127-534: Alnmouth ( / ˈ æ l ( ə ) n m aʊ θ / ) is a coastal village in Northumberland , England, situated 4 miles (6 km) east-south-east of Alnwick . The population of the civil parish at the 2001 Census was 562, reducing to 445 at the 2011 Census. Located at the mouth of the River Aln , the village had a port supporting a small fishing industry and engaging in national and international trade. It
254-498: A luna ), who was usually white, had nearly unlimited power over them. Wages varied from lows of $ 5/month to highs of $ 14/month. Native Hawaiian laborers of Jarvis Island referred to the island as Paukeaho , meaning "out of breath" or "exhausted", due to the strain of loading heavy bags of guano onto ships. Pacific Islanders also risked death: one in thirty-six laborers from Honolulu died before completing their contract. Slaves blackbirded from Easter Island in 1862 were repatriated by
381-632: A rebellion on Navassa Island in 1889 where black workers killed their white overseers. In defending the workers, lawyer Everett J. Waring argued that the men could not be tried by U.S. law because the guano islands were not legally part of the country. The case went to the Supreme Court of the United States where it was decided in Jones v. United States (1890) . The Court decided that Navassa Island and other guano islands were legally part of
508-489: A daily output of 100 lb (45 kg) of saltpetre, produced from 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) of guano from two area caves. From the 1930s, Bat Cave mine in Arizona was used for guano extraction, though it cost more to develop than it was worth. U.S. Guano Corporation bought the property in 1958 and invested 3.5 million dollars to make it operational; actual guano deposits in the cave were one percent of predicted and
635-618: A deal to commercialize guano export among a merchant house in Liverpool , a group of French businessmen, and the Peruvian government. This agreement resulted in the abolition of all preexisting claims to Peruvian guano; thereafter, it was the exclusive resource of the State. By nationalizing its guano resources, the Peruvian government was able to collect royalties on its sale, becoming the country's largest source of revenue. Some of this income
762-498: A decline in traffic at the port, falling off completely at the end of the century. James Beeching 's award-winning model lifeboat was presented to Algernon Percy, 4th Duke of Northumberland and brought to Alnmouth in 1852. It was transferred to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution in 1854 and a new boathouse was provided in 1860. Alnmouth Lifeboat Station was closed in 1935. The effects of
889-451: A direct connection with the new railway station. The bridge was renamed The Duchess's Bridge in 1864. A second more ancient road exits the village to the north, following contours above the north bank of the Aln, to Lesbury and the coast northwards of Alnmouth. Prior to the bridge, the river was crossed by mettled and kerbstoned fords at two points; one, High Ford, was due west of the centre of
1016-462: A diverse physical geography. It is low and flat near the North Sea coast and increasingly mountainous towards the northwest. Being in the far north of England, above 55° latitude , and having many areas of high land, Northumberland is one of the coldest areas of the country. But as the county lies on the east coast, it has relatively low rainfall, with the highest amounts falling on the high land in
1143-541: A factory in Germany began the first large-scale synthesis of ammonia using German chemist Fritz Haber 's catalytic process . The scaling of this energy-intensive process meant that farmers could cease practices such as crop rotation with nitrogen-fixing legumes or the application of naturally derived fertilizers such as guano. The international trade of guano and nitrates such as Chile saltpetre declined as artificially synthesized fertilizers became more widely used. With
1270-581: A fertilizer was eclipsed by Chile saltpetre in the form of caliche (a sedimentary rock ) extraction from the interior of the Atacama Desert , close to the guano areas. The Guano Age ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), which saw Chilean marines invade coastal Bolivia to claim its guano and saltpetre resources. Knowing that Bolivia and Peru had a mutual defense agreement, Chile mounted
1397-536: A key role in the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century on. Many coal mines operated in Northumberland until the widespread closures in the 1970s and 1980s. Collieries operated at Ashington , Bedlington, Blyth , Choppington, Netherton, Ellington , and Pegswood . The region's coalfields fuelled industrial expansion in other areas of Britain, and the need to transport the coal from
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#17327917062421524-555: A popular product in Europe until the 19th century. In November 1802, Prussian geographer and explorer Alexander von Humboldt first encountered guano and began investigating its fertilizing properties at Callao in Peru, and his subsequent writings on this topic made the subject well known in Europe. Although Europeans knew of its fertilizing properties, guano was not widely used before this time. Cornish chemist Humphry Davy delivered
1651-477: A population of 320,274, making it the least-densely populated county in England. The south-east contains the largest towns: Blyth (37,339), Cramlington (27,683), Ashington (27,670), and Morpeth (14,304), which is the administrative centre. The remainder of the county is rural, and the largest towns are Berwick-upon-Tweed (12,043) in the far north and Hexham (13,097) in the west. For local government purposes
1778-648: A preemptive strike on Peru, resulting in its occupation of the Tarapacá , which included Peru's guano islands. With the Treaty of Ancón of 1884, the War of the Pacific ended. Bolivia ceded its entire coastline to Chile, which also gained half of Peru's guano income from the 1880s and its guano islands. The conflict ended with Chilean control over the most valuable nitrogen resources in the world. Chile's national treasury grew by 900% between 1879 and 1902 thanks to taxes coming from
1905-471: A series of lectures which he compiled into an 1813 bestselling book about the role of nitrogenous manure as a fertilizer, Elements of Agricultural Chemistry . It highlighted the special efficacy of Peruvian guano, noting that it made the "sterile plains" of Peru fruitful. Though Europe had marine seabird colonies and thus, guano, it was of poorer quality because its potency was leached by high levels of rainfall and humidity . Elements of Agricultural Chemistry
2032-554: A settlement on a 296-acre (120 ha) spit of land in the manor of Lesbury . Eustace de Vesci was granted royal permission to establish a port and a Wednesday fish market in 1207 or 1208. What preceded the Norman village is less clear, although land at the mouth of the river is likely to have been used throughout antiquity, coastal plains being some of the first areas of recorded human settlement in Britain. A few flint tools from
2159-735: A shire into the unified Kingdom of England by the House of Wessex. However, the West Saxon governmental structures were not extended beyond Tees, leaving the Earldom of Bamburgh and the Community of St. Cuthbert as contested buffer states with the emerging Kingdom of Scotland. After the battle of Nechtansmere , Northumbrian influence north of the Tweed began to decline as the Picts gradually reclaimed
