98-546: Citrus macrophylla , also known as alemow , is a citrus tree and fruit , belonging to the papedas . The trees are short in stature, more tropical in nature than most citrus, and are very spiny. Alemow is rare and poorly studied, a likely hybrid between the citron and biasong ( C. micrantha ) . The large fruits are considered inedible by local populations, though the plants are infrequently cultivated for medicinal and other uses. It has been tried in California as
196-588: A Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities , and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952 , 1956 and 1960 . The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement , which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British. In 1961, U Thant ,
294-502: A military dictatorship under the Burma Socialist Programme Party . On 8 August 1988, the 8888 Uprising then resulted in a nominal transition to a multi-party system two years later, but the country's post-uprising military council refused to cede power, and has continued to rule the country through to the present. The country remains riven by ethnic strife among its myriad ethnic groups and has one of
392-506: A coup d'état . The coup, which was widely condemned by the international community , led to continuous ongoing widespread protests in Myanmar and has been marked by violent political repression by the military, as well as a larger outbreak of the civil war . The military also arrested Aung San Suu Kyi in order to remove her from public life, and charged her with crimes ranging from corruption to violation of COVID-19 protocols; all of
490-458: A high quantity of citric acid , which with other organic acids including ascorbic acid (vitamin C) give them their characteristic sharp taste. Citrus fruits are diverse in size and shape, as well as in color and flavor, reflecting their biochemistry; for instance, grapefruit is made bitter-tasting by a flavanone, naringin . Most commercial citrus cultivation uses trees produced by grafting
588-576: A linear furanocoumarin derived from psoralen . This claim has been confirmed for lime and bergamot . In particular, bergamot essential oil has a higher concentration of bergapten (3–3.6 g/kg) than any other Citrus -based essential oil. A systematic review indicates that citrus fruit consumption is associated with a 10% reduction of risk for developing breast cancer. Many citrus fruits, such as oranges , tangerines , grapefruits , and clementines , are generally eaten fresh. They are typically peeled and can be easily split into segments. Grapefruit
686-599: A long vowel: [ˈmjænmɑː, ˈbɜːmə] . So the pronunciation of the last syllable of Myanmar as [mɑːr] by some speakers in the UK and most speakers in North America is in fact a spelling pronunciation based on a misunderstanding of non-rhotic spelling conventions. However, Burma is pronounced [ˈbɜːrmə] by rhotic speakers of English due to a phonotactic constraint, as /ɜː/ occurs only before /r/ in those accents. Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in
784-704: A possible rootstock for other citrus. Citrus Ancestral species: Citrus maxima – Pomelo Citrus medica – Citron Citrus reticulata – Mandarin orange Citrus micrantha – a papeda Citrus hystrix – Kaffir lime Citrus cavaleriei – Ichang papeda Citrus japonica – Kumquat Important hybrids: Citrus × aurantiifolia – Key lime Citrus × aurantium – Bitter orange Citrus × latifolia – Persian lime Citrus × limon – Lemon Citrus × limonia – Rangpur Citrus × paradisi – Grapefruit Citrus × sinensis – Sweet orange Citrus × tangerina – Tangerine See also List of citrus fruits . Citrus
882-695: A prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom . Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty. After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating
980-491: A small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, and mandarin. Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit , lemons, limes, and some tangerines . The multiple hybridisations have made the taxonomy of Citrus complex. Apart from these core species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and Clymenia spp. are now generally considered to belong within
1078-485: A smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar , Upper Myanmar , Shan states , Lan Na and upper Tenasserim . The restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features continued well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built
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#17327919836921176-468: A stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India . In 1826, Burma lost Arakan, Manipur , Assam and Tenasserim to
1274-644: A unified state. Aung Zan Wai , Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung , Sir Maung Gyi, Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historic Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948,
1372-460: A wasp on one of the fruits. The impressionist Edouard Manet depicted a lemon on a pewter plate. In modern art, Arshile Gorky painted Still Life with Lemons in the 1930s. Citrus fruits "were the clear status symbols of the nobility in the ancient Mediterranean", according to the paleoethnobotanist Dafna Langgut. In Louisa May Alcott 's 1868 novel Little Women , the character Amy March states that "It's nothing but limes now, for everyone
1470-460: A wide range of appearance and fruit flavors. The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that Severinia (such as the Chinese box orange ) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of Citrus split into
