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111-456: Alberti may refer to: Leon Battista Alberti , the Renaissance architect Leon Battista Alberti He is often considered primarily an architect. However, according to James Beck, "to single out one of Leon Battista's 'fields' over others as somehow functionally independent and self-sufficient is of no help at all to any effort to characterize Alberti's extensive explorations in

222-897: A Christian further popularized humanist ideas. In 1963, the British Humanist Association evolved out of the Ethical Union, and merged with many smaller ethical and rationalist groups. Elsewhere in Europe, humanist organizations also flourished. In the Netherlands, the Dutch Humanist Alliance gained a wide base of support after World War II; in Norway, the Norwegian Humanist Association gained popular support. In

333-405: A Greek myth in which the absurd hero Sisyphus is destined to push a heavy rock up a hill; the rock slips back and he must repeat the task. Sisyphus is negating Gods and preset meanings of life, but argues that life has value and significance, and that each individual is able to create their meanings of life. Camus thus highlights the importance of personal agency and self-determination that lie at

444-735: A commission from Sigismondo Malatesta to transform the Gothic church of San Francesco in Rimini into a memorial chapel, the Tempio Malatestiano . In Florence, he designed the upper parts of the façade for the Dominican church of Santa Maria Novella , famously bridging the nave and lower aisles with two ornately inlaid scrolls, solving a visual problem and setting a precedent to be followed by architects of churches for four hundred years. In 1452, he completed De re aedificatoria ,

555-454: A few religious doctrines to also identify as a humanist. Copson adds that religious critics usually frame humanism as an enemy of religion but most humanists are proponents of religious tolerance or exhibit a curiosity about religion's effects in society and politics, commenting: "Only a few are regularly outraged by other people's false beliefs per se ". In the 19th century, along with the decline of religion and its accompanied teleology ,

666-505: A fresh context, which fit in well with the contemporary aesthetic discourse. In Rome, Alberti spent considerable time studying its ancient sites, ruins, and arts. His detailed observations, included in his De re aedificatoria (1452, On the Art of Building ), were inspired by the essay De architectura written by the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius ( fl. 46–30 BC). Alberti's work

777-505: A man of culture... a friend of talented men, open and courteous with everyone. He always lived honourably and like the gentleman he was." Alberti died in Rome on 25 April 1472 at the age of 68. Alberti considered mathematics as the foundation of arts and sciences. "To make clear my exposition in writing this brief commentary on painting," Alberti began his treatise, Della Pittura (On Painting) dedicated to Brunelleschi, "I will take first from

888-496: A manner that includes Classical proportions and elements such as pilasters, cornices, and a pediment in the Classical style, ornamented with a sunburst in tesserae, rather than sculpture. The best known feature of this typically aisled church is the manner in which Alberti has solved the problem of visually bridging the different levels of the central nave and much lower side aisles. He employed two large scrolls, which were to become

999-617: A philosophy that usually rejects supernaturalism and stresses an individual's dignity and worth and capacity for self-realization through reason". Traces of humanism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy . Pre-Socratic philosophers were the first Western philosophers to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason and natural law without relying on myth, tradition, or religion. Protagoras , who lived in Athens c.  440 BCE , put forward some fundamental humanist ideas, although only fragments of his work survive. He made one of

1110-399: A prominent center of Renaissance humanism; his circle included other notable humanists—including Leonardo Bruni , who rediscovered, translated, and popularized ancient texts. Humanists heavily influenced education. Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino Veronese created schools based on humanistic principles; their curriculum was widely adopted and by the 16th century, humanistic paideia was

1221-513: A range of combinations exists. Individualistic humanists often have a philosophical perspective of humanism; in politics, these are inclined to libertarianism and in ethics tend to follow a scientistic approach. Collectivists have a more-applied view of humanism, lean toward socialism, and have a humanitarian approach to ethics. The second group has connections with the thought of young Marx , especially his anthropological views rejecting his political practices. A factor that repels many humanists from

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1332-435: A satisfying life with virtue and happiness by improving societies worldwide. Humanist Andrew Copson takes a consequentialist and utilitarian approach to morality; according to Copson, all humanist ethical traits aim at human welfare. Philosopher Stephen Law emphasizes some principles of humanist ethics; respect for personal moral autonomy, rejection of god-given moral commands, an aim for human well-being, and "emphasiz[ing]

1443-595: A small Latin work on geography, Descriptio urbis Romae ( The Panorama of the City of Rome ). Just a few years before his death, Alberti completed De iciarchia ( On Ruling the Household ), a dialogue about Florence during the Medici rule. Alberti took holy orders and never married. He loved animals and had a pet dog, a mongrel, about whom he wrote a panegyric ( Canis ). Vasari describes Alberti as "an admirable citizen,

1554-474: A standard feature of church façades in the later Renaissance, Baroque, and Classical Revival buildings. Alberti is considered to have been the consultant for the design of the Piazza Pio II, Pienza . The village, previously called Corsignano, was redesigned beginning around 1459. It was the birthplace of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II , in whose employ Alberti served. Pius II wanted to use