2286-771: A site formerly owned by Shultons, who originated Old Spice and were bought by P&G in 1990. McQuay UK makes air conditioning systems on the Bassington Industrial Estate at the A1068/A1172 junction in Cramlington , and Avery Dennison UK make labels on the Nelson Industrial Estate off of the A192. Schweppes' Abbey Well mineral water is made by Coca-Cola in the east of Morpeth . The National Renewable Energy Centre (Narec)
2413-402: A two-tier council system for the county and its six districts , both responsible for different aspects of local government . These districts were Blyth Valley , Wansbeck , Castle Morpeth , Tynedale , Alnwick and Berwick-upon-Tweed . Elections for the unitary authority council first took place on 1 May 2008. The most recent elections, in 2021, had the following results: Northumberland
2540-496: A whole. In the 2001 UK Census , 81% of the population reported their religion as Christianity, 0.8% as "other religion", and 12% as having no religion. Being primarily rural with significant areas of upland, the population density of Northumberland is only 62 persons per square kilometre, giving it the lowest population density in England . Northumberland's industry is dominated by some multinational corporations: Coca-Cola , MSD, GE and Drager all have significant facilities in
2667-879: Is Hexham -based Egger (UK) Limited . Pharmaceutical , health care and emerging biotechnology companies form a very significant part of the county's economy. Many of these companies are part of the approximately 11,000-worker Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster (NEPIC) and include Aesica Pharmaceuticals, Arcinova, MSD , Piramal Healthcare , Procter & Gamble , Shire Plc (formerly SCM Pharma), Shasun Pharma Solutions, Specials Laboratory, and Thermo Fisher Scientific . The cluster also includes Cambridge Bioresearch, GlaxoSmithKline, Fujifilm Diosynth Biotech, Leica Bio, Data Trial, High Force Research, Non-Linear Dynamics, and Immuno Diagnostic Systems (IDS). The towns of Alnwick, Cramlington, Morpeth, Prudhoe all have significant pharmaceutical factories and laboratories. Newcastle University and Northumbria University are
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#17327917062422794-538: Is a ceremonial county in North East England , bordering Scotland . It is bordered by the Scottish Borders to the north, the North Sea to the east, Tyne and Wear and County Durham to the south, and Cumbria to the west. The town of Blyth is the largest settlement. Northumberland is the northernmost county in England. The county has an area of 5,013 km (1,936 sq mi) and
2921-586: Is a village on the north-east coast of England, some 29 miles (47 km) due north of Newcastle upon Tyne , 31 miles (50 km) south-south-east of Berwick Upon Tweed , and 4.1 miles (6.6 km) to the east-south-east of Alnwick . The village is built on a promontory on a spit of land bordered to the east by the North Sea and to the south and west by the estuary of the River Aln, falling from around 17.2 metres (56 ft) above Mean High Water level at
3048-524: Is also associated with Celtic Christianity , particularly the tidal island of Lindisfarne . During the Industrial Revolution the area had significant coal mining, shipbuilding, and armaments industries. The name of Northumberland is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as norð hẏmbra land , meaning "the land north of the Humber ". The name of the kingdom of Northumbria derives from
3175-541: Is at Blyth. NOTE: New parishes have been added since 2001. These are missing from the list, see List of civil parishes in Northumberland . Although not on this list, the population of Cramlington is estimated at 39,000. Some settlements that are part historic county of Northumberland now fall under the county of Tyne and Wear : A precursor of modern football is still seen in the region at some annual Shrove Tuesday games at Alnwick . In 1280 at Ulgham near Morpeth Northumberland, records show that Henry of Ellington
3302-674: Is divided into four parliamentary constituencies: Berwick-upon-Tweed, Blyth Valley, Wansbeck and Hexham. The 2019 general election produced the following total votes, with changes since previous election: On 23 June 2016 Northumberland took part in the UK-wide referendum on the UK's membership of the EU. In Northumberland a majority voted to leave the European Union. The only one of the four parliamentary constituencies in Northumberland to vote Remain
3429-585: Is easy to distinguish Coolies who have been at the islands a short time from the new comers. They soon become emaciated and their faces have a wild desparing expression. That they are worked to death is as apparent as that the hack horses in our cities are used up in the same manner. Hundreds or thousands of Pacific Islanders , especially Native Hawaiians , traveled or were blackbirded to the U.S.-held and Peruvian guano islands for work, including Howland Island , Jarvis Island , and Baker Island . While most Hawaiians were literate, they could usually not read English;
3556-426: Is found in caves throughout the world. Many cave ecosystems are wholly dependent on bats to provide nutrients via their guano which supports bacteria , fungi , invertebrates , and vertebrates . The loss of bats from a cave can result in the extinction of species that rely on their guano. Unsustainable harvesting of bat guano may cause bats to abandon their roost. Demand for guano rapidly declined after 1910 with
3683-483: Is hypothesized that Egyptian fruit bats , which are native to Africa and the Middle East, can spread Marburg virus to each other through contact with infected secretions such as guano, but a 2018 review concluded that more studies are necessary to determine the specific mechanisms of exposure that cause Marburg virus disease in humans. Exposure to guano could be a route of transmission to humans. As early as in
3810-547: Is in the south of the county, surrounding Cramlington and other communities along the county border, to afford a protection from the Tyneside conurbation. The belt continues west along the border, past Darras Hall , and on to Hexham, stopping before Haydon Bridge . Its border there is shared with the North Pennines AONB. There are also some separated belt areas, for example to the east of Morpeth. The green belt
3937-483: Is integral to the existence of endangered cave fauna. The critically endangered Shelta Cave crayfish feeds on guano and other detritus . The Ozark cavefish , a U.S. federally listed species , also consumes guano. The loss of bats from a cave can result in declines or extinctions of other species that rely on their guano. A 1987 cave flood resulted in the death of its bat colony; the Valdina Farms salamander
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4064-410: Is inundated by the guano's nutrients, causing algae to grow more rapidly and coalesce into algal mats . These algal mats are in turn colonized by invertebrates. The abundance of nutrients offshore of guano islands also supports coral reef ecosystems. Cave ecosystems are often limited by nutrient availability. Bats bring nutrients into these ecosystems via their excretions, however, which are often