1568-818: Is Yangon (formerly Rangoon). Early civilisations in the area included the Tibeto-Burman -speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Myanmar and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Myanmar . In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley, and following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language , culture , and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in
1666-468: Is "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" ( Burmese : ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် , Pyihtaungsu Thamada Myanma Naingngantaw , pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀] ). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead. In English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar . In Burmese, the pronunciation depends on
1764-485: Is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the family Rutaceae . Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits , including important crops such as oranges , mandarins , lemons , grapefruits , pomelos , and limes . Citrus is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia , and Australia. Indigenous people in these areas have used and domesticated various species since ancient times. Its cultivation first spread into Micronesia and Polynesia through
1862-614: Is a country in northwest Southeast Asia . It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has a population of about 55 million. It is bordered by India to its west, Bangladesh to its southwest, China to its northeast, Laos and Thailand to its east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to its south and southwest. The country's capital city is Naypyidaw , and its largest city
1960-544: Is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by cronies of the military junta . Myanmar is one of the least developed countries ; as of 2020, according to the Human Development Index , it ranks 147 out of 189 countries in terms of human development , the lowest in Southeast Asia . Since 2021, more than 600,000 people were displaced across Myanmar due to
2058-477: Is more commonly halved and eaten out of the skin with a spoon. Lemonade is a popular beverage prepared by diluting the juice and adding sugar. Lemon juice is mixed in salad dressings and squeezed over fruit salad to stop it from turning brown: its acidity suppresses oxidation by polyphenol oxidase enzymes. A variety of flavours can be derived from different parts and treatments of citrus fruits. The colourful outer skin of some citrus fruits, known as zest ,
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#17327919836922156-463: Is standard. Pronunciations with two syllables are found most often in major British and American dictionaries. Dictionaries—such as Collins —and other sources also report pronunciations with three syllables. As John Wells explains, the English spellings of both Myanmar and Burma assume a non-rhotic variety of English , in which the letter r before a consonant or finally serves merely to indicate
2254-575: Is sucking them in their desks in schooltime, and trading them off for pencils, bead rings, paper dolls, or something else… If one girl likes another, she gives her a lime; if she’s mad with her, she eats one before her face, and doesn’t offer even a suck." Myanmar in ASEAN (dark grey) – [ Legend ] Myanmar , officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also rendered Burma (the official English form until 1989),
2352-580: Is used as a flavouring in cooking. The whole of the bitter orange (and sometimes other citrus fruits) including the peel with its essential oils is cooked with sugar to make marmalade . By the 17th century, orangeries were added to great houses in Europe, both to enable the fruit to be grown locally and for prestige, as seen in the Versailles Orangerie . Some modern hobbyists grow dwarf citrus in containers or greenhouses in areas where
2450-698: The Austronesian expansion ( c. 3000 –1500 BCE). Later, it was spread to the Middle East and the Mediterranean ( c. 1200 BCE ) via the incense trade route , and from Europe to the Americas. Renowned for their highly fragrant aromas and complex flavor, citrus are among the most popular fruits in cultivation. With a propensity to hybridize between species, making their taxonomy complicated, there are numerous varieties encompassing
2548-536: The Ayutthaya Kingdom , Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam). The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored
2646-485: The Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP). During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries. There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years, and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University , killing 15 students. In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at
2744-462: The Han Chinese , Wa , and Kachin . During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan in neighbouring China. Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding
2842-740: The Philippines . This was followed by the spread of citrus species into Taiwan and Japan in the Early Pliocene (5.33 to 3.6 mya ), resulting in the tachibana orange ( C. tachibana ); and beyond the Wallace Line into Papua New Guinea and Australia during the Early Pleistocene (2.5 million to 800,000 years ago), where further speciation events created in the Australian limes . A fossil leaf from
2940-640: The Pliocene of Valdarno , Italy is described as † Citrus meletensis . In China, fossil leaf specimens of † Citrus linczangensis have been collected from late Miocene coal-bearing strata of the Bangmai Formation in Yunnan province. C. linczangensis resembles C. meletensis in having an intramarginal vein, an entire margin, and an articulated and distinctly winged petiole . Many cultivated Citrus species are natural or artificial hybrids of