1665-489: A treatise on architecture, using as its basis the work of Vitruvius and influenced by the ancient roman buildings. The work was not published until 1485. It was followed in 1464 by his less influential work, De statua , in which he examines sculpture. Alberti's only known sculpture is a self-portrait medallion, sometimes attributed to Pisanello . Alberti was employed to design two churches in Mantua , San Sebastiano , which

1776-544: A universal law, shaped the humanist moral narrative until the early 20th century. Because the concepts of free will and reason are not based on scientific naturalism, their influence on humanists remained in the early 20th century but was reduced by social progressiveness and egalitarianism. As part of social changes in the late 20th century, humanist ethics evolved to support secularism , civil rights, personal autonomy, religious toleration, multiculturalism , and cosmopolitanism . A naturalistic criticism of humanistic morality

1887-532: A visual rather than structural viewpoint. He correctly employed the Classical orders , unlike his contemporary, Brunelleschi , who used the Classical column and pilaster in a free interpretation. Alberti reflected on the social effects of architecture, and was attentive to the urban landscape. This is demonstrated by his inclusion, at the Rucellai Palace, of a continuous bench for seating at the level of

1998-503: Is a lack of shared belief system or doctrine but, in general, humanists aim for happiness and self-fulfillment. In 2015, prominent humanist Andrew Copson defined humanism as follows: According to the International Humanist and Ethical Union : Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for

2109-435: Is a major current of counseling. There are various approaches such as discussion and critical thinking , replying to existential anxiety , and focusing on social and political dimensions of problems. Humanist counseling focuses on respecting the client's worldview and placing it in the correct cultural context. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. It also recognizes

2220-449: Is a private issue and the state should have no power over it. He also argues that secularism helps plurality and diversity, which are fundamental aspects of our modern world. While barbarism and violence can be found in most civilizations, Haworth notes religion usually fuels rhetoric and enables these actions. He also said the values of hard work, honesty, and charity are found in other civilizations. According to Haworth, humanism opposes

2331-403: Is a tool rather than a set of doctrines that was used to develop human culture. Humanist philosopher Brian Ellis advocates a social humanist theory of morality called "social contractual utilitarianism", which is based on Hume's naturalism and empathy, Aristotelian virtue theory, and Kant's idealism. According to Ellis, morality should aim for eudaimonia , an Aristotelian concept that combines

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2442-468: Is a vaulted stable that had stalls for a hundred horses. The design, which radically transformed the center of the town, included a palace for the pope, a church, a town hall, and a building for the bishops who would accompany the Pope on his trips. Pienza is considered an early example of Renaissance urban planning. The Basilica of Sant'Andrea , Mantua was begun in 1471, the year before Alberti's death. It

2553-463: Is an obstacle to morality rather than a prerequisite for it. According to humanists, acting only out of fear, adherence to dogma, and expectation of a reward is a selfish motivation rather than morality. Humanists point to the subjectivity of the supposedly objective divine commands by referring to the Euthyphro dilemma , originally posed by Socrates: "does God command something because it is good or

2664-511: Is as pleasing as it is necessary". The work of art is, according to Alberti, so constructed that it is impossible to take anything away from it or to add anything to it, without impairing the beauty of the whole. Beauty was for Alberti "the harmony of all parts in relation to one another," and subsequently "this concord is realized in a particular number, proportion, and arrangement demanded by harmony". Alberti's thoughts on harmony were not new—they could be traced back to Pythagoras—but he set them in

2775-633: Is dark? ( quid tum si fuscus Amyntas? ) Violets are black, and hyacinths are black." Alberti made a variety of contributions to several fields: [1] Archived 2022-04-18 at the Wayback Machine Magda Saura, "Building codes in the architectural treatise De re aedificatoria," [2] Archived 2022-04-18 at the Wayback Machine Third International Congress on Construction History , Cottbus, May 2009. [3] Archived 2022-04-18 at

2886-412: Is lessened. Humanists also consider human essence to be universal, irrespective of race and social status, diminishing the importance of collective identities and signifying the importance of individuals. Immanuel Kant provided the modern philosophical basis of the humanist narrative. His theory of critical philosophy formed the basis of the world of knowledge, defending rationalism and grounding it in

2997-627: Is not surprising since he devoted himself more to his studies than to draughtsmanship." Jacob Burckhardt portrayed Alberti in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy as a truly universal genius. "And Leonardo Da Vinci was to Alberti as the finisher to the beginner, as the master to the dilettante. Would only that Vasari's work were here supplemented by a description like that of Alberti! The colossal outlines of Leonardo's nature can never be more than dimly and distantly conceived." Alberti

3108-467: Is now rarely practiced. The American Humanist Association arose from religious humanism. The same term has been used by religious groups such as the Quakers to describe their humanistic theology . The term "Renaissance humanism" was given to a tradition of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers that developed during

