latin auster "south" and Ancient Greek νῆσος ( nêsos "island"). Most Austronesian languages are spoken by island dwellers. Only

7809-409: The list of major and official Austronesian languages ). By the number of languages they include, Austronesian and Niger–Congo are the two largest language families in the world. They each contain roughly one-fifth of the world's languages. The geographical span of Austronesian was the largest of any language family in the first half of the second millennium CE, before the spread of Indo-European in

7946-468: The persecutions of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu which the Spanish authorities in the Philippines had offered asylum from to form part of the Japanese settlement in the Philippines . In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people traders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population. The Philippines was a former American colony and during the American colonial era, there were over 800,000 Americans who were born in

8083-430: The plow agriculture technology brought by the Tausūg). They are originally from the larger islands of Tawi-Tawi and Pangutaran . In the Philippines, the Sama Dea will often completely differentiate themselves from the Sama Dilaut. A large number are now residing around the coasts of northern Sabah , though many have also migrated north to the Visayas and southern Luzon . They are predominantly land-dwelling. They are

8220-437: The "Sea Gypsies" or "Sea Nomads". They usually live a seaborne lifestyle, and use small wooden sailing vessels such as the perahu ( layag in Meranau ), djenging , balutu , lepa , pilang , and vinta (or lepa-lepa ). There are more than 100 highland, lowland, and coastland indigenous groups in the Philippines. These include: The Igorots/Cordillerans live in the highlands of Luzon . They are primarily located in

8357-562: The 16th century, Spanish colonization brought new groups of people to the Philippines mainly Spaniards and Mexicans . Many settled in the Philippines, and intermarried with the indigenous population. This gave rise to the Filipino mestizo or individuals of mixed Austronesian and Hispanic descent. There was migration of a military nature from Latin-America (Mexico and Peru) to the Philippines , composed of varying races (Amerindian, Mestizo and Criollo) as described by Stephanie J. Mawson in her book "Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in

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8494-441: The 20th century and late 19th century, possibly numbering around 2 million, although there are an estimated 27 percent of Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry, stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese ( Sangley ) migrants from the past centuries especially during the Spanish Colonial Era . Intermarriage between the groups is evident in the major cities and urban areas, and spans back to Spanish colonial times , where

8631-423: The Austronesian languages in a recursive-like fashion, placing Kra-Dai as a sister branch of Malayo-Polynesian. His methodology has been found to be spurious by his peers. Several linguists have proposed that Japanese is genetically related to the Austronesian family, cf. Benedict (1990), Matsumoto (1975), Miller (1967). Some other linguists think it is more plausible that Japanese is not genetically related to

8768-403: The Austronesian languages to be related to the Sino-Tibetan languages , and also groups the Kra–Dai languages as more closely related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages . Sagart argues for a north-south genetic relationship between Chinese and Austronesian, based on sound correspondences in the basic vocabulary and morphological parallels. Laurent Sagart (2017) concludes that the possession of

8905-415: The Austronesian languages, but instead was influenced by an Austronesian substratum or adstratum . Those who propose this scenario suggest that the Austronesian family once covered the islands to the north as well as to the south. Martine Robbeets (2017) claims that Japanese genetically belongs to the "Transeurasian" (= Macro-Altaic ) languages, but underwent lexical influence from "para-Austronesian",

9042-418: The Formosan languages actually make up more than one first-order subgroup of Austronesian. Robert Blust (1977) first presented the subgrouping model which is currently accepted by virtually all scholars in the field, with more than one first-order subgroup on Taiwan, and a single first-order branch encompassing all Austronesian languages spoken outside of Taiwan, viz. Malayo-Polynesian . The relationships of

9179-454: The Formosan languages to each other and the internal structure of Malayo-Polynesian continue to be debated. In addition to Malayo-Polynesian , thirteen Formosan subgroups are broadly accepted. The seminal article in the classification of Formosan—and, by extension, the top-level structure of Austronesian—is Blust (1999) . Prominent Formosanists (linguists who specialize in Formosan languages) take issue with some of its details, but it remains