3038-878: The Rohingya Muslims and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State ; and a conflict between the Shan , Lahu , and Karen minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on
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3136-471: The State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989. SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" on 18 June 1989 by enacting the adaptation of the expression law. In May 1990,
3234-665: The citron ( C. medica ) or a conifer tree ( Thuja ). The Latin word is related to the ancient Greek word for the cedar of Lebanon , κέδρος ( kédros ), perhaps from a perceived similarity of the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Citrus plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching 5–15 m (16–49 ft) tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in small corymbs , each flower 2–4 cm (0.79–1.57 in) diameter, with five (rarely four) white petals and numerous stamens; they are often very strongly scented, due to
3332-421: The citrons ( Citrus medica ) of South Asia; the pomelos ( C. maxima ) of Mainland Southeast Asia ; the mandarins ( C. reticulata ), kumquats ( C. japonica ), mangshanyegan ( C. mangshanensis ), and ichang papedas ( C. cavaleriei ) of southeastern China; the kaffir limes ( C. hystrix ) of Island Southeast Asia ; and the biasong and samuyao ( C. micrantha ) of
3430-447: The military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: Burma became Myanmar . The renaming remains a contested issue. Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy or authority of the military government. The country's official full name
3528-620: The register used and is either Bama ( pronounced [bəmà] ) or Myamah ( pronounced [mjəmà] ). Official United States foreign policy retains Burma as the country's name although the State Department 's website lists the country as Burma (Myanmar) . The United Nations uses Myanmar , as does the ASEAN and as do Australia , Russia , Germany , China , India , Bangladesh , Norway , Japan , Switzerland , Canada and Ukraine . Most English-speaking international news media refer to
3626-431: The 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ' federalism ' as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration. On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état , and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by
3724-593: The 19th century, Burmese rulers sought to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next 60 years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises, known collectively as the Anglo-Burmese Wars , continued until Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma. With
3822-471: The 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan . It was one of several competing city-states until
3920-831: The British in the First Anglo-Burmese War . In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War . King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States . The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina , annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For
4018-584: The Chairmanship – effectively the position of Myanmar's top ruler – from General Saw Maung in 1992 and held it until 2011. On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw , meaning "city of
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4116-689: The Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943. Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma with 1,700 prisoners taken. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from
4214-500: The Chinese side of the border. During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups have continued, fuelling tensions between China and Myanmar. The military-backed Government had promulgated a "Roadmap to Discipline-flourishing Democracy" in 1993, but the process appeared to stall several times, until 2008 when
4312-608: The Government published a new draft national constitution, and organised a (flawed) national referendum which adopted it. The new constitution provided for election of a national assembly with powers to appoint a president, while practically ensuring army control at all levels. A general election in 2010 - the first for twenty years - was boycotted by the NLD . The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory, stating that it had been favoured by 80 per cent of
4410-655: The Mediterranean by Arab traders around the 10th century CE. Sweet oranges were brought to Europe by the Genoese and Portuguese from Asia during the 15th to 16th century. Mandarins were not introduced until the 19th century. Oranges were introduced to Florida by Spanish colonists. In cooler parts of Europe, citrus fruit was grown in orangeries starting in the 17th century; many were as much status symbols as functional agricultural structures. The generic name Citrus originates from Latin , where it denoted either
4508-771: The Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759 he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War against Qing China . With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770 and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in
4606-471: The Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture . Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged. Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to
4704-472: The Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former secretary to the prime minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations , a position he held for ten years. When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962. Though incorporated in