3219-458: Is probable Bavarian theologian Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined the term humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools. Soon, other scholars such as Georg Voigt and Jacob Burckhardt adopted the term. In the 20th century, the word was further refined, acquiring its contemporary meaning of a naturalistic approach to life, and a focus on

3330-534: Is said to appear in Mantegna's great frescoes in the Camera degli Sposi , as the older man dressed in dark red clothes, who whispers in the ear of Ludovico Gonzaga , the ruler of Mantua. In Alberti's self-portrait, a large plaquette , he is clothed as a Roman. To the left of his profile is a winged eye. On the reverse side is the question, Quid tum? (what then), taken from Virgil 's Eclogues : "So what, if Amyntas

3441-551: Is similar to Alberti's Palazzo Rucellai in Florence and other later palaces. Noteworthy is the internal court of the palazzo. The back of the palace, to the south, is defined by loggia on all three floors that overlook an enclosed Italian Renaissance garden with Giardino all'italiana era modifications, and spectacular views into the distant landscape of the Val d'Orcia and Pope Pius's beloved Mount Amiata beyond. Below this garden

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3552-534: Is something good because God commands it?" If goodness is independent from God, humans can reach goodness without religion but relativism is elicited if God creates goodness. Another argument against this religious criticism is the human-made nature of morality, even through religious means. The interpretation of holy scriptures almost always includes human reasoning; different interpreters reach contradictory theories. Humanism has widely been seen as antithetical to religion. Philosopher of religion David Kline, traces

3663-400: Is surmounted by a heavy cornice. The inner courtyard has Corinthian columns. The palace introduced set the use of classical building elements in civic buildings in Florence, and became very influential. The work was executed by Bernardo Rossellino . At Santa Maria Novella , Florence, between (1448–70) the upper façade was constructed to the design of Alberti. It was a challenging task, as

3774-406: Is the denial of the existence of morality. For naturalistic skeptics, morality was not hardwired within humans during their evolution; humans are primarily selfish and self-centered. Defending humanist morality, humanist philosopher John R. Shook makes three observations that lead him to the acceptance of morality. According to Shook, homo sapiens has a concept of morality that must have been with

3885-408: Is to imitate nature. Painters and sculptors strive "through by different skills, at the same goal, namely that as nearly as possible the work they have undertaken shall appear to the observer to be similar to the real objects of nature". However, Alberti did not mean that artists should imitate nature objectively, as it is, but the artist should be especially attentive to beauty, "for in painting beauty

3996-516: The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), which is now known as Humanists International , and promotes the humanist agenda via the United Nations organizations UNESCO and UNICEF . Early 20th century naturalists, who viewed their humanism as a religion and participated in church-like congregations, used the term "religious humanism". Religious humanism appeared mostly in the US and

4107-684: The Italian Renaissance , ancient works inspired Catholic Italian scholars, giving rise to the Renaissance humanism movement. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic values were reinforced by advances in science and technology, giving confidence to humans in their exploration of the world. By the early 20th century, organizations dedicated to humanism flourished in Europe and the United States, and have since expanded worldwide. In

4218-569: The Villa Medici in Fiesole might have been designed by Alberti, rather than by Michelozzo . This hilltop residence commissioned by Giovanni de' Medici , Cosimo il Vecchio 's second son, with its view over the city, is sometimes considered the first example of a Renaissance villa: it reflects the writing by Alberti about country residential buildings as "villa suburbana". The building later inspired numerous other similar projects buildings from

4329-475: The Wayback Machine hdl : 2117/14252 Humanism Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humanism" has changed according to successive intellectual movements that have identified with it. During

4440-403: The ancient ruins , which excited his interest in architecture and strongly influenced the form of the buildings that he designed. Leon Battista Alberti was gifted in many ways. He was tall, strong, and a fine athlete who could ride the wildest horse and jump over a person's head. He distinguished himself as a writer while still a child at school, and by the age of twenty had written a play that

4551-537: The mere humanity of Christ ". This theological origin of humanism is considered obsolete. In the early 19th century, the term humanismus was used in Germany with several meanings and from there, it re-entered the English language with two distinct denotations; an academic term linked to the study of classic literature and a more-common use that signified a non-religious approach to life contrary to theism . It

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4662-570: The 14th and early 15th centuries. By the late 15th century, these academics began to be referred to as umanisti (humanists). While modern humanism's roots can be traced in part to the Renaissance, the term "Renaissance humanism" does not meaningfully relate to humanism in the modern sense. Other terms using "humanism" in their name include: These varieties of humanism are now largely of historical interest only. Some ethical movements continue (e.g. New York Society for Ethical Culture ) but in general humanism no longer needs any qualification "because

4773-462: The 20th century, some humanist movements are non-religious and aligned with secularism . Most frequently in contemporary usage, humanism refers to a non-theistic view centered on human agency, and a reliance only on science and reason rather than revelation from a divine source to understand the world. Non-theistic humanist worldview maintain religion is not a precondition of morality, and object to excessive religious entanglement with education and