4191-462: Is more than twice the average national monthly income of $ 300. Workers also have health insurance , meals, and eight-hour shifts. Guano is one of the habitats of the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum , which can cause the disease histoplasmosis in humans, cats , and dogs . H. capsulatum grows best in the nitrogen-rich conditions present in guano. In the United States, histoplasmosis affects 3.4 adults per 100,000 over age 65, with higher rates in
4318-538: Is now likely extinct as a result. Bat guano also has a role in shaping caves by making them larger. It has been estimated that 70–95% of the total volume of Gomantong cave in Borneo is due to biological processes such as guano excretion, as the acidity of the guano weathers the rocky substrate. The presence of high densities of bats in a cave is predicted to cause the erosion of 1 metre (3 ft) of rock over 30,000 years. There are several references to guano in
4445-448: Is partially decomposed bat excrement and has an organic matter content greater than 40%; it is a source of nitrogen, and may contain up to 6% available phosphate (P 2 O 5 ). The feces of insectivorous bats consists of fine particles of insect exoskeleton , which are largely composed of chitin . Elements found in large concentrations include nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium and trace elements needed for plant growth. Bat guano
4572-582: Is situated in Hipsburn, a mile inland to the west. It is on the X18 bus route from Berwick via Alnwick and Amble to Newcastle. Two roads serve access to the village. The east-west B1336 runs from the north of Alnmouth to Hipsburn, providing a connection to the A1068 Alnwick-Ashington road. This link was developed in 1856 when the Hipsburn bridge crossing the River Aln was constructed to support
4699-512: Is slightly alkaline with an average pH of 7.25. Chitin from insect exoskeletons is an essential compound needed by soil fungi to grow and expand. Chitin is a major component of fungal cell wall membranes. The growth of beneficial fungi adds to soil fertility. Bat guano composition varies between species with different diets. Insectivorous bats are the only species that congregate in large enough numbers to produce sufficient guano for sustainable harvesting. The word "guano" originates from
4826-418: Is the fourth oldest in the country and is now Alnmouth Village Club; it is a 9 hole links course. Guano Guano (Spanish from Quechua : wanu ) is the accumulated excrement of seabirds or bats . Guano is a highly effective fertilizer due to the high content of nitrogen , phosphate , and potassium , all key nutrients essential for plant growth. Guano was also, to a lesser extent, sought for
4953-453: Is very rare; less than 1% of those infected develop symptoms. Only patients with more severe cases require medical attention, and only about 1% of acute cases are fatal. It is a much more serious illness for the immunocompromised , however. Histoplasmosis is the first symptom of HIV/AIDS in 50–75% of patients, and results in death for 39–58% of those with HIV/AIDS. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that
5080-607: The Cheviot Hills to Melrose, Scottish Borders ( Latin : Trimontium ). As evidence of its border position through medieval times, Northumberland has more castles than any other county in England, including prominent ones at Alnwick , Bamburgh , Dunstanburgh , Newcastle , and Warkworth . Nearly 2000-year-old Roman boxing gloves were uncovered at Vindolanda in 2017 by the Vindolanda Trust experts, led by Andrew Birley . Being similar in style and function to
5207-520: The Mesolithic period have been found, but no evidence has been found for the Neolithic period. A number of Bronze Age remains have been found including cist burials and a spear-head; and a presumed enclosure at the very north of the village is conjectured to be an Iron Age feature. No Roman remains have been discovered, but it appears likely that the estuary was known and presumably used by
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5334-626: The Midwestern United States (6.1 cases per 100,000). In addition to the United States, H. capsulatum is found in Central and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. Of 105 outbreaks in the U.S. from 1938–2013, seventeen occurred after exposure to a chicken coop while nine occurred after exposure to a cave. Birds or their droppings were present in 56% of outbreaks, while bats or their droppings were present in 23%. Developing any symptoms after exposure to H. capsulatum
5461-618: The North Pennines AONB is also in the county. There is a variety of nature reserves in Northumberland including Holy Island National Nature Reserve and Farne Islands National Nature Reserve. Moreover, 50% of England's red squirrel population lives in the Kielder Water and Forest Park. Natural England recognises the following natural regions, or national character areas , that lie wholly or partially within Northumberland: The Cheviot Hills , in
5588-692: The Northumberland Coast and part of the North Pennines . Much of the county's history has been defined by its position on a border. In the Roman era most of the county lay north of Hadrian's Wall , and the region was contested between England and Scotland into the Early Modern era, leading to the construction of many castles, peel towers and bastle houses , and the early modern fortifications at Berwick-upon-Tweed . Northumberland
5715-625: The Old English mūþa ('mouth of river'). Alnmouth's port, engaging in fishing and trade, has had a fitful 800-year documented history. The village was attacked and greatly depleted by the Scots in 1336. Further depredations were caused by the Black Death in 1348. The village was described as "depeopled" in 1597. A 1614 survey notes that the village was "in great ruin and decay", albeit somewhat improved. A 1567 survey established that 20 of
5842-455: The Percy volunteers , against the threat, and a gun battery was installed overlooking Alnmouth in 1852. Similar invasion fears arose during World War II , and a variety of defences were installed on the south and north beaches at Alnmouth, including concrete anti-tank cubes, an anti-tank ditch, pill-boxes, reinforcement of the previous century's gun battery, and firing slits built into the walls of
5969-599: The Restoration in 1660, the county was a centre for Roman Catholicism in England, as well as a focus of Jacobite support. Northumberland was long a wild county, where outlaws and Border Reivers hid from the law. However, the frequent cross-border skirmishes and accompanying local lawlessness largely subsided after the Union of the Crowns of Scotland and England under King James I and VI in 1603. Northumberland played
6096-594: The Treaty of York (1237). The earls of Northumberland once wielded significant power in English affairs because, as powerful and militaristic Marcher Lords , they had the task of protecting England from Scottish retaliation for English invasions. Northumberland has a history of revolt and rebellion against the government, as seen in the Rising of the North (1569–1570) against Elizabeth I . These revolts were usually led by