4802-576: The administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century, and the country became a British colony . After a brief Japanese occupation , Myanmar was reconquered by the Allies. On 4 January 1948, Myanmar declared independence under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . Myanmar's post-independence history has been checkered by continuing unrest and conflict to this day. The coup d'état in 1962 resulted in
4900-529: The center of origin of the genus Citrus is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas , in a region stretching from eastern Assam , northern Myanmar , to western Yunnan . It diverged from a common ancestor with Poncirus trifoliata . A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya ) resulted in a sudden speciation event . The species resulting from this event include
4998-821: The charges against her are "politically motivated" according to independent observers. Myanmar is a member of the East Asia Summit , Non-Aligned Movement , ASEAN , and BIMSTEC , but it is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations despite once being part of the British Empire . Myanmar is a Dialogue Partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization . The country is very rich in natural resources , such as jade , gems , oil , natural gas , teak and other minerals , as well as also endowed with renewable energy , having
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#17327919836925096-611: The country by the name Myanmar , including the BBC , CNN , Al Jazeera , Reuters , and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC )/ Radio Australia . Myanmar is known by a name deriving from Burma in Spanish , Italian , Romanian , and Greek . French-language media consistently use Birmanie . There are at least nine different pronunciations of the English name Myanmar , and no single one
5194-577: The country. The Pagan Kingdom fell to Mongol invasions , and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo dynasty , the country became the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia for a short period. The early 19th-century Konbaung dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Assam , the Lushai Hills , and Manipur as well. The British East India Company seized control of
5292-562: The critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts. Humanitarian aid was requested, but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies. In early August 2009, a conflict broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including
5390-463: The damaging citrus tristeza virus , while the aphid-like Asian citrus psyllid can carry the bacterium which causes the serious citrus greening disease . This threatens production in Florida, California, and worldwide. Citrus groves are attacked by parasitic Nematodes including citrus ( Tylenchulus semipenetrans ) and sheath nematodes ( Hemicycliophora spp.). Citrus plants can develop
5488-432: The deficiency condition chlorosis , characterized by yellowing leaves. The condition is often caused by an excessively high pH ( alkaline soil ), which prevents the plant from absorbing nutrients such as iron, magnesium , and zinc needed to produce chlorophyll . Some Citrus species contain significant amounts of furanocoumarins . In humans, some of these act as strong photosensitizers when applied topically to
5586-415: The desired fruiting cultivars onto rootstocks selected for disease resistance and hardiness. The trees are not generally frost hardy. They thrive in a consistently sunny, humid environment with fertile soil and adequate water. The colour of citrus fruits only develops in climates with a ( diurnal ) cool winter. In tropical regions with no winter at all, citrus fruits remain green until maturity, hence
5684-456: The earliest evidence are seeds recovered from the Hala Sultan Tekke site of Cyprus , dated to around 1200 BCE. Other archaeobotanical evidence includes pollen from Carthage dating back to the 4th century BCE; and carbonized seeds from Pompeii dated to around the 3rd to 2nd century BCE. The earliest complete description of the citron was written by Theophrastus , c. 310 BCE . Lemons, pomelos, and sour oranges were introduced to
5782-692: The early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthy foods. In 2019–20, world production of oranges was estimated to be 47.5 million tonnes, led by Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and China as the largest producers. Among the diseases of citrus plantations are citrus black spot (a fungus), citrus canker (a bacterium), citrus greening (a bacterium, spread by an insect pest), and sweet orange scab (a fungus, Elsinöe australis ). Citrus plants are liable to infestation by ectoparasites which act as vectors to plant diseases: for example, aphids transmit
5880-543: The emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay . Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE. Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand , as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade. Around
5978-420: The ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army. The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Overall, 170,000 to 250,000 Burmese civilians died during World War II. Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as
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#17327919836926076-414: The ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue. In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict , between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government; a civil war between
6174-424: The fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore . Burmese resentment
6272-405: The first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule, and he opposed the participation of Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II . He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the war , Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan. As a major battleground, Burma