4884-551: The Arab polymath Alhazen ( Ibn al-Haytham , d. c.  1041 ), which was transmitted by Franciscan optical workshops of the thirteenth-century Perspectivae traditions of scholars such as Roger Bacon , John Peckham , and Witelo (similar influences are also traceable in the third commentary of Lorenzo Ghiberti , Commentario terzo ). In both Della pittura and De statua , Alberti stressed that "all steps of learning should be sought from nature". The ultimate aim of an artist

4995-678: The English Language , the word humanist is defined as a philologer or grammarian, derived from the French word humaniste . In a later edition of the dictionary, the meaning "a term used in the schools of Scotland " was added. In the 1780s, Thomas Howes was one of Joseph Priestley 's many opponents during the celebrated Unitarian disputes. Because of the different doctrinal meanings of Unitarian and Unitarianism , Howes used "the more precise appellations of humanists and humanism " when referring to those like Priestley "who maintain

5106-519: The Enlightenment, Baruch Spinoza redefined God as signifying the totality of nature; Spinoza was accused of atheism but remained silent on the matter. Naturalism was also advanced by prominent Encyclopédistes . Baron d'Holbach wrote the polemic System of Nature , claiming that religion was built on fear and had helped tyrants throughout history. Diderot and Helvetius combined their materialism with sharp, political critique. Also during

5217-430: The Enlightenment, the abstract conception of humanity started forming—a critical juncture for the construction of humanist philosophy. Previous appeals to "men" now shifted toward "man"; to illustrate this point, scholar Tony Davies points to political documents like The Social Contract (1762) of Rousseau , in which he says "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains". Likewise, Thomas Paine 's Rights of Man uses

5328-537: The Greek word for blame or criticism. After being expelled from heaven, Momus , the god of mockery, is eventually castrated. Jupiter and the other deities come down to earth also, but they return to heaven after Jupiter breaks his nose in a great storm. Alberti did not concern himself with engineering, and very few of his major projects were built . As a designer and a student of Vitruvius and of ancient Roman architecture, he studied column and lintel based architecture, from

5439-476: The Humanist ethics the chief end of thought and action is to further this-earthly human interests on behalf of the greater glory of people. The watchword of Humanism is happiness for all humanity in this existence as contrasted with salvation for the individual soul in a future existence and the glorification of a supernatural Supreme Being ... It heartily welcomes all life-enhancing and healthy pleasures, from

5550-572: The Tuscan dialect. The work was not printed until 1843. Like Erasmus decades later, Alberti stressed the need for a reform in education. He noted that "the care of very young children is women's work, for nurses or the mother", and that at the earliest possible age children should be taught the alphabet. With great hopes, he gave the work to his family to read, but in his autobiography Alberti confesses that "he could hardly avoid feeling rage, moreover, when he saw some of his relatives openly ridiculing both

5661-787: The US, humanism evolved with the aid of significant figures of the Unitarian Church . Humanist magazines began to appear, including The New Humanist , which published the Humanist Manifesto I in 1933. The American Ethical Union emerged from newly founded, small, ethicist societies. The American Humanist Association (AHA) was established in 1941 and became as popular as some of its European counterparts. The AHA spread to all states, and some prominent public figures such as Isaac Asimov , John Dewey , Erich Fromm , Paul Kurtz , Carl Sagan , and Gene Roddenberry became members. Humanist organizations from all continents formed

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5772-681: The arts occurred in 13th-century Italy. Italian scholars discovered Ancient Greek thought, particularly that of Aristotle, through Arabic translations from Africa and Spain. Other centers were Verona , Naples , and Avignon . Petrarch , who is often referred to as the father of humanism, is a significant figure. Petrarch was raised in Avignon; he was inclined toward education at a very early age and studied alongside his well-educated father. Petrarch's enthusiasm for ancient texts led him to discover manuscripts such as Cicero's Pro Archia and Pomponius Mela 's De Chorographia that were influential in

5883-591: The aspects of personal belief that added to the hostility between humanism and religion. Humanism was linked with prominent thinkers who advocated against the existence of God using rationalistic arguments. Critique of theism continued through the humanistic revolutions in Europe, challenging religious worldviews, attitudes and superstitions on a rational basis—a tendency that continued to the 20th century. According to Stephen Law, humanist adherence to secularism placed humans at odds with religion, especially nationally dominant religions striving to retain privileges gained in

5994-544: The basement. Alberti anticipated the principle of street hierarchy, with wide main streets connected to secondary streets, and buildings of equal height. In Rome he was employed by Pope Nicholas V for the restoration of the Roman aqueduct of Acqua Vergine , which debouched into a simple basin designed by Alberti, which was later replaced by the Baroque Trevi Fountain . Some researchers suggested that

6105-463: The building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality. Dictionaries define humanism as a worldview or philosophical stance. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary , humanism is " ... a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values; especially:

6216-419: The centre of humanism. Personal humanist interpretations of the meaning of life vary from the pursuit of happiness without recklessness and excesses to participation in human history, and connection with loved ones, living animals, and plants. Some answers are close to those of religious discourse if the appeal to divinity is overlooked. According to humanist professor Peter Derks, elements that contribute to

6327-554: The contemporary era. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic ideas resurfaced, this time further from religion and classical literature. Science and intellectualism advanced, and humanists argued that rationality could replace deism as the means with which to understand the world. Humanistic values, such as tolerance and opposition to slavery, started to take shape. New philosophical, social, and political ideas appeared. Some thinkers rejected theism outright; and atheism, deism, and hostility to organized religion were formed. During

6438-407: The deconstruction of the religious narrative in favor of human-generated knowledge. This ultimately uncoupled the fate of humans from the divine will, prompting social and political shifts. The relation of state and citizens changed as civic humanistic principles emerged; people were no longer to be servile to religiously grounded monarchies but could pursue their own destinies. Kline also points at

6549-570: The development of the Renaissance. Petrarch wrote Latin poems such as Canzoniere and De viris illustribus , in which he described humanist ideas. His most-significant contribution was a list of books outlining the four major disciplines—rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and grammar—that became the basis of humanistic studies ( studia humanitatis ). Petrarch's list relied heavily on ancient writers, especially Cicero. The revival of classicist authors continued after Petrarch's death. Florence chancellor and humanist Coluccio Salutati made his city

6660-503: The dominant outlook of pre-university education. Parallel with advances in education, Renaissance humanists made progress in fields such as philosophy, mathematics, and religion. In philosophy, Angelo Poliziano , Nicholas of Cusa , and Marsilio Ficino further contributed to the understanding of ancient classical philosophers and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola undermined the dominance of Aristotelian philosophy by revitalizing Sextus Empiricus ' skepticism. Religious studies were affected by

6771-458: The early 21st century, the term generally denotes a focus on human well-being and advocates for human freedom , autonomy , and progress . It views humanity as responsible for the promotion and development of individuals, espouses the equal and inherent dignity of all human beings, and emphasizes a concern for humans in relation to the world. Humanists tend to advocate for human rights, free speech, progressive policies, and democracy. Starting in

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6882-456: The elimination of hunger and improvements to health, housing, and education. In the same edited collection , Humanist philosopher H. J. Blackham argued humanism is a concept focusing on improving humanity's social conditions by increasing the autonomy and dignity of all humans. In 1999, Jeaneane D. Fowler said the definition of humanism should include a rejection of divinity, and an emphasis on human well-being and freedom. She also noted there

6993-474: The empirical world. He also supported the idea of the moral autonomy of the individual, which is fundamental to his philosophy. According to Kant, morality is the product of the way humans live and not a set of fixed values. Instead of a universal ethic code, Kant suggested a universal procedure that shapes the ethics that differ among groups of people. Philosopher and humanist advocate Corliss Lamont , in his book The Philosophy of Humanism (1997), states: In

7104-441: The end of the 15th century, the center of humanism had shifted from Italy to northern Europe, with Erasmus of Rotterdam being the leading humanist scholar. The longest-lasting effect of Renaissance humanism was its education curriculum and methods. Humanists insisted on the importance of classical literature in providing intellectual discipline, moral standards, and a civilized taste for the elite—an educational approach that reached

7215-546: The end of the fifteenth century. The Tempio Malatestiano in Rimini (1447, 1453–60) is the rebuilding of a Gothic church. The façade, with its dynamic play of forms, was left incomplete. The design of the façade of the Palazzo Rucellai (1446–51) was one of several commissioned by the Rucellai family. The design overlays a grid of shallow pilasters and cornices in classical style onto rusticated masonry, and

7326-552: The fine arts". Although Alberti is known mostly as an artist, he was also a mathematician and made significant contributions to that field. Among the most famous buildings he designed are the churches of San Sebastiano (1460) and Sant’Andrea (1472), both in Mantua . Alberti's life was told in Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects . Leon Battista Alberti

7437-601: The first Italian edition came out in 1546. and the standard Italian edition by Cosimo Bartoli was published in 1550. Pope Nicholas V , to whom Alberti dedicated the whole work, dreamed of rebuilding the city of Rome, but he managed to realize only a fragment of his visionary plans. Through his book, Alberti opened up his theories and ideals of the Florentine Renaissance to architects, scholars, and others. Alberti wrote I Libri della famiglia —which discussed education, marriage, household management, and money—in

7548-427: The first agnostic statements; according to one fragment: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist nor of what kind they are in form: for many things prevent me for knowing this, its obscurity and the brevity of man's life". Socrates spoke of the need to "know thyself"; his thought changed the focus of then-contemporary philosophy from nature to humans and their well-being. He

7659-423: The fundamental unit of the universe is an indivisible atom. Human happiness, living well, friendship, and the avoidance of excesses were the key ingredients of Epicurean philosophy that flourished in and beyond the post-Hellenic world. It is a repeated view among scholars that the humanistic features of ancient Greek thought are the roots of humanism 2,000 years later. Other predecessor movements that sometimes use