9316-399: The Imallod, with populations distributed among the other towns of the province. Isnag populations can also be found in the eastern part of the adjacent provinces of Ilocos Norte and Cagayan . The Itneg ( exonym Tinguian / Tingguian / Tinggian ) are an Austronesian ethnic group from the upland province of Abra in northwestern Luzon , in the Philippines . The native Itneg language

9453-488: The Indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range in northern Luzon are often referred to using the exonym "Igorot people," or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples . Meanwhile, the non-Moro peoples of Mindanao are collectively referred to as the Lumad , a collective autonym conceived in 1986 as a way to distinguish them from their neighboring Indigenous Moro and Visayan neighbors. Small Indigenous ethnic communities remain marginalized, and often poorer than

9590-493: The Journal of Forensic Anthropology, collating contemporary Anthropological data show that the percentage of Filipino bodies who were sampled from the University of the Philippines , that is phenotypically classified as Asian ( East , South and Southeast Asian ) is 72.7%, Hispanic (Spanish-Amerindian Mestizo, Latin American , and/or Spanish-Malay Mestizo ) is at 12.7%, Indigenous American ( Native American ) at 7.3%, African at 4.5%, and European at 2.7%. In 2013, according to

9727-419: The Kankanaey built sloping terraces to maximize farm space in the rugged terrain of the Cordilleras . They speak the Kankanaey language . The only difference amongst the Kankanaey are the way they speak such as intonation and word usage. In intonation, there is distinction between those who speak Hard Kankanaey ( Applai ) and Soft Kankanaey. Speakers of Hard Kankanaey are from the towns of Sagada and Besao in

9864-863: The Maguindanao people tend to be exposed to the Cebuano or Hiligaynon languages from Visayas easily enough to be able to speak it. Arabic is spoken by a minority of the Moro people, being the liturgical language of Islam . Some also speak Chabacano, which is a Philippine Spanish Creole that gained popularity as a major language during the Spanish rule and during the short-lived Republic of Zamboanga, most specifically Cotabateño dialect, spoken in Cotabato City . The Sangil people (also called Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen, or Talaoerezen) are originally from

10001-571: The Malayan Arabic script, with adaptations to sounds not present in Arabic . Yakans speak Chabacano , which is the lingua franca of Basilan, the reason of easier adaptation to the society of Zamboanga City. Because of the mass influx of Cebuano migrants to Mindanao, many of the Yakans also tend to be exposed to the Cebuano language from Visayas easily enough to be able to speak it. The Yakan have

10138-646: The Maranao which established trading routes near the coast. Some Iranun clans, however, are descendants of outcast clans that left Lake Lanao after one of their clan members committed a murder. For several centuries, the Iranuns in the Philippines formed part of the Sultanate of Maguindanao . In the past, the seat of the Maguindanao Sultanate was situated at Lamitan and Malabang . Both of which were

10275-935: The Neolithic rice-cultivating pre-Austronesian civilizations of the Yangtze River delta in coastal southeastern China pre-dating the conquest of those regions by the Han Chinese . This includes civilizations like the Liangzhu culture , Hemudu culture , and the Majiabang culture . It connects speakers of the Austronesian languages in a common linguistic and genetic lineage, including the Taiwanese indigenous peoples , Islander Southeast Asians , Chams , Islander Melanesians , Micronesians , Polynesians , and

10412-568: The Philippines since the Spanish colonial era , there are also some historical migrant heritage groups such as the Chinese Filipinos and Spanish Filipinos , both of whom intermixed with the above lowland Austronesian-speaking ethnic groups, which produced Filipino Mestizos . These groups also comprise and contribute a considerable proportion of the country's population, especially its bourgeois , and economy and were integral to