6223-486: The 18th century there are reports of travellers complaining about the unhealthy air of Arica and Iquique resulting from abundant bird spilling. Colonial birds and their guano deposits have an outsized role on the surrounding ecosystem. Bird guano stimulates productivity , though species richness may be lower on guano islands than islands without the deposits. Guano islands have a greater abundance of detritivorous beetles than islands without guano. The intertidal zone
6350-474: The 60 households in Alnmouth were engaged in fishing. Prosperity seems to have improved in the 17th century, and in the 18th century trade as the port burgeoned. The most notable export from the port was grain. A major import of the time was guano from Peru , part of the larger pattern of agricultural improvement of the time . Other exports noted in this period are coal, and eggs, pork and pickled salmon for
6477-541: The Aln, and some forestry plantations . Its history is of medieval tree-clearance and the establishment of scattered settlements and farms with complex field patterns. Alnmouth's coastline has multiple protected area designations. It lies at the southern end of the Northumberland Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and the (non-statutory) Northumberland Heritage Coast, both of which seek to protect its landscape in all aspects. The saltflats of
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#17327917062426604-606: The Andean indigenous language Quechua , where it refers to any form of dung used as an agricultural fertilizer. Archaeological evidence suggests that Andean people collected seabird guano from small islands and points off the desert coast of Peru for use as a soil amendment for well over 1,500 years and perhaps as long as 5,000 years. Spanish colonial documents suggest that the rulers of the Inca Empire greatly valued guano, restricted access to it, and punished any disturbance of
6731-486: The Church Hill guano shed. Remains of many of these defences are evident today. Alnmouth was rated as among the "20 most beautiful villages in the UK and Ireland" by Condé Nast Traveler in 2020. The publication strongly recommended a "pilgrimage to Alnwick Castle". The Northumberland Guide states that the village "well worth exploring", with its "almost picture postcard perfect with its colourful cottages". Alnmouth
6858-754: The English. The monastery at Lindisfarne was the centre of production of the Lindisfarne Gospels (around 700). It became the home of St Cuthbert (c. 634–687, abbot from c. 665), who is buried in Durham Cathedral . The Kingdom of Northumbria fragmented into a series of successor states following the Viking invasion. In the south, Viking settlers established the Kingdom of York between the Humber and Tees. However, Viking influence petered out at
6985-525: The London trade, and wool for the Yorkshire woolen industry. Imports mentioned include blue slate from Scotland and timber from Holland and Scandinavia . The grain trade gave rise to 16 granaries in the village, some of which were much later converted to residential use. The port also prospered as a shipbuilding centre, albeit on a modest scale. At its peak, around 1750, up to 18 vessels might be seen in
7112-644: The Old English Norþan-hymbre meaning "the people or province north of the Humber", as opposed to Southumbria , south of the Humber Estuary . The land has long been an English frontier zone, and it is now bordered to the north by Scotland . Northumberland has a rich prehistory with many instances of rock art , hillforts such as Yeavering Bell , and stone circles such as the Goatstones and Duddo Five Stones . Most of
7239-473: The Peruvian government in 1863; only twelve of 800 slaves survived the journey. On Navassa Island, the guano mining company switched from white convicts to largely black laborers after the American Civil War. Black laborers from Baltimore claimed that they were misled into signing contracts with stories of mostly fruit-picking, not guano mining, and "access to beautiful women". Instead, the work
7366-482: The Romans. Ptolemy , writing in the 2nd century CE notes the river Alaunus , and the much later Ravenna Cosmography notes a place-name of Alauna . Alnmouth harbour would have been useful to the Romans, both to support military campaigns and to facilitate trade, albeit the river is not navigable beyond Lesbury, 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) upstream. There is speculation that Adtwifyrdi or Adtuifyrdi ('at
7493-668: The Tees, with the river serving as the northern boundary of the Danelaw. Between the Tyne and Tees rivers, the Community of St. Cuthbert emerged as the successors to the Bishops of Lindisfarne; north of the Tyne, the earls of Bamburgh, who traced their lineage back to the Kings of Northumbria, continued to exercise authority and governance over this northern expanse. York was eventually integrated as
7620-468: The Town Moor. The 'Pitmen's Derby' or Northumberland Plate was held from 1833 and moved to Gosforth in 1882. Modern day horse racing still takes place at Newcastle Racecourse. Golf is a Scottish import to many countries, but it is said to have been played in this region by St Cuthbert on the dunes of the Northumberland coast. The oldest club in Northumberland was at Alnmouth , founded in 1869, it
7747-491: The U.S. American historian Daniel Immerwahr claimed that by establishing these land claims as constitutional, the Court laid the "basis for the legal foundation for the U.S. empire ". Other countries also used their desire for guano as a reason to expand their empires. The United Kingdom claimed Kiritimati and Malden Island for the British Empire . Others nations that claimed guano islands included Australia, France , Germany , Hawaii , Japan , and Mexico . In 1913,
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#17327917062427874-427: The area was occupied by the Brythonic - Celtic Votadini people, with another large tribe, the Brigantes , to the south. During the Roman occupation of Britain , most of the present county lay north of Hadrian's Wall . It was controlled by Rome only for the brief period of its extension of power north to the Antonine Wall . The Roman road Dere Street crosses the county from Corbridge over high moorland west of
8001-497: The arts. In his 1845 poem "Guanosong", German author Joseph Victor von Scheffel used a humorous verse to take a position in the popular polemic against Hegel 's Naturphilosophie . The poem starts with an allusion to Heinrich Heine 's Lorelei and may be sung to the same tune. The poem ends, however, with the blunt statement of a Swabian rapeseed farmer from Böblingen who praises the seagulls of Peru as providing better manure even than his fellow countryman Hegel. This refuted
8128-813: The bats are not present, such as when migratory bats are gone for the season or when non-migratory bats are out foraging at night. Guano mining in Peru was at first done with black slaves. After Peru formally ended slavery , it sought another source of cheap labor. In the 1840s and 1850s, thousands of men were blackbirded (coerced or kidnapped) from the Pacific islands and southern China. Thousands of coolies from South China worked as "virtual slaves" mining guano. By 1852, Chinese laborers comprised two-thirds of Peru's guano miners; others who mined guano included convicts and forced laborers paying off debts . Chinese laborers agreed to work for eight years in exchange for passage from China, though many were misled that they were headed to California 's gold mines. Conditions on
