Misplaced Pages

#60939

126-657: The successive Argentine governments since the May Revolution tried to govern all the provinces of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata by citing the argument that when the king's governance ceased, its rights reverted to the people. After the dissolution of the Junta Grande , the city of Buenos Aires clearly desired to dominate the country, with as little input from the other cities as possible. The cities from

252-704: A constitutional monarchy , whereas she wanted to govern an absolute monarchy ; these conflicting goals undermined the project and led to its failure. Britain, which had a strong influence in the politics of the Portuguese Empire, opposed the project as well: they did not want Spain split into several kingdoms, and considered Carlota Joaquina unable to prevent this. After the British invasion of 1806, Santiago de Liniers successfully reconquered Buenos Aires. The population did not allow Rafael de Sobremonte to continue as Viceroy. He had escaped to Cordoba with

378-493: A Regency—and the principle of retroversion of sovereignty. He spoke after Riega, and replied that the American people should assume control of their government until Ferdinand VII could return to the throne. Nobody could call the whole nation a criminal, nor the individuals that have aired their political views. If the right of conquest belongs by right to the conquering country, it would be fair for Spain to quit resisting

504-466: A betrayal. Demands for Cisneros' immediate resignation replaced those for an open cabildo. The people finally settled down and dispersed when Saavedra intervened to say that the claims of the Infernal Legion were supported by the military. The invitations were distributed among 450 leading citizens and officials in the capital. The Cabildo compiled the guest list, and tried to guarantee

630-412: A definitive answer. After a short private discussion with Caspe, Cisneros reluctantly gave his consent. That night, many of the revolutionaries attended a theatre production on the theme of tyranny, called Rome Saved . The lead actor was Morante, playing Cicero . The police chief requested Morante to feign illness and not appear, so that the play could be replaced with Misanthropy and Repentance by

756-503: A double attack. While an army attacked from the south, a division of the Army of the North would advance from the west. The quick reaction of Estanislao López dislodged the offensive. López captured the commander of the west column from Córdoba, Juan Bautista Bustos and then succeeded in repelling the attack from the south. Another similar attempt was thwarted in 1819. The bulk of the Army of

882-688: A follower of Artigas. The Army of the North was formed to fight the War of Independence against the Spanish Empire in Upper Peru , but after the third defeat at the Sipe Sipe , it was left weakened and with a single base at Tucumán . In theory, its mission was to wait until the conditions permitted to restart the reconquest of the provinces in Upper Peru. The Directorio decided to use

1008-417: A lesser evil, even though it was illegal, and it occasionally equalled in volume the legal commerce with Spain. Two antagonistic factions emerged: the landowners wanted free trade so they could sell their products abroad, while the merchants, who benefited from the high prices of smuggled imports, opposed free trade because prices would come down. The Spanish monarchy appointed their own candidates to most of

1134-462: A letter to oppose the aims of Rivadavia: "We must make these servile men see that we are not tribal chieftains, but lovers of the liberty of our country and our peoples." As Rivadavia's government fell into disrepute, Bustos launched, in May 1827, a proposal to base the republic on federalist principles. Bustos was one of the first governors to give responsibility over foreign affairs to Manuel Dorrego ,

1260-414: A local government instead of a European one, or a step towards a potential declaration of independence. The project was resisted by Viceroy Liniers, most peninsulars, and some criollos, including Cornelio Saavedra and the lawyers Mariano Moreno and Juan José Paso . They suspected that it concealed Portuguese expansionist ambitions over the region. The supporters of Carlota Joaquina intended her to head

1386-472: A march towards the south. By the order of Artigas, Ramírez crossed the Paraná River and invaded the north of Buenos Aires Province, later retreating. Rondeau organised his army in the capital and marched to meet the threat. The Army of the North entered Santa Fe Province. Arriving at Arequito , on January 8, 1820, General Bustos, supported by Colonels Alejandro Heredia and José María Paz , directed

SECTION 10

#1732773215061

1512-401: A mutiny to remove Liniers. On January 1, 1809, an open cabildo (an extraordinary meeting of vecinos , prominent people of the city) chaired by Álzaga demanded the resignation of Liniers and the appointment of a local junta. The Spanish militia and a group of people summoned by the meeting gathered to support the rebellion. A small number of criollos, notably Mariano Moreno, supported