10549-491: The Philippines was only about 667,612 . In the 1600s, Spain deployed thousands of Mexican and Peruvian soldiers across the many cities and presidios of the Philippines. Another 35,000 Mexican immigrants arrived in the 1700s and they were part of a Philippine population of only 1.5 million, forming about 2.3% of the population. In the late 1700s to early 1800s, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, an Agustinian Friar, in his Two Volume Book: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas" compiled

10686-469: The Philippines. As of 2013 , there were 220,000 to 600,000 American citizens living in the country. There are also 250,000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Angeles City , Manila , and Olongapo . Practicing forensic anthropology , while exhuming cranial bones in several Philippine cemeteries, researcher Matthew C. Go estimated that 7% of the mean amount, among the samples exhumed, have attribution to European descent. Research work published in

10823-485: The Philippines. Their home islands include Sitangkai and Bongao . They sometimes call themselves the "Sama To'ongan" (literally "true Sama" or "real Sama"), to distinguish themselves from the land-dwelling Sama-Bajau subgroups. They are also found in other islands of the Sulu Archipelago , coastal areas of Mindanao , northern and eastern Borneo , Sulawesi , and throughout eastern Indonesian islands. Within

10960-698: The Proto-Austronesian language stops at the western shores of Taiwan; any related mainland language(s) have not survived. The only exceptions, the Chamic languages , derive from more recent migration to the mainland. However, according to Ostapirat's interpretation of the seriously discussed Austro-Tai hypothesis, the Kra–Dai languages (also known as Tai–Kadai) are exactly those related mainland languages. Genealogical links have been proposed between Austronesian and various families of East and Southeast Asia . An Austro-Tai proposal linking Austronesian and

11097-660: The Proto-Malay and the Deutero-Malay peoples possibly come from the same origin. Previous theories suggested that the Deutero-Malays came in a second wave of migration, around 300 BCE, compared to the arrival of the Proto-Malays who came much earlier. Ernest-Théodore Hamy (1896) first identified 3 Proto-Malay groups that are found in Sumatra and Borneo , Indonesia : Both Koentjaraningrat and Alfred Russel Wallace 's (1869) research also concluded that most of

11234-580: The Proto-Malay are classified under the native Orang Asli group of people in the Peninsular Malaysia . They are officially known as: Other ethnic groups outside of the Peninsular Malaysia that are also regarded as Proto-Malay apart from the Orang Asli people group are such as the Rungus people . In the Philippines , there are several people groups that have been identified as part of

11371-653: The Proto-Malay group: While there are other ethnic groups in the Philippines , that are in some ways related or shares a mixture of Proto-Malay, namely: Austronesian languages In 1706, the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland first observed similarities between the languages spoken in the Malay Archipelago and by peoples on islands in the Pacific Ocean. In the 19th century, researchers (e.g. Wilhelm von Humboldt , Herman van der Tuuk ) started to apply

11508-581: The Seventeenth-Century Pacific". Also, in her dissertation paper called, ‘Between Loyalty and Disobedience: The Limits of Spanish Domination in the Seventeenth Century Pacific’, she recorded an accumulated number of 15,600 soldier-settlers sent to the Philippines from Latin-America during the 1600s. In contrast, there were only 600 Spaniards who immigrated from Europe, in which timeframe, the total population of

11645-539: The Taiwan mainland (including its offshore Yami language ) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian (sometimes called Extra-Formosan ) branch. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of written attestation. This makes reconstructing earlier stages—up to distant Proto-Austronesian—all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language , the Đông Yên Châu inscription dated to c.  350 AD,

11782-590: The Zamboanga dialect; most of those fluent in Chabacano are residents of Basilan & Zamboanga City. Most Tausug in Sabah and North Kalimantan & some Tausug in Sulu Archipeago & south Palawan speak Sabah Malay . The Jama Mapun are sometimes known by the exonyms 'Sama Mapun", "Sama Kagayan", or "Bajau Kagayan". They are part of the Sama-Bajau peoples. They are from the island of Mapun, Tawi-Tawi (formerly known as Cagayan de Sulu). Their culture