6370-422: The first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism. In
6468-413: The form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves . The Bronze Age arrived c. 1500 BCE when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so. Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Region . The Iron Age began around 500 BCE with
6566-431: The four-century-old kingdom in 1287. Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until
6664-408: The funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force. In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising . Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed
6762-462: The general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism , which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning . A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system , with the general and other military officers resigning and ruling through
6860-761: The genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange , pomelo , and citron . Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids between these three species, their main progenies, and other wild Citrus species within the last few thousand years. Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia , Near Oceania , and northeastern and central Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression , leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened. A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu et al. (2018) has shown that
6958-503: The genus Citrus . The false oranges, Oxanthera from New Caledonia , have been transferred to the Citrus genus on phylogenetic evidence. The earliest introductions of citrus species by human migrations was during the Austronesian expansion ( c. 3000 –1500 BCE), where Citrus hystrix , Citrus macroptera , and Citrus maxima were among the canoe plants carried by Austronesian voyagers eastwards into Micronesia and Polynesia . The citron ( Citrus medica )
7056-641: The government held free multiparty elections for the first time in almost 30 years, and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won earning 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power and continued to rule the nation, first as SLORC and, from 1997, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. General Than Shwe took over
7154-501: The highest solar power potential compared to other countries of the Great Mekong Subregion. However, Myanmar has long suffered from instability , factional violence, corruption , poor infrastructure, as well as a long history of colonial exploitation with little regard to human development . In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$ 56.7 billion and its GDP ( PPP ) at US$ 221.5 billion. The income gap in Myanmar
7252-577: The kings". In August 2007, an increase in the price of fuel led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government. The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters
7350-684: The late 10th century, when it grew in authority and grandeur. Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia. The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in
7448-646: The late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom , emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. The kingdom was a protectorate of the Bengal Sultanate at different time periods. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Ava fought wars of unification but could never quite reassemble
7546-453: The locules, which provide nourishment to the fruit as it develops. The genus is commercially important with cultivars of many species grown for their fruit. Some cultivars have been developed to be easy to peel and seedless, meaning they are parthenocarpic . The fragrance of citrus fruits is conferred by flavonoids and limonoids in the rind. The flavonoids include various flavanones and flavones . The carpels are juicy; they contain
7644-476: The lost empire. Having held off Ava, the Mon -speaking Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555. Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and
7742-557: The main genus, Citrus , and the genus Poncirus (such as the trifoliate orange ), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts . A DNA study published in Nature in 2018 concludes that the genus Citrus evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas , in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar . The three ancestral species in
7840-452: The nation became an independent republic, under the terms of the Burma Independence Act 1947 . The new country was named the Union of Burma , with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first president and U Nu as its first prime minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth . A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of
7938-410: The pericarp is the mesocarp, which in citrus fruits consists of the white, spongy albedo or pith. The innermost layer of the pericarp is the endocarp. This surrounds a variable number of carpels , shaped as radial segments. The seeds, if present, develop inside the carpels. The space inside each segment is a locule filled with juice vesicles , or pulp. From the endocarp, string-like "hairs" extend into
8036-403: The presence of essential oil glands. The fruit is a hesperidium , a specialised berry with multiple carpels , globose to elongated, 4–30 cm (1.6–11.8 in) long and 4–20 cm (1.6–7.9 in) diameter, with a leathery rind or "peel" called a pericarp . The outermost layer of the pericarp is an "exocarp" called the flavedo , commonly referred to as the zest . The middle layer of