1638-760: A need for new markets to sell its products. The Napoleonic Wars with France made this a difficult task, after Napoleon imposed the Continental System , which forbade his allies and conquests to trade with Britain. Thus Britain looked to new sources of trade, including Spain's colonies in South America, but could not do so because the colonies were restricted to trade only with Spain. To achieve this economic objective, Britain initially tried to invade Rio de la Plata and capture key cities in Spanish America. When that failed, they chose to promote

1764-411: A new interim governor, José Javier Díaz, the chief of the local Federalists was elected. An assembly declared: "as a free and sovereign province (Córdoba) does not know dependency nor owes subordination to another; and sees as one of its principal obligations the fraternity and union with all and the most close friendship with the provinces, while all united in a General Congress abide by the treaties for

1890-515: A portion of the army to the provinces of the north, as an advance party of the promised march to resume war with the royalists . Unfortunately, Heredia did not get to fight the Spaniards, as his force was used by Martín Miguel de Güemes in the rebellion against the governor of Tucumán. The remaining forces were used for the defense of the province against the Pampas and Chaco native tribes and

2016-547: A rebellion, which would turn the revolutionaries into outlaws. Manuel Belgrano gave the following Monday as the deadline to confirm the open cabildo before taking direct action. Leiva would later act as a mediator, being both a confidante of Cisneros and a trusted negotiator for the more moderate revolutionaries. Lezica informed Cisneros of the request for an open cabildo and the Viceroy consulted Leiva, who spoke in favor of it. The Viceroy summoned military commanders to come to

2142-501: A representative commission composed of Juan José Castelli and Martín Rodríguez to request that Cisneros convene an open cabildo to decide the future of the Viceroyalty. During the night of May 19 there were further discussions at Rodríguez Peña's house. Saavedra, called by Viamonte, joined the meeting, which involved military and civilian leaders. They arranged that Belgrano and Saavedra would meet with Juan José de Lezica ,

2268-541: A similar sentiment about the higher echelons of the religious hierarchy. Events developed at a slower pace than in the United States independence movement. This was in part because the clergy controlled the entire educational system in Spanish America, which led the population to hold the same conservative ideas and follow the same customs as in Spain. Buenos Aires and Montevideo were captured and recaptured during

2394-502: A small number of proposals, designated with the names of their main supporters, and the people then voted for one of those proposals. The voting lasted for a long time, and the result was to dismiss the Viceroy by a large majority: 155 votes to 69. Manuel José Reyes stated that he found no reason to depose the Viceroy, and that it would be enough to appoint a junta headed by Cisneros. His proposal had nearly 30 votes. Another 30 votes supported Cisneros, with no change to

2520-670: A subordinate king to popular sovereignty . As similar events occurred in many other cities of the continent, the May Revolution is also considered one of the early events of the Spanish American wars of independence . The question of the mask of Ferdinand is particularly controversial in Argentinean History. Historians today debate whether the revolutionaries were truly loyal to the Spanish crown, or whether

2646-498: A true federation in peace and in war, which aspires to the conformity of all the others. Which will respond with all its efforts and what depended on its resources to fight the enemies of common freedom, even when the federation had not yet been organized in the provinces...." That means the same sentiments that Bustos and the other participants of the Arequito rebellion had. Rondeau confronted Ramírez and López with its own forces at

SECTION 20

#1732773215061

2772-549: The Syllogism of Chuquisaca , a legal explanation to justify self-governance . This influenced his ideas during the "May Week". On November 25, 1809, Cisneros created the Political Surveillance Court to persecute afrancesados (supporters of Joseph Bonaparte) and independentists . However, he rejected economist José María Romero's proposal to banish a number of people considered dangerous to

2898-797: The Atlantic Revolutions across most of the Western world. The concept of the divine right of kings was questioned by the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , by the oft-quoted statement that " all men are created equal " in the United States Declaration of Independence and even by the Spanish church. However, the spread of such ideas was forbidden in the Spanish territories, as