7770-496: The growth of Renaissance humanism when Pope Nicholas V initiated the translation of Hebrew and Greek biblical texts, and other texts in those languages, to contemporaneous Latin. Humanist values spread from Italy in the 15th century. Students and scholars went to Italy to study before returning to their homelands carrying humanistic messages. Printing houses dedicated to ancient texts were established in Venice, Basel, and Paris. By

7881-443: The idea—which is sometimes attributed to Thomas Paine —of a " religion of humanity ". According to scholar Tony Davies, this was intended to be an atheist cult based on some humanistic tenets, and had some prominent members but soon declined. It was nonetheless influential during the 19th century, and its humanism and rejection of supernaturalism are echoed in the works of later authors such as Oscar Wilde , George Holyoake —who coined

7992-408: The importance of moral questions about one's interactions with people according to one's worldview. This is examined using a process of dialogue. Humanist counseling originated in post-World War II Netherlands. Humanistic counseling is based on the works of psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow . It introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what Rogers and Maslow viewed as

8103-478: The invocation of supernatural phenomena fails to coherently explain the world. One form of irrational thinking is adducing . Humanists are skeptical of explanations of natural phenomena or diseases that rely on hidden agencies. Human autonomy is another hallmark of humanist philosophy. For people to be autonomous, their beliefs and actions must be the result of their own reasoning. For humanists, autonomy dignifies each individual; without autonomy, people's humanity

8214-415: The irrationality of nationalism and totalitarianism , whether these are part of fascism or Marxist–Leninist communism . According to professor Joseph O. Baker, in political theory, contemporary humanism is formed by two main tendencies; the first is individualistic and the second inclines to collectivism . The trajectory of each tendency can lead to libertarianism and socialism respectively, but

8325-534: The last centuries. Worth notes religious persons can be secularists. Law notes secularism is criticized for suppressing freedom of expression of religious persons but firmly denies such accusation; instead, he says, secularism protects this kind of freedom but opposes the privileged status of religious views. According to Andrew Copson, humanism is not incompatible with some aspects of religion. He observes that components like belief, practice, identity, and culture can coexist, allowing an individual who subscribes to only

8436-428: The libertarian view is the neoliberal or capitalistic consequences they feel it entails. Humanism has been a part of both major 20th-century ideological currents—liberalism and Marxism. Early 19th-century socialism was connected to humanism. In the 20th century, a humanistic interpretation of Marxism focused on Marx's early writings, viewing Marxism not as " scientific socialism " but as a philosophical critique aimed at

8547-504: The lifestance is by definition naturalistic, scientific, and secular". However, according to Andrew Copson the view that there are still two types of humanism – religious and secular – "has begun to seriously muddy the conceptual water". Humanism is strongly linked to rationality. For humanists, humans are reasonable beings, and reasoning and the scientific method are means of finding truth. Humanists argue science and rationality have driven successful developments in various fields while

8658-458: The lower level already had three doorways and six Gothic niches containing tombs and employing the polychrome marble typical of Florentine churches, such as San Miniato al Monte and the Baptistery of Florence . The design also incorporates an ocular window that was already in place. Alberti introduced Classical features around the portico and spread the polychromy over the entire façade in

8769-518: The mathematicians those things with which my subject is concerned." Della pittura (also known in Latin as De Pictura ) relied on the study classical optics to approach the perspective in artistic and architectural representations. Alberti was well-versed in the sciences of his age. His knowledge of optics was connected to the tradition of the Kitab al-manazir ( The Optics ; De aspectibus ) of

8880-473: The meaning of life are a morally worthy purpose in life, positive self-evaluation, an understanding of one's environment, being seen and understood by others, the ability to emotionally connect with others, and a desire to have a meaning in life. Humanist professor Anthony B. Pinn places the meaning of life in the quest of what he calls "complex subjectivity". Pinn, who is advocating for a non-theistic, humanistic religion inspired by African cultures, says seeking

8991-572: The modern university concept of the humanities —the arts, philosophy, history, literature, and related disciplines. The word reappeared during the Italian Renaissance as umanista and entered the English language in the 16th century. The word "humanist" was used to describe a group of students of classical literature and those advocating for a classical education. In 1755, in Samuel Johnson 's influential A Dictionary of

9102-444: The never-reaching meaning of life contributes to well-being, and that rituals and ceremonies, which are occasions for reflection, provide an opportunity to assess the meaning of life, improving well-being. The hallmark of contemporary humanism in politics is the demand for secularism. Philosopher Alan Haworth said secularism delivers fair treatment to all citizens of a nation-state since all are treated without discrimination; religion

9213-518: The over-pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology . Some modern counseling organizations have humanist origins, like the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy , which was founded by Harold Blackham , which he developed alongside the British Humanist Association 's Humanist Counselling Service. Modern-day humanist pastoral care in