8255-416: The birds with death. The guanay cormorant is historically the most abundant and important producer of guano. Other important guano-producing bird species off the coast of Peru are the Peruvian pelican and the Peruvian booby . The earliest European records noting the use of guano as fertilizer date back to 1548. Although the first shipments of guano reached Spain as early as 1700, it did not become
8382-817: The cave as a roost, as happened when Robertson Cave in Australia had a hole opened in its ceiling for guano harvesting. Guano harvesting may also introduce artificial light into caves; one cave in the U.S. state of New Mexico was abandoned by its bat colony after the installation of electric lights. In addition to harming bats by necessitating they find another roost, guano harvesting techniques can ultimately harm human livelihood as well. Harming or killing bats means that less guano will be produced, resulting in unsustainable harvesting practices. In contrast, sustainable harvesting practices do not negatively impact bat colonies nor other cave fauna. The International Union for Conservation of Nature 's (IUCN) 2014 recommendations for sustainable guano harvesting include extracting guano when
8509-404: The city became a part of the Tyne and Wear metropolitan county in 1974. The county council has been governed from Morpeth since 1981. In 2009 the county council became a unitary authority when the county's districts were abolished and the county council took on their functions. The unitary authority of Northumberland Council was established in April 2009 . Previously, the county had
8636-402: The coast of Namibia , and surrounding islands to Great Britain. Guano pirating took off in other regions as well, causing prices to plummet and more consumers to try it. The biggest markets for guano from 1840–1879 were in Great Britain, the Low Countries , Germany, and the United States. By the late 1860s, it became apparent that Peru's most productive guano site, the Chincha Islands ,
8763-528: The coast of Northumberland are the Farne Islands , another dolerite outcrop, famous for their bird life. The Northumberland Coalfield extends across the southeast corner of the county, from the River Tyne as far north as Shilbottle . There were smaller-scale workings for coal within the Tyne Limestone Formation as far north as Scremerston . The term 'sea coal' likely originated from chunks of coal, found washed up on beaches, that wave action had broken from coastal outcroppings. Northumberland's green belt
8890-453: The collieries to the Tyne led to the development of the first railways. Shipbuilding and armaments manufacture were other important industries before the deindustrialisation of the 1980s. Northumberland remains largely rural, and is the least densely populated county in England. In recent years, the county has had considerable growth in tourism. Visitors are attracted both to its scenic beauty and to its historical sites. Northumberland has
9017-492: The contract they received in their own language lacked key amendments that the English version had. Because of this, the Hawaiian language contract was often missing key information, such as the departure date, the length of the contract, and the name of the company for which they would be working. When they arrived at their destination to begin mining, they learned that both contracts were largely meaningless in terms of work conditions. Instead, their overseer (commonly referred to as
9144-482: The county is a unitary authority area. The county historically included the parts of Tyne and Wear north of the River Tyne . The west of Northumberland contains part of the Cheviot Hills and North Pennines , while to the east the land becomes flatter before reaching the coast. The Cheviot (815 m (2,674 ft)), after which the range of hills is named, is the county's highest point. The county contains
9271-505: The county is a series of headlands and bays — such as at Alnmouth — with wide, sandy beaches, the result of differential erosion of ice-age deposits. Alnmouth's south-beach dune is calcarous, containing mainly marine-animal shell, and is only 2–300 years old. Alnmouth lies at the south-east extent of low hills such run down from the Cheviot Hills to the coast. Its hinterland is an open agricultural landscape of arable land and pasture , with broadleaf woodlands in river valleys such as of
9398-402: The county, pre Second World War and immediate post war greats were George Camsell and Hughie Gallacher , these were described in the "Clown Prince of Football" by Len Shackleton . The author played for Newcastle United and Northumberland County Cricket Club . Shackleton's book was controversial when it was first published because chapter 9, named "The Average Director's Knowledge of Football",
9525-434: The deterioration of the port due to the shifting and silting of the river estuary, in part as trade transferred to the railways. A notable change in the course of the river during a violent storm in 1806 resulted in the loss of the remains of the village's original church and disruption to the functioning of the port and industries. With the coming of the railways, Alnmouth transformed into a coastal resort complete with one of
9652-597: The development of the Haber–Bosch process for extracting nitrogen from the atmosphere. Seabird guano is the fecal excrement from marine birds and has an organic matter content greater than 40%, and is a source of nitrogen (N) and available phosphate (P 2 O 5 ). Unlike most mammals, birds do not excrete urea , but uric acid , so that the amount of nitrogen per volume is much higher than in other animal excrement. Seabird guano contains plant nutrients including nitrogen , phosphorus , calcium and potassium . Bat guano
9779-855: The dominant energy resource of a cave. Many cave species depend on bat guano for sustenance, directly or indirectly. Because cave-roosting bats are often highly colonial , they can deposit substantial quantities of nutrients into caves. The largest colony of bats in the world at Bracken Cave (about 20 million individuals) deposit 50,000 kg (110,000 lb) of guano into the cave every year. Even smaller colonies have relatively large impacts, with one colony of 3,000 gray bats annually depositing 9 kg (20 lb) of guano into their cave. Invertebrates inhabit guano piles, including fly larvae , nematodes , springtails , beetles , mites , pseudoscorpions , thrips , silverfish , moths , harvestmen , spiders , isopods , millipedes , centipedes , and barklice . The invertebrate communities associated with
9906-499: The dunes. Heated baths were available by the village's gas station. A links golf course was established in 1869, the fourth oldest in England; it is believed that it was designed by Mungo Park who became the club's first professional. The early 19th century had seen trade at the port affected by the Napoleonic Wars and fear of French invasion persisted until late in the century. The Duke of Northumberland maintained an army,
10033-493: The earliest English golf courses, a holiday camp, bathing houses, beach huts and spacious sea-view villas. In contemporary times, Alnmouth is a well conserved picturesque coastal resort and tourist attraction, lying within the Northumberland Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Alnmouth was established as a village by William de Vesci , who was granted a charter in 1152 to hold court and establish