3024-599: The Banda Oriental (now Uruguay ), where the caudillo José Artigas denied the capital the right to govern his province. In 1815, after more than a year of civil war, he gained complete control of the Provincia Oriental . His example was followed by the bordering provinces, starting with Entre Ríos , where several caudillos deposed the governors placed by the Directory ; with Francisco Ramírez as

3150-755: The Battle of Cepeda and was thoroughly defeated. Only a week later, he resigned and dissolved the Congress of Tucumán . There was not to be a new Supreme Director because of pressure from López and Ramírez, Buenos Aires designated a provincial governor who signed the Treaty of Pilar with the Federalists. While in Córdoba, Bustos learned of the end of the Directorship, and he started a campaign to reorganize

3276-460: The Battle of Sipe-Sipe because the governor of Salta , Martín Miguel de Güemes , prevented him from reaching the army, suspecting Bustos had been sent to depose him. Once in the Army of the North, he became a trusted official of the general Manuel Belgrano and reached the rank of Senior colonel , although he did not participate in any of the campaigns of the Upper Peru . Despite his provincial origins, when internal conflicts broke out between

3402-604: The Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies to govern, and dissolved itself. News of these events arrived in Buenos Aires on May 18, brought by British ships. Viceroy Cisneros tried to maintain the political status quo, but a group of criollo lawyers and military officials organized an open cabildo (a special meeting of notables of the city) on May 22 to decide the future of the Viceroyalty. The Regency of Spain

3528-583: The La Paz revolution , led by Colonel Pedro Domingo Murillo , deposed the Governor of La Paz and elected a new junta . A swift reaction from the Spanish authorities defeated those rebellions. An army of 1,000 men sent from Buenos Aires found no resistance at Chuquisaca, took control of the city and overthrew the Junta. Murillo tried to defend La Paz, but his 800 militiamen were completely outnumbered by

3654-579: The University of Chuquisaca (modern Sucre ). Books from the United States found their way into the Spanish colonies through Caracas, owing to the proximity of Venezuela to the United States and the West Indies. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain, with the use of plateways , canals and steam power. This led to dramatic increases in the productive capabilities of Britain, and created

3780-467: The "Fonda de las Naciones", frequent criollo meeting places, became venues for political discussions and radical proclamations; Francisco José Planes shouted that Cisneros should be hanged in the Plaza as retribution for the execution of the leaders of the ill-fated La Paz revolution. People who sympathized with the absolutist government were harassed, but the fights were of little consequence because nobody

3906-514: The "elder sister", comparable to negotiorum gestio , makes an analogy between the relationship of Buenos Aires and other cities of the viceroyalty with a sibling relationship. The priest Juan Nepomuceno Solá then proposed that the Cabildo should receive the provisional command, until the formation of a governing junta made up of representatives from all populations of the Viceroyalty. Manuel Alberti, Miguel de Azcuénaga (who would be members of

Arequito revolt - Misplaced Pages Continue

4032-645: The 18th and 19 February, Bustos battled against López in the Battle of La Herradura , which ended without a clear victor. On March 10, fighting broke out in Las Barrancas, Córdoba, as López's forces moved in on those of Juan José Viamonte , the commander from Buenos Aires. On April 12, an armistice was signed in San Lorenzo , although the peace lasted only a few months, and in November hostilities resumed. Bustos returned to Córdoba with 2500 men, where he

4158-655: The Americas) to believe that revolution and independence from Spain were feasible. Between 1775 and 1783, the American patriots of the Thirteen Colonies waged a war against both the local loyalists and the Kingdom of Great Britain , eventually establishing a republican government in the place of a constitutional monarchy . The fact that Spain had aided the colonies during their war with Britain weakened

4284-473: The British invasions. In 1806, a small British army led by William Carr Beresford managed to occupy Buenos Aires for a brief time; a Montevidean army led by Santiago de Liniers recaptured the city. The following year, a larger army seized Montevideo, but was overwhelmed by the forces of Buenos Aires; the British capitulated and returned Montevideo to the viceroyalty. There was no aid from Spain during either invasion. Liniers organized criollo militias during