11919-598: The advent of Christianity . In general, however, it can be said that all Bontocs are very aware of their own way of life and are not overly eager to change. The Ifugao (also known as Amganad, Ayangan, Kiangan, Gilipanes, Quiangan, Tuwali Ifugao, Mayoyao, Mayaoyaw) are the people inhabiting Ifugao Province . The country of the Ifugao in the southeastern part of the Cordillera region is best known for its famous Banaue Rice Terraces , which in modern times have become one of

12056-407: The average Filipino's genes are around 53% Southeast Asian and Oceanian, 36% East Asian, 5% Southern European, 3% South Asian and 2% Native American. The collective term Moro people or Bangsamoro people refers to the, at least 13, islamicized ethnolinguistic groups of Mindanao , Sulu and Palawan . As Muslim-majority ethnic groups, they form the largest non- Christian majority population in

12193-732: The banks of the Chico River in the Central Mountain Province on the island of Luzon . They speak Bontoc and Ilocano . They formerly practiced head-hunting and had distinctive body tattoos . Present-day Bontocs are a peaceful agricultural people who have, by choice, retained most of their traditional culture despite frequent contacts with other groups. The Bontoc social structure used to be centered around village wards ( ato ) containing about 14 to 50 homes. Traditionally, young men and women lived in dormitories and ate meals with their families. This gradually changed with

12330-744: The colonial era, the Sangil (who usually call themselves "Sangir") in the Sangihe Islands mostly converted to Protestant Christianity due to proximity and contact with the Christian Minahasa people of Sulawesi . In the Philippines, most Sangil converted to Islam due to the influence of the neighboring Sultanate of Maguindanao . However, elements of animistic rituals still remain. The Indonesian and Filipino groups still maintain ties and both Manado Malay and Cebuano are spoken in both Indonesian Sangir and Filipino Sangil, in addition to

12467-434: The connection is valid, the relationship is unlikely to be one of two sister families. Rather, he suggests that proto-Kra-Dai speakers were Austronesians who migrated to Hainan Island and back to the mainland from the northern Philippines, and that their distinctiveness results from radical restructuring following contact with Hmong–Mien and Sinitic . An extended version of Austro-Tai was hypothesized by Benedict who added

12604-432: The country's Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997 . Traditionally-Muslim peoples from the southernmost island group of Mindanao are usually categorized together as Moro peoples , whether they are classified as Indigenous peoples or not. About 142 are classified as non-Muslim Indigenous people groups, and about 19 ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither Indigenous nor Moro. Various migrant groups have also had

12741-619: The country, and comprise about 5% of the total Philippine population, or 5 million people. Most Moros are followers of Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i madh'hab . The Muslim Moros originally had a few independent states such as the Maguindanao Sultanate & Buayan Sultanate for Maguindanaon , the Lanao Sultanates for Maranao , and the Sulu Sultanate for Tausug . The Sultanate of Sulu once exercised sovereignty over

12878-510: The data, in the Archdiocese of Manila which administers much of Luzon under it, about 10% of the population was Spanish-Filipino. Overall the whole Philippines, even including the provinces with no Spanish settlement, as summed up, the average percentage of Spanish Filipino tributes amount to 5% of the total population. The current modern-day Chinese Filipinos are mostly the descendants of immigrants from Southern Fujian in China from

13015-405: The deepest divisions in Austronesian are found along small geographic distances, among the families of the native Formosan languages . According to Robert Blust , the Formosan languages form nine of the ten primary branches of the Austronesian language family. Comrie (2001 :28) noted this when he wrote: ... the internal diversity among the... Formosan languages... is greater than that in all

13152-423: The early Austronesian and Sino-Tibetan maternal gene pools, at least. Additionally, results from Wei et al. (2017) are also in agreement with Sagart's proposal, in which their analyses show that the predominantly Austronesian Y-DNA haplogroup O3a2b*-P164(xM134) belongs to a newly defined haplogroup O3a2b2-N6 being widely distributed along the eastern coastal regions of Asia, from Korea to Vietnam. Sagart also groups