10160-703: The earls of Northumberland, the Percy family. Shakespeare makes one of the Percys, the dashing Harry Hotspur (1364–1403), the hero of his Henry IV, Part 1 . The Percys were often aided in conflict by other powerful Northern families, such as the Nevilles and the Patchetts. The latter were stripped of all power and titles by the victorious Parliamentarians after the English Civil War of 1642–1651. After
10287-534: The estuary and the south beach dune are a Site of Special Scientific Interest listed in 1988 as Alnmouth Saltmarsh and Dunes for its varied plant community. As part of the Environment Agency 's Northumberland 4shores Project, in 2006, flood banks protecting 20 acres (8.1 ha) of estuarine pasture were breached and shallow ponds created, to allow tidal action to recreate saltflats to provide habitats for wading birds, dissipate wave energy, and diminish
10414-483: The fourth attempt in 1910. Today top quality professional football remains in Northumberland. Since the 2017 – 18 season, Newcastle United is a Premier League team. St James' Park in Newcastle is a first class football venue, often used for international games at all levels. Blyth Spartans A.F.C. have had success and public attention through Football Association Cup runs. There are many notable footballers from
10541-492: The full-hand modern boxing gloves, those found at Vindolanda look like leather bands dating back to 120 AD. It is suggested that, based on their difference from gladiator gloves, the gloves were not used in mortal combat, but rather in a sport for promoting fighting skills. The gloves are currently displayed at Vindolanda's museum. Present-day Northumberland formed the core of the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia from about 547. It
10668-420: The guano depends on the bat species' feeding guild : frugivorous bat guano has the greatest invertebrate diversity. Some invertebrates feed directly on the guano, while others consume the fungi that use it as a growth medium. Predators such as spiders depend on guano to support their prey base. Vertebrates consume guano as well, including the bullhead catfish and larvae of the grotto salamander . Bat guano
10795-429: The guano islands were very poor, commonly resulting in floggings , unrest, and suicide . Workers experienced lung damage by inhaling guano dust, were buried alive by falling piles of guano, and risked falling into the ocean. After visiting the guano islands, U.S. politician George Washington Peck wrote: I observed Coolies shoveling and wheeling as if for dear life and yet their backs were covered with great welts...It
10922-402: The guano. The use of excavation machinery is not only impractical due to the terrain but also prohibited because it would frighten the seabirds. The guano is then placed in sacks and carried to sieves , where impurities are removed. Similarly, harvesting bat guano in caves was and is manual. In Puerto Rico , cave entrances were enlarged to facilitate access and extraction. Guano was freed from
11049-425: The harbour at any one time. The reputation of the village was not high, though. John Wesley is famously reported to have described the place as " a small sea-port town, famous for all kinds of wickedness ", and much earlier accounts speak of members of the community who added nothing to the commonwealth, and against whom all things must be secured lest they be stolen. The American privateer John Paul Jones attacked
11176-448: The immunocompromised avoid exploring caves or old buildings, cleaning chicken coops, or disturbing soil where guano is present. Rabies , which can affect humans who have been bitten by infected mammals including bats, cannot be transmitted through bat guano. A 2011 study of bat guano viromes in the U.S. states of Texas and California recovered no viruses that are pathogenic to humans, nor any close relatives of pathogenic viruses. It
11303-679: The land previously invaded by the Anglian kingdom. In 1018, its northern part, the region between the Tweed and the Forth (including Lothian , which includes present-day Edinburgh ), was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland. The Earldom of Northumberland was briefly held by the Scottish royal family by marriage, between 1139–1157 and 1215–1217. Scotland relinquished all claims to the region as part of
11430-533: The late 1800s, approximately 53 million seabirds lived on the twenty-two islands. As of 2011, only 4.2 million seabirds lived there. After realizing the depletion of guano in the Guano Age, the Peruvian government recognized that it needed to conserve the seabirds. In 1906, American zoologist Robert Ervin Coker was hired by the Peruvian government to create management plans for its marine species, including
11557-533: The latest farming experiments, including guano. In an effort to impress the upper class around him and disguise his low-class origins, Jorrocks references guano in conversation at every chance he can. At one point, he exclaims, "Guano!" along with two other varieties of fertilizer, to which the Duke replies, "I see you understand it all!" Guano is also the namesake for one of the nucleobases in RNA and DNA : guanine ,
11684-594: The leading academic institutions nearby. The local industry includes commercial or academic activity in pre-clinical research and development, clinical research and development, pilot-scale manufacturing, full-scale active pharmaceutical ingredient/intermediate manufacturing, formulation, packaging, and distribution. Having no large population centres, the county's mainstream media outlets are served from nearby Tyne and Wear , including radio stations and television channels (such as BBC Look North , BBC Radio Newcastle , ITV Tyne Tees and Hits Radio North East ), along with
11811-447: The majority of daily newspapers covering the area ( The Journal , Evening Chronicle ). It is worth remembering however that although Northumberland, like many administrative areas in England, has been shorn of its geographical regional centre, that centre—Newcastle upon Tyne—remains an essential element within the entity we know as Northumberland. Newcastle's newspapers are as widely read in its Northumbrian hinterland as any of those of
11938-546: The mine was abandoned in 1960. In Australia, the first documented claim on Naracoorte 's Bat Cave guano deposits was in 1867. Guano mining in the country remained a localized and small industry. In modern times, bat guano is used in low levels in developed countries . It remains an important resource in developing countries , particularly in Asia. Coring accumulations of bat guano can be useful in determining past climate conditions. The level of rainfall, for example, impacts
12065-694: The newly acquired lands. The demand for guano led the United States to pass the Guano Islands Act in 1856, which gave U.S. citizens discovering a source of guano on an unclaimed island exclusive rights to the deposits. In 1857, the U.S. began annexing uninhabited islands in the Pacific and Caribbean, totaling nearly 100, though some islands claimed under the Act did not end up having guano mining operations established on them. Several of these islands are still officially U.S. territories. Conditions on annexed guano islands were poor for workers, resulting in