4410-472: The British ships and seized their newspapers to conceal the news, but a newspaper came into the hands of Belgrano and Castelli. They spread the news among other patriots and challenged the legitimacy of the Viceroy, who had been appointed by the fallen junta. When Cornelio Saavedra, head of the regiment of Patricians , was informed of this news, he decided that it was finally the ideal time to take action against Cisneros. Martín Rodríguez proposed to overthrow

4536-404: The Cabildo until the appointment of a governing junta. Notices were placed at various points throughout the city, which announced the imminent creation of a junta and the summoning of representatives from the provinces. The notices also called for the public to refrain from actions contrary to public policy. The Cabildo interpreted the decision of the open cabildo in its own way. When it formed

4662-657: The Chilean José Miguel Carrera , whom he defeated in Cruz Alta (Córdoba) . Bustos played an important role in the Treaty of Benegas of November 1820, sending representatives from Córdoba. This achieved a truce between the provinces and an agreement to convene a National Congress in January 1821. However, this did not materialize in the face of opposition from Buenos Aires, especially by the minister Bernardino Rivadavia . His political base in Córdoba

4788-663: The Director and the provinces seeking greater autonomy, Bustos remained loyal to the former. In 1816, he fought against Juan Francisco Borges , the Caudillo from Santiago del Estero , and in 1818 against Estanislao López , the governor of Santa Fe , who defeated Bustos in Fraile Muerto . In 1819, the governor of Buenos Aires tried once more to break up the Federal League and launched a campaign against López. On

4914-705: The Directorio were displeased. Artigas wanted the national government to unite against the Portuguese , who had invaded his province from Brazil . The new Supreme Director, José Rondeau , wanted to defeat Santa Fe with the help from the Portuguese. He called in the Army of the Andes , but its commander, San Martín, refused to obey. He also ordered the commander of the Army of the North, Manuel Belgrano , who initiated

5040-478: The Federalists of Juan Pablo Bulnes , who were distanced from Díaz's group, and various local politicians and influential local businessmen. With their support, he was elected governor on March 19. Bustos then dedicated himself to govern and organize the province, and he mediated between López and the Buenos Aires Province government, who were still fighting each other. He sent Colonel Heredia with

5166-646: The French and submit to them, by the same principles for which it is expected that the Americans submit themselves to the peoples of Pontevedra. The reason and the rule must be equal for everybody. Here there are no conquerors or conquered; here there are only Spaniards. The Spaniards of Spain have lost their land. The Spaniards of America are trying to save theirs. Let the ones from Spain deal with themselves as they can; do not worry, we American Spaniards know what we want and where we go. So I suggest we vote: that we replace

Arequito revolt - Misplaced Pages Continue

5292-684: The German novelist and playwright August von Kotzebue . Rumors of police censorship spread quickly; Morante ignored the request and performed the play as planned. In the fourth act, Morante made a patriotic speech, about the Gaul threat to Rome (the Gauls are ancestors of the French people ) and the need for strong leadership to resist the danger. This scene lifted the revolutionaries' spirits and led to frenzied applause. Juan José Paso stood up and cried out for

5418-548: The Litoral provinces would have lasted much longer, and the inevitable formation of a modern federalist Argentine nation would have been more difficult. May Revolution The May Revolution ( Spanish : Revolución de Mayo ) was a week-long series of events that took place from May 18 to 25, 1810, in Buenos Aires , capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . This Spanish colony included roughly

5544-756: The Napoleonic invasion of Portugal. Carlota Joaquina , sister of Ferdinand VII, was the wife of the Portuguese prince regent, but had her own political projects. As she avoided the later capture of the Spanish royal family, she attempted to take charge of the viceroyalty as regent. This political project, known as Carlotism , sought to prevent a French invasion of the Americas. A small secret society of criollos, composed of politicians such as Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli , and military leaders such as Antonio Beruti and Hipólito Vieytes , supported this project. They considered it an opportunity to get

5670-423: The North was established in Córdoba to the annoyance of many of their members, as it was far from the royalist enemies. In April, a peace treaty signed between the governments of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe gave hopes of a solution to the internal quarrels, and the offices believed they would go back to the northern front. The treaty pacified its signatories, but Artigas, who considered himself as López's superior, and