13289-515: The east, and were treated by the Puyuma, amongst whom they settled, as a subservient group. This classification retains Blust's East Formosan, and unites the other northern languages. Li (2008) proposes a Proto-Formosan (F0) ancestor and equates it with Proto-Austronesian (PAN), following the model in Starosta (1995). Rukai and Tsouic are seen as highly divergent, although the position of Rukai

13426-581: The entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms (e.g. Bunun dusa ; Amis tusa ; Māori rua ) require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists (coded for cognateness) for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages. The internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex. The family consists of many similar and closely related languages with large numbers of dialect continua , making it difficult to recognize boundaries between branches. The first major step towards high-order subgrouping

13563-534: The entire region encompassed by the Austronesian languages. It is believed that this migration began around 6,000 years ago. However, evidence from historical linguistics cannot bridge the gap between those two periods. The view that linguistic evidence connects Austronesian languages to the Sino-Tibetan ones, as proposed for example by Sagart (2002) , is a minority one. As Fox (2004 :8) states: Implied in... discussions of subgrouping [of Austronesian languages]

13700-479: The establishment of the country, from the rise of Filipino nationalism by the Ilustrado intelligentsia to the Philippine Revolution . Other peoples of migrant and/or mixed descent include American Filipinos , Indian Filipinos , and Japanese Filipinos . Aside from migrant groups which speak their own languages, most Filipinos speak languages classified under the Austronesian language family , including

13837-439: The ethnic and cultural development of the islands. Papuan ancestry was also detected among the ethnic Blaan and Sangir people of Mindanao, suggesting that there was westward expansion of peoples from Papua New Guinea into the Philippines. The integration of Southeast Asia into Indian Ocean trading networks around 2,000 years ago also shows some impact, with South Asian genetic signals present within some Sama-Bajau communities. By

13974-399: The first lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages, Isidore Dyen (1965) presented a radically different subgrouping scheme. He posited 40 first-order subgroups, with the highest degree of diversity found in the area of Melanesia . The Oceanic languages are not recognized, but are distributed over more than 30 of his proposed first-order subgroups. Dyen's classification

14111-425: The group is probably not valid. Other studies have presented phonological evidence for a reduced Paiwanic family of Paiwanic , Puyuma, Bunun, Amis, and Malayo-Polynesian, but this is not reflected in vocabulary. The Eastern Formosan peoples Basay, Kavalan, and Amis share a homeland motif that has them coming originally from an island called Sinasay or Sanasay . The Amis, in particular, maintain that they came from

14248-709: The hypothesis is still widely taught in Filipino elementary and public schools resulting in the widespread misconception by Filipinos that they are " Malays ". The most widely accepted theory, however, is the "Out-of-Taiwan" model which follows the Austronesian expansion during the Neolithic in a series of maritime migrations originating from Taiwan that spread to the islands of the Indo-Pacific ; ultimately reaching as far as New Zealand , Easter Island , and Madagascar . Austronesians themselves originated from

14385-755: The inclusion of Japonic and Koreanic. Blevins (2007) proposed that the Austronesian and the Ongan protolanguage are the descendants of an Austronesian–Ongan protolanguage. This view is not supported by mainstream linguists and remains very controversial. Robert Blust rejects Blevins' proposal as far-fetched and based solely on chance resemblances and methodologically flawed comparisons. Most Austronesian languages have Latin -based writing systems today. Some non-Latin-based writing systems are listed below. Below are two charts comparing list of numbers of 1–10 and thirteen words in Austronesian languages; spoken in Taiwan ,

14522-624: The intermingling of the indigenous Subanon populations with the Muslim populations in the coastal areas of Zamboanga . Converted Subanons also created the Kolibugan. The population is concentrated along the western side of the provinces of both northern (6,495) and southern Zamboanga (3,270), and a national count of over 11,000. The concentrations are in Siocon (2,040), Sirawai (1,960), and Sibuco (1,520) (NSO 1980). The total population count