12192-529: The north of the village to 3.5 metres (11 ft) in the south-west. The geology of the North East of England around Alnmouth is a superficial layer of glacial till in the form of boulder clay lying on often outcropping Whin Sill , a carboniferous limestone, with peat deposits, and, at the coast, wind-blown sand including a coastline dune system which has evolved over the last 10,000 years. The coastline of
12319-531: The northwest of the county, consist mainly of resistant Devonian granite and andesite lava . A second area of igneous rock underlies the Whin Sill (on which Hadrian's Wall runs), an intrusion of Carboniferous dolerite . Both ridges support a rather bare moorland landscape. Either side of the Whin Sill the county lies on Carboniferous Limestone , giving some areas of karst landscape . Lying off
12446-401: The port in 1779, during the War of Independence, firing his cannon at the church. A shift in the course of the river on Christmas Day 1806 was sometimes identified as a cause of the decline of the port. A violent storm breached the northern end of the Church Hill sandbank, allowing the river to divert away from a south–north meander to take a more direct course to the sea. The 19th century saw
12573-454: The port's decline were offset by a new role for the village, as a holiday and second-home resort. With the coming of the railway to nearby Hipsburn in 1847( the station known then as Bilton junction then Alnmouth, now Alnmouth for Alnwick ), spacious villas with sea-views were built, granary buildings converted to residential use or demolished to make way for new cottages. Maps of 1897 show a holiday camp, garden tea-room and many beach-huts amongst
12700-458: The potential for flooding. The golf course area, north of the village, is registered as common land . Most of the village was designated as a conservation area in 1972 — areas of recent building in the north are excluded. The architecture of the town is a mix of a few 17th century structures with 18th and 19th century buildings, ranging from terraced cottages to spacious Victorian villas, some flamboyant in style; 31 are Grade II listed . South of
12827-426: The production of gunpowder and other explosive materials. The 19th-century seabird guano trade played a pivotal role in the development of modern input-intensive farming . The demand for guano spurred the human colonization of remote bird islands in many parts of the world. Unsustainable seabird guano mining processes can result in permanent habitat destruction and the loss of millions of seabirds. Bat guano
12954-551: The region. Tourism is a major source of employment and income in Northumberland. In the early 2000s the county annually received 1.1 million British visitors and 50,000 foreign tourists, who spent a total of £162 million. Coal mining in the county goes back to Tudor times . Coal mines continue to operate today; many of them are open-cast mines. Planning approval was given in January 2014 for an open-cast mine at Halton Lea Gate near Lambley . A major employer in Northumberland
13081-422: The relative frequency of nitrogen isotopes . In times of higher rainfall, N is more common. Bat guano also contains pollen , which can be used to identify prior plant assemblages. A layer of charcoal recovered from a guano core in the U.S. state of Alabama was seen as evidence that a Woodlands tribe inhabited the cave for some time, leaving charcoal via the fires they lit. Stable isotope analysis of bat guano
13208-677: The rising popularity of organic food in the twenty-first century, the demand for guano has started to rise again. In the U.S., bat guano was harvested from caves as early as the 1780s to manufacture gunpowder . During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the Union 's blockade of the southern Confederate States of America meant that the Confederacy resorted to mining guano from caves to produce saltpetre . One Confederate guano kiln in New Braunfels, Texas , had
13335-504: The river, a roofless 1870s mortuary chapel and the remains of a concrete cottage stand on the south-west of Church Hill. Further south, the first edition Ordnance Survey map of the area shows a bathhouse on Buston links associated with 'sandpits' — apparently bathing holes — drilled into the outcropping stone on the beach, and presumably evidence of the Victorian Spa movement. Alnmouth is served by Alnmouth railway station which
13462-426: The rocky substrate by explosives. Then, it was shoveled into carts and removed from the cave. From there, the guano was taken to kilns to dry. The dried guano would then be loaded into sacks, ready for transport via ship. Today, bat guano is usually harvested in the developing world, using "strong backs and shovels". Peru's guano islands experienced severe ecological effects as a result of unsustainable mining. In
13589-538: The seabirds, including keeping unauthorized visitors a mile away from guano islands at all times, eliminating all the birds' natural predators, armed patrols of the islands, and decreasing the frequency of harvest on each island to once every three to four years. In 2009, these conservation efforts culminated in the establishment of the Guano Islands, Isles, and Capes National Reserve System , which consists of twenty-two islands and eleven capes . This Reserve System
13716-505: The seabirds. Specifically, he made five recommendations: Despite these policies, the seabird population continued to decline, which was exacerbated by the 1911 El Niño–Southern Oscillation . In 1913, Scottish ornithologist Henry Ogg Forbes authored a report on behalf of the Peruvian Corporation focusing on how human actions harmed the birds and subsequent guano production. Forbes suggested additional policies to conserve
13843-589: The source of the River North Tyne and much of the South Tyne; near Hexham they combine to form the Tyne, which exits into Tyne and Wear shortly downstream. The other major rivers in Northumberland are, from south to north, the Blyth , Coquet , Aln , Wansbeck and Tweed , the last of which forms part of the Scottish border. The county contains Northumberland National Park and two national landscapes :
13970-682: The success and history of their respective clubs. They both became permanent fixtures in Alf Ramsey's 1966 England World Cup winning team. Malcolm Macdonald was a successful Newcastle player of the 1970s. Great national players who played at Northumberland clubs in the 1980s and 1990s include Peter Beardsley , Paul Gascoigne , Chris Waddle and Alan Shearer . Shearer remains the highest scoring player in Premier League history with 260 goals in 441 appearances. Early races were held at Newcastle's Killingworth Moor from 1632 before moving to
14097-550: The two fords'), the name used by the Venerable Bede , refers to the estuary of the River Aln. Here, according to Bede's account in Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , Book IV, ch. 28, Archbishop Theodore presided over a synod in 684 in the presence of King Ecgfrith of Northumbria , at which bishop Tunberht of Hexham was deposed and St Cuthbert elected Bishop of Lindisfarne . The name Alnmouth derives from