9324-553: The overcoming of " alienation ". In the US, liberalism is associated mostly with humanistic principles, which is distinct from the European use of the same word, which has economical connotations. In the post-1945 era, Jean-Paul Sartre and other French existentialists advocated for humanism, linking it to socialism while trying to stay neutral during the Cold War . Humanist counseling is humanism-inspired applied psychology, which

9435-533: The plurality of species. Darwin's theory also suggested humans are simply a natural species, contradicting the traditional theological view of humans as more than animals. Philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Karl Marx attacked religion on several grounds, and theologians David Strauss and Julius Wellhausen questioned the Bible. In parallel, utilitarianism was developed in Britain through

9546-416: The question of the meaning of life became more prominent. Unlike religions, humanism does not have a definite view on the meaning of life. Humanists commonly say people create rather than discover meaning. While philosophers such as Nietzsche and Sartre wrote on the meaning of life in a godless world, the work of Albert Camus has echoed and shaped humanism. In Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus , he quotes

9657-552: The role of reason in making moral judgements". Humanism's godless approach to morality has driven criticism from religious commentators. The necessity for a divine being delivering sets of doctrines for morals to exist is a common argument; according to Dostoevsky 's character Ivan Karamázov in The Brothers Karamazov , "if God does not exist, then everything is permitted". This argument suggests chaos will ensue if religious belief disappears. For humanists, theism

9768-466: The roots of this animosity since the Renaissance, when humanistic views deconstructed the previous religiously defined order. Kline describes several ways this antithesis has evolved. Kline notes the emergence of a confident human-made knowledge, which was a new way of epistemology , repelled the church from its authoritative position. Kline uses the paradigm of non-humanists Copernicus , Kepler , and Galileo to illustrate how scientific discoveries added to

9879-677: The same or equivalent vocabulary to modern Western humanism can be found in Chinese philosophy and religions such as Taoism and Confucianism . Arabic translations of Ancient Greek literature during the Abbasid Caliphate in the eighth and ninth centuries influenced Islamic philosophers. Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational, and scientific discourse in their search for knowledge, meaning, and values . A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history, and philosophical theology show medieval Islamic thought

9990-684: The scientific method was followed in the late 19th century in Britain by the start of many rationalist and ethical associations, such as the National Secular Society , the Ethical Union , and the Rationalist Press Association . In the 20th century, humanism was further promoted by the work of philosophers such as A. J. Ayer , Antony Flew , and Bertrand Russell , whose advocacy of atheism in Why I Am Not

10101-426: The singular form of the word, revealing a universal conception of "man". In parallel, Baconian empiricism—though not humanism per se —led to Thomas Hobbes 's materialism. Scholar J. Brent Crosson argues that, while there is a widely-held belief that the birth of humanism was solely a European affair, intellectual thought from Africa and Asia significantly contributed as well. He also notes that during enlightenment,

10212-446: The species since the beginning of human history, developing by recognizing and thinking upon behaviors. He adds morality is universal among human cultures and all cultures strive to improve their moral level. Shook concludes that while morality was initially generated by our genes, culture shaped human morals and continues to do so. He calls "moral naturalism" the view that morality is a natural phenomenon, can be scientifically studied, and

10323-550: The state. Contemporary humanist organizations work under the umbrella of Humanists International . Well-known humanist associations include Humanists UK and the American Humanist Association . The word "humanism" derives from the Latin word humanitas , which was first used in ancient Rome by Cicero and other thinkers to describe values related to liberal education . This etymology survives in

10434-476: The universal man did not encompass all humans but was shaped by gender and race. According to Crosson, the shift from man to human started during enlightenment and is still ongoing. Crosson also argues that enlightenment, especially in Britain, produced not only a notion of universal man, but also gave birth to pseudoscientific ideas, such as those about differences between races, that shaped European history. French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) introduced

10545-615: The vigorous enjoyments of youth to the contemplative delights of mellowed age, from the simple gratifications of food and drink, sunshine and sports, to the more complex appreciation of art and literature, friendship and social communion. The humanist attitude toward morality has changed since its beginning. Starting in the 18th century, humanists were oriented toward an objective and universalist stance on ethics. Both Utilitarian philosophy —which aims to increase human happiness and decrease suffering—and Kantian ethics , which states one should act in accordance with maxims one could will to become

10656-453: The village as a retreat, but needed for it to reflect the dignity of his position. The piazza is a trapezoid shape defined by four buildings, with a focus on Pienza Cathedral and passages on either side opening onto a landscape view. The principal residence, Palazzo Piccolomini , is on the western side. It has three stories, articulated by pilasters and entablature courses, with a twin-lighted cross window set within each bay. This structure

10767-456: The well-being and freedom of humans. There is no single, widely accepted definition of humanism, and scholars have given different meanings to the term. For philosopher Sidney Hook , writing in 1974, humanists are opposed to the imposition of one culture in some civilizations, do not belong to a church or established religion, do not support dictatorships, and do not justify the use of violence for social reforms. Hook also said humanists support