14659-710: The islands. Recent archaeological evidence described by Peter Bellwood claimed that the ancestors of Filipinos, Malaysians, and Indonesians first crossed the Taiwan Strait during the Prehistoric period. These early mariners are thought to be the Austronesian people . They used boats to cross the oceans, and settled into many regions of Southeast Asia, the Polynesian Islands, and Madagascar. Two early East Asian waves ( Austroasiatic and possible Austric ) were detected, one most strongly evidenced among

14796-610: The largest single group of Sama-Bajau . In Davao del Norte , the Island Garden City of Samal was possibly named after them. A 2021 genetic study show how the Sama has common ancestry with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. The Sama Bihing or Sama Lipid are also known as "shoreline Sama" or " littoral Sama". These are the Sama-Bajau which traditionally lived in stilt houses in shallows and coastal areas. An example

14933-711: The last fifty years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have migrated to neighbouring Malaysia and the northern islands of the Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao . A genetic study published in PNAS show that the Dilaut people of the Philippines have South Asian or Indian descent. As of 2010, they were the second-largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah . Sama-Bajau have sometimes been called

15070-536: The linguistic research, rejecting an East Asian origin in favor of Taiwan (e.g., Trejaut et al. 2005 ). Archaeological evidence (e.g., Bellwood 1997 ) is more consistent, suggesting that the ancestors of the Austronesians spread from the South Chinese mainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago. Evidence from historical linguistics suggests that it is from this island that seafaring peoples migrated, perhaps in distinct waves separated by millennia, to

15207-529: The major indigenous Filipino ethnolinguistic groups in the Sulu Archipelago . Having a significant number of followers of Islam , the Yakans are included among the 13 Moro groups in the Philippines . The Yakans mainly reside in Basilan but are also in Zamboanga City . They speak a language known as Bissa Yakan , which has characteristics of both Sama-Bajau Sinama and Tausug . It is written in

15344-555: The major tourist attractions of the Philippines. The Ifugaos also speak four distinct dialects and are known for their rich oral literary traditions of hudhud and the alim, which were chosen as one of the 11 Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . It was then formally inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008. The Kankanaey domain includes Western Mountain Province , northern Benguet and southeastern Ilocos Sur . Like most Igorot ethnic groups,

15481-691: The nineteenth century. They speak the Karao language (also spelled Karaw). It is spoken in the Karao, Ekip, and Bokod areas of western Benguet Province , and in the southwestern corner of Ifugao Province . The language is named after the barangay of Karaw in Bokod municipality, Benguet . The Iwak people (Oak, Iguat, Iwaak, etc.) is a small ethnic group, which has a population of approximately 3,000, dispersed in small fenced-in villages which are usually enclaves in communities of surrounding major ethnic groups like

15618-423: The number of principal branches among the Formosan languages may be somewhat less than Blust's estimate of nine (e.g. Li 2006 ), there is little contention among linguists with this analysis and the resulting view of the origin and direction of the migration. For a recent dissenting analysis, see Peiros (2004) . The protohistory of the Austronesian people can be traced farther back through time. To get an idea of

15755-551: The older Negrito groups which arrived during the Paleolithic , resulting in the modern Filipino ethnic groups, which all display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups. By the 14th century, the Malayo-Polynesian ethnolinguistic groups had dominated and displaced the Negrito population in most areas. Traders from southern China, Japan , India , and Arabia also contributed to

15892-647: The oldest human remains discovered by anthropologists in the Philippines. Archaeological evidence indicates similarities with two early human fossils found in Indonesia and China, called the Java Man and Peking Man . In 2007, a single metatarsal from an earlier fossil was discovered in Callao Cave , Peñablanca, Cagayan . That earlier fossil was named as Callao Man . The Negritos arrived about 30,000 years ago and occupied several scattered areas throughout