8134-601: The production and release of ethylene is gradual. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization , world production of all citrus fruits in 2016 was 124 million tonnes, with about half of this production as oranges. At US $ 15.2 billion equivalent in 2018, citrus trade makes up nearly half of the world fruit trade, which was US$ 32.1 billion that year. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development , citrus production grew during
8232-407: The region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago. The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 25,000 BP with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of Neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE has been discovered in
8330-476: The rest of the country. Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, through the efforts of Taungoo , a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious King Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War . His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na , Manipur, Mong Mao ,
8428-600: The second century BCE the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan . The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation. By
8526-449: The skin, while others interact with medications when taken orally in the grapefruit juice effect . Due to the photosensitizing effects of certain furanocoumarins, some Citrus species cause phytophotodermatitis , a potentially severe skin inflammation resulting from contact with a light-sensitizing botanical agent followed by exposure to ultraviolet light. In Citrus species, the primary photosensitizing agent appears to be bergapten ,
8624-563: The surge in violence post-coup, with more than 3 million people in dire need of humanitarian assistance. The name of the country has been a matter of dispute and disagreement, particularly in the early 21st century, focusing mainly on the political legitimacy of those using Myanmar versus Burma . Both names derive from the earlier Burmese Mranma or Mramma , an ethnonym for the majority Burman ethnic group, of uncertain etymology. The terms are also popularly thought to derive from Sanskrit Brahma Desha , 'land of Brahma '. In 1989,
8722-480: The tropical "green oranges". The terms 'ripe' and 'mature' are widely used synonymously, but they mean different things. A mature fruit is one that has completed its growth phase. Ripening is the sequence of changes within the fruit from maturity to the beginning of decay. These changes involve the conversion of starches to sugars, a decrease in acids, softening, and s change in the fruit's colour. Citrus fruits are non- climacteric and respiration slowly declines and
8820-514: The upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu , Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric , Mahayana , Hinduism , and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions in the late 13th century toppled
8918-665: The votes; fraud, however, was alleged. A nominally civilian government was then formed, with retired general Thein Sein as president. A series of liberalising political and economic actions – or reforms – then took place. By the end of 2011 these included the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission , the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permitted labour unions and strikes,
9016-406: The weather is too cold to grow it outdoors; Citrofortunella hybrids have good cold resistance. Lemons appear in paintings, pop art, and novels. A wall painting in the tomb of Nakht in 15th century BC Egypt depicts a woman in a festival, holding a lemon. In the 17th century, Giovanna Garzoni painted a Still Life with Bowl of Citrons , the fruits still attached to leafy flowering twigs, with
9114-426: The world's longest-running ongoing civil wars . The United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systemic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election , and a nominally civilian government was installed. Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners were released and the 2015 Myanmar general election
9212-541: Was also introduced early into the Mediterranean basin from India and Southeast Asia. It was introduced via two ancient trade routes: an overland route through Persia , the Levant and the Mediterranean islands; and a maritime route through the Arabian Peninsula and Ptolemaic Egypt into North Africa. Although the exact date of the original introduction is unknown due to the sparseness of archaeobotanical remains,
9310-586: Was devastated during World War II by the Japanese invasion . Within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon, and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate 's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines. A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders , followed
9408-503: Was held, leading to improved foreign relations and eased economic sanctions , although the country's treatment of its ethnic minorities , particularly in connection with the Rohingya conflict , continued to be a source of international tension and consternation. Following the 2020 Myanmar general election , in which Aung San Suu Kyi’s party won a clear majority in both houses, the Burmese military (Tatmadaw) again seized power in
9506-425: Was strong, and was vented in violent riots that periodically paralysed Rangoon until the 1930s. Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara , an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Britain, and Ba Maw became
9604-712: Was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government . In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division . It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damages totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million were left homeless. In
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