14224-513: The village, leading in the direction of Hipsburn and Alnwick; and a second, Low Ford, was to the south-west of the village and north-west of Church Hill, leading in the direction of High Buston and Warkworth , and adjacent to stepping-stones across the river usable at low tide. The village is on National Cycle Route 1 . Anticlockwise Boulmer Alnmouth Clockwise Amble Northumberland Northumberland ( / n ɔːr ˈ θ ʌ m b ər l ə n d / nor- THUM -bər-lənd )
14351-519: The west. About a quarter of the county forms the Northumberland National Park , an area of outstanding landscape that has largely been protected from development and agriculture. The park stretches south from the Scottish border and includes Hadrian's Wall . Most of the park is over 240 metres (790 feet) above sea level. The Northumberland Coast is also a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). A small part of
14478-971: The wider county: the Northumberland Gazette , Morpeth Herald , Berwick Advertiser , Hexham Courant and the News Post Leader . Lionheart Radio , a community radio station based in Alnwick , has recently been awarded a five-year community broadcasting licence by Ofcom . Ashington has the former Alcan Lynemouth Aluminium Smelter , next to the Lynemouth Power Station . Hammerite and Cuprinol are made in Prudhoe by ICI Paints . A Procter & Gamble factory in Seaton Delaval makes Hugo Boss aftershave and Clairol and Nice 'n Easy hair dye at
14605-535: The widespread Enlightenment belief that nature in the New World was inferior to the Old World . The poem has been translated by, among others, Charles Godfrey Leland . English author Robert Smith Surtees parodied the obsession of wealthy landowners with the "religion of progress" in 1843. In one of his works featuring the character John Jorrocks, Surtees has the character develop an obsession with trying all
14732-421: Was Hexham . At the 2001 UK Census Northumberland registered a population of 307,190, estimated to be 309,237 in 2003, The 2011 UK Census gave a population of 316,028. In 2001 there were 130,780 households, 10% of the population were retired, and one-third rented their homes. Northumberland has an ethnic minority population at 0.985% of the population, far lower compared to the average of 9.1% for England as
14859-576: Was also used to support that the climate of the Grand Canyon was cooler and wetter during the Pleistocene epoch than it is now in the Holocene . Additionally, the climatic conditions were more variable in the past. Mining seabird guano from Peruvian islands has remained largely the same since the industry began, relying on manual labor . First, picks, brooms, and shovels are used to loosen
14986-412: Was exhausting and punishments were brutal. Laborers were frequently placed in stocks or tied up and dangled in the air. A labor revolt ensued, where the workers attacked their overseers with stones, axes, and even dynamite, killing five overseers. Although the process for mining guano is mostly the same today, worker conditions have improved. As of 2018, guano miners in Peru made US$ 750 per month, which
15113-513: Was first drawn up in the 1950s. The historic county town was Alnwick ; assizes were mainly held in Newcastle , with the county gaol in Morpeth . Newcastle became a city in 1400, with county corporate status, with both areas having joint assizes. From the county council 's formation in 1889 until 1981 Newcastle was the county town , being briefly the county town of two counties when
15240-412: Was for a time a leading north-east centre for the export of grain and other foodstuffs, especially to London, and specialised in the import of timber and slate. These activities to some extent shaped the village, as granaries were constructed to store grain, and sawmills and a boatyard established to process wood and build ships. Port activities declined at the end of the 19th century, in part because of
15367-488: Was killed playing football when David Le Keu's knife went into Henry's belly and killed him. Organised football teams as we know today did not appear until the 1870s. Newcastle United Football Club was formed in 1892 by uniting Newcastle West End FC with Newcastle East End. Newcastle United were first division champions three times in the early 20th century, reaching the FA Cup Final three times before winning it at
15494-486: Was nearing depletion. This caused guano mining to shift to other islands north and south of the Chincha Islands. Despite this near exhaustion, Peru achieved its greatest ever export of guano in 1870 at more than 700,000 tonnes (770,000 short tons). Concern of exhaustion was ameliorated by the discovery of a new Peruvian resource: sodium nitrate , also called Chile saltpetre. After 1870, the use of Peruvian guano as
15621-598: Was produced as a blank page. Notable players after the Second World War included Joe Harvey , Jackie Milburn , Brian Clough and Newcastle's Bobby Moncur who led his team to win the Inter City Fairs Cup in 1969. Two of Jackie Milburn's nephews from Ashington , Bobby Charlton and Jackie Charlton are perhaps the two most significant players for England . Bobby joined Manchester United and Jackie Leeds United both contributing much to
15748-495: Was the first marine protected area in South America, encompassing 140,833 hectares (348,010 acres). Unlike bird guano which is deposited on the surface of islands, bat guano can be deep within caves. Cave structure is often altered via explosives or excavation to facilitate extraction of the guano, which changes the cave's microclimate . Bats are sensitive to cave microclimate, and such changes can cause them to abandon
15875-789: Was translated into German, Italian, and French; American historian Wyndham D. Miles said that it was likely "the most popular book ever written on the subject, outselling the works of Dundonald , Chaptal , Liebig ..." He also said that "No other work on agricultural chemistry was read by as many English-speaking farmers." The arrival of commercial whaling on the Pacific coast of South America contributed to scaling of its guano industry. Whaling vessels carried consumer goods to Peru such as textiles, flour, and lard; unequal trade meant that ships returning north were often half empty, leaving entrepreneurs in search of profitable goods that could be exported. In 1840, Peruvian politician and entrepreneur Francisco Quirós y Ampudia [ es ] negotiated
16002-627: Was united with Deira (south of the River Tees ) to form the kingdom of Northumbria in the 7th century. The boundaries of Northumbria under King Edwin (reigned 616–633) stretched from the Humber in the south to the Forth in the north. Northumberland is often called the "cradle of Christianity" in England because Christianity flourished on Lindisfarne —a tidal island north of Bamburgh , also called Holy Island—after King Oswald of Northumbria (r. 634–642) invited monks from Iona to come to convert
16129-551: Was used by the State to free its more than 25,000 black slaves. Peru also used guano revenue to abolish the head tax on its indigenous citizens. This export of guano from Peru to Europe has been suggested as the vehicle that brought a virulent strain of potato blight from the Andean highlands that began the Great Famine of Ireland . Soon guano was sourced from regions besides Peru. By 1846, 462,057 tonnes (509,331 short tons) of guano had been exported from Ichaboe Island , off
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