16029-553: The only indigenous people in Palawan where the majority of its people are Muslims . The area constitutes the homeland of the Molbog people since the classical era prior to Spanish colonization. The Molbog are known to have a strong connection with the natural world, especially with the sacred pilandok ( Philippine mouse-deer ), which can only be found in the Balabac islands. The coconut is especially important in Molbog culture at it

16166-455: The original homeland of the populations ancestral to the Austronesian peoples (as opposed to strictly linguistic arguments), evidence from archaeology and population genetics may be adduced. Studies from the science of genetics have produced conflicting outcomes. Some researchers find evidence for a proto-Austronesian homeland on the Asian mainland (e.g., Melton et al. 1998 ), while others mirror

16303-639: The past this ethnolinguistic group was known as Kalanggutan, Keley'I, Mandek'ey, Yatukka, or Kalangoya. The Kalanguya are considered a subgroup of the Ifugao people . The Karao tribe lives in the municipality of Bokod , Benguet . The ancestors of the Karaos are the Panuy-puys (puypuys), who migrated from Palileng, Bontoc to Diyang in Nueva Viscaya , and finally settled in Karao in the latter part of

16440-473: The point of reference for current linguistic analyses. Debate centers primarily around the relationships between these families. Of the classifications presented here, Blust (1999) links two families into a Western Plains group, two more in a Northwestern Formosan group, and three into an Eastern Formosan group, while Li (2008) also links five families into a Northern Formosan group. Harvey (1982), Chang (2006) and Ross (2012) split Tsouic, and Blust (2013) agrees

16577-479: The present day provinces of Basilan , Palawan , Sulu , Tawi-Tawi , the eastern part of the Malaysian state of Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and North Kalimantan in Indonesia. The Molbog (referred to in the literature as Molebugan or Molebuganon) are concentrated in southern Palawan , around Balabac , Bataraza , and are also found in other islands of the coast of Palawan as far north as Panakan. They are

16714-545: The present, many of the younger generation of the tribe have gained education and are exposed to modernization thus changing the once traditional society of the tribe. The Balangao/Farangao/Balangao Bontoc language is used by the Balangao tribe and is confined to the tribe and other nearby tribes who have their own languages related to the language. It is spoken in the central area of Mountain Province , and into Tanudan municipality of Kalinga Province . The Bontoc live on

16851-414: The rest of Austronesian put together, so there is a major genetic split within Austronesian between Formosan and the rest... Indeed, the genetic diversity within Formosan is so great that it may well consist of several primary branches of the overall Austronesian family. At least since Sapir (1968) , writing in 1949, linguists have generally accepted that the chronology of the dispersal of languages within

16988-402: The rest of society. About 86 to 87 percent of the Philippine population belong to the 19 ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither Indigenous nor Moro. These groups are sometimes collectively referred to as "Lowland Christianized groups," to distinguish them from the other ethnolinguistic groups. The most populous of these groups, with populations exceeding a million individuals, are

17125-543: The rice-cultivating Austro-Asiatic cultures, assuming the center of East Asian rice domestication, and putative Austric homeland, to be located in the Yunnan/Burma border area. Under that view, there was an east-west genetic alignment, resulting from a rice-based population expansion, in the southern part of East Asia: Austroasiatic-Kra-Dai-Austronesian, with unrelated Sino-Tibetan occupying a more northerly tier. French linguist and Sinologist Laurent Sagart considers

17262-399: The same ancestral word in Proto-Austronesian according to regular rules. Some cognate sets are very stable. The word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata (from the most northerly Austronesian languages, Formosan languages such as Bunun and Amis all the way south to Māori ). Other words are harder to reconstruct. The word for two is also stable, in that it appears over