10878-465: The whole work and the author's futile enterprise along it". Momus , written between 1443 and 1450, was a notable comedy about the Olympian deities. It has been considered as a roman à clef — Jupiter has been identified in some sources as Pope Eugenius IV and Pope Nicholas V. Alberti borrowed many of its characters from Lucian , one of his favorite Greek writers. The name of its hero, Momus, refers to

10989-537: The word secularism — George Eliot , Émile Zola , and E. S. Beesly . Paine's The Age of Reason , along with the 19th-century Biblical criticism of the German Hegelians David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach , also contributed to new forms of humanism. Advances in science and philosophy provided scholars with further alternatives to religious belief. Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection offered naturalists an explanation for

11100-436: The works of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill . Utilitarianism, a moral philosophy, centers its attention on human happiness, aiming to eliminate human and animal pain via natural means. In Europe and the US, as philosophical critiques of theistic beliefs grew, large parts of society distanced themselves from religion. Ethical societies were formed, leading to the contemporary humanist movement. The rise of rationalism and

11211-437: The world and studying the proportions of antiquities; but above all, following his natural genius, he concentrated on writing rather than on applied work." In On Painting , Alberti uses the expression "We Painters", but as a painter, or sculptor, he was a dilettante. "In painting Alberti achieved nothing of any great importance or beauty", wrote Vasari. "The very few paintings of his that are extant are far from perfect, but this

11322-596: Was a humanist who studied Aristotle and Plotinus . He was among the rapidly growing group of intellectuals and artists who at that time were supported by the courts of nobility. As a member of a noble family and as part of the Roman curia , Alberti enjoyed special status. He was a welcomed guest at the Este court in Ferrara , and spent time with the soldier-prince Federico III da Montefeltro in Urbino. The Duke of Urbino

11433-471: Was a shrewd military commander, who generously funded artists. Alberti planned to dedicate his treatise on architecture to him. Among Alberti's minor but pioneering studies, were an essay on cryptography , De componendis cifris , and the first Italian grammar . He collaborated with the Florentine cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli in astronomy, a science close to geography at that time. He also wrote

11544-436: Was a theist executed for atheism, who investigated the nature of morality by reasoning. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) taught rationalism and a system of ethics based on human nature that also parallels humanist thought. In the third century BCE, Epicurus developed an influential, human-centered philosophy that focused on achieving eudaimonia . Epicureans continued Democritus ' atomist theory—a materialistic theory that suggests

11655-601: Was born in 1404 in Genoa . His mother was Bianca Fieschi. His father, Lorenzo di Benedetto Alberti, was a wealthy Florentine who had been exiled from his own city, but allowed to return in 1428. Alberti was sent to boarding school in Padua, then studied law at Bologna . He lived for a time in Florence , then in 1431 travelled to Rome, where he took holy orders and entered the service of the papal court. During this time he studied

11766-631: Was brought to completion and is his most significant work employing the triumphal arch motif, both for its façade and interior, and influencing many works that were to follow. Alberti perceived the role of architect as designer. Unlike Brunelleschi , he had no interest in the construction, leaving the practicalities to builders and the oversight to others. Giorgio Vasari , who argued that historical progress in art reached its peak in Michelangelo , emphasized Alberti's scholarly achievements, not his artistic talents: "He spent his time finding out about

11877-603: Was encouraged by the Marchese Leonello d'Este of Ferrara, for whom he built a small triumphal arch to support an equestrian statue of Leonello's father. In 1447 Alberti became architectural advisor to Pope Nicholas V and was involved in several projects at the Vatican . His first major architectural commission was in 1446 for the façade of the Rucellai Palace in Florence. This was followed in 1450 by

11988-468: Was never completed and for which Alberti's intention can only be speculated upon, and the Basilica of Sant'Andrea . The design for the latter church was completed in 1471, a year before Alberti's death: the construction was completed after his death and is considered as his most significant work. As an artist, Alberti distinguished himself from the contemporary ordinary craftsmen educated in workshops. He

12099-411: Was open to humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism, liberalism, and free speech; schools were established at Baghdad, Basra and Isfahan. The intellectual movement later known as Renaissance humanism first appeared in Italy and has greatly influenced both contemporaneous and modern Western culture. Renaissance humanism emerged in Italy and a renewed interest in literature and

12210-402: Was successfully passed off as a genuine piece of Classical literature. In 1435 he began his first major written work, Della pittura , which was inspired by the burgeoning pictorial art in Florence in the early fifteenth century. In this work he analysed the nature of painting and explored the elements of perspective, composition, and colour. In 1438 he began to focus more on architecture and

12321-459: Was the first architectural treatise of the Renaissance. It covered a wide range of subjects, from history to town planning, from engineering to the aesthetics . De re aedificatoria , a large and expensive book, was not published until 1485, after which it became a major reference for architects. However, the book was written "not only for craftsmen but also for anyone interested in the noble arts", as Alberti put it. Originally published in Latin,

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