17399-497: The same pattern. He proposes that pMP *lima 'five' is a lexical replacement (from 'hand'), and that pMP *pitu 'seven', *walu 'eight' and *Siwa 'nine' are contractions of pAN *RaCep 'five', a ligature *a or *i 'and', and *duSa 'two', *telu 'three', *Sepat 'four', an analogical pattern historically attested from Pazeh . The fact that the Kradai languages share the numeral system (and other lexical innovations) of pMP suggests that they are

17536-519: The southern tribe who are the "people of the lake", a predominantly Muslim Lanao province region of the Philippine island of Mindanao . They are known for their artwork, weaving, wood, plastic and metal crafts and epic literature, the Darengen . They live around Lake Lanao , the ancestral homeland of the Maranao people. They are related to modern the Maguindanao and Iranun people . They speak

17673-626: The strongholds of the Iranun society. Iranuns fought the Western invaders under the flag of the Maguindanao Sultanate. They formed part of the Moro resistance against the US occupation of the Philippines from 1899 to 1913 . The Iranun were excellent in maritime activity as they are traditionally sailors and pirates . They used to ply the route connecting the Sulu Sea , Moro Gulf to Celebes Sea , and raided

17810-401: The time the last glacial period was coming to an end. The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon . From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia , as well as voyaging further east to reach the Northern Mariana Islands by around 1500 BC. They assimilated

17947-470: The two kinds of millets in Taiwanese Austronesian languages (not just Setaria, as previously thought) places the pre-Austronesians in northeastern China, adjacent to the probable Sino-Tibetan homeland. Ko et al.'s genetic research (2014) appears to support Laurent Sagart's linguistic proposal, pointing out that the exclusively Austronesian mtDNA E-haplogroup and the largely Sino-Tibetan M9a haplogroup are twin sisters, indicative of an intimate connection between

18084-406: The various Negrito peoples of the archipelago, which are genetically and phenotypically distinct from the other ethnic groups of the Philippines. While these groups have maintained a culture and identity distinct from neighboring ethnic groups, they have long adapted their neighbors' Austronesian languages. Traditionally subcategorized geographically as the Ati people of Visayas and Mindanao, and

18221-437: The western Mountain Province as well as their environs. They speak Kankanaey with a hard intonation where they differ in some words from the soft-speaking Kankanaey. Soft-speaking Kankanaey come from Northern and other parts of Benguet, and from the municipalities of Sabangan , Tadian and Bauko in Mountain Province. They also differ in their ways of life and sometimes in culture. The Kalanguya (also called Ikalahan) live in

18358-416: Was Dempwolff's recognition of the Oceanic subgroup (called Melanesisch by Dempwolff). The special position of the languages of Taiwan was first recognized by André-Georges Haudricourt (1965), who divided the Austronesian languages into three subgroups: Northern Austronesian (= Formosan ), Eastern Austronesian (= Oceanic ), and Western Austronesian (all remaining languages). In a study that represents

18495-430: Was Malayo-Polynesian, distributed across the Philippines, Indonesia, and Melanesia. The second migration was that of the Oceanic languages into Polynesia and Micronesia. From the standpoint of historical linguistics , the place of origin (in linguistic terminology, Urheimat ) of the Austronesian languages ( Proto-Austronesian language ) is most likely the main island of Taiwan , also known as Formosa; on this island

18632-503: Was an Austronesian language derived from proto-Javanese language, but only that it provided a superstratum language for old Japanese , based on 82 plausible Javanese-Japanese cognates, mostly related to rice farming. In 2001, Stanley Starosta proposed a new language family named East Asian , that includes all primary language families in the broader East Asia region except Japonic and Koreanic . This proposed family consists of two branches, Austronesian and Sino-Tibetan-Yangzian, with

18769-403: Was widely criticized and for the most part rejected, but several of his lower-order subgroups are still accepted (e.g. the Cordilleran languages , the Bilic languages or the Murutic languages ). Subsequently, the position of the Formosan languages as the most archaic group of Austronesian languages was recognized by Otto Christian Dahl (1973), followed by proposals from other scholars that

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