5796-461: The Plaza did not believe that Cisneros would allow the open cabildo the next day. Leiva left the Cabildo, and Belgrano, who was representing the crowd, requested a definitive commitment. Leiva explained that everything would go ahead as planned, but the Cabildo needed time to prepare. He asked Belgrano to help the Cabildo with the work, as his intervention would be seen by the crowd as a guarantee that their demands would not be ignored. The crowd left

5922-472: The Primera Junta some days later), Escalada and Argerich (or Aguirre) supported his vote, among others. Cornelio Saavedra suggested that the Cabildo should receive the provisional command until the formation of a governing junta in the manner and form that the Cabildo would deem as appropriate. He said "...there shall be no doubt that it is the people that create authority or command." At the time of

6048-443: The Spanish regime, such as Saavedra, Paso, Vieytes, Castelli and Moreno, among others. Romero warned Cisneros against spreading news that might be considered subversive. Criollos felt that soon any pretext would be enough to lead to the outbreak of revolution. In April 1810, Cornelio Saavedra advised to his friends: "it's not time yet, let the figs ripen and then we'll eat them". He meant that he would not support rushed actions against

6174-530: The Spanish, said that the city of Buenos Aires had no right to make unilateral decisions about the legitimacy of the Viceroy or the Council of Regency without the participation of other cities of the Viceroyalty. He argued that such an action would break the unity of the country and establish as many sovereignties as there were cities. His intention was to keep Cisneros in power by delaying any possible action. Juan José Paso accepted his first point, but argued that

6300-548: The Spanish-American aspirations of emancipation from Spain. The mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808 led King Charles IV of Spain to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII . Charles IV requested that Napoleon restore him to the throne; instead, Napoleon crowned his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte , as the new Spanish King. These events are known as the Abdications of Bayonne . Joseph's coronation

6426-400: The Viceroy by force, but Castelli and Saavedra rejected this idea and proposed the convening of an open cabildo. Although Viceroy Cisneros attempted to conceal the news of the Spanish defeat, the rumor had already spread throughout Buenos Aires. Most of the population was uneasy; there was high activity at the barracks and in the Plaza, and most shops were closed. The "Café de Catalanes" and

SECTION 50

#1732773215061

6552-418: The Viceroy to request military aid to take Castelli and Martín Rodríguez prisoners. The guards let them pass unannounced, and they found Cisneros playing cards with Brigadier Quintana, prosecutor Caspe and aide Coicolea. Castelli and Rodríguez demanded once again the convening of an open cabildo, and Cisneros reacted angrily, considering their request an outrage. Rodríguez interrupted him and forced him to give

6678-557: The Viceroy with a new authority that will be subject to the parent state if it is saved from the French, and independent if Spain is finally subjugated. Pascual Ruiz Huidobro stated that, since the authority that appointed Cisneros had expired, Cisneros should no longer have a place in the government. Huidobro felt that the Cabildo should be in government, as it was the representative of the people. Melchor Fernández, Juan León Ferragut and Joaquín Grigera supported his vote, among others. Attorney Manuel Genaro Villota , representative of

6804-622: The Viceroy, but would do so at a strategically favorable moment, such as when Napoleon's forces gained a decisive advantage in their war against Spain. The May Week was the period of time in Buenos Aires which began with the confirmation of the fall of the Supreme Central Junta and ended with the dismissal of Cisneros and the establishment of the Primera Junta . On 14 May 1810, the schooner HMS  Mistletoe arrived at Buenos Aires with European newspapers that reported

6930-585: The aims of the Unitarian, Rivadavia, who from Buenos Aires sought to consolidate the central power. Bustos removed the representatives that had supported Unitarianism in the General Congress of 1824 and, like all but two of the provincial governments, rejected the Constitution of 1826. To resist the centralist advance from Buenos Aires, Bustos sought the aid of Facundo Quiroga , urging him in

7056-518: The apogee of the historical overvaluation of San Martín, who also had refused to participate in the civil war, the Arequito Revolt was seen as an important step in the formation of modern Argentina. In effect, the rebellion of the Army of the North permitted the provinces to impose their will for the first time over the central government in Buenos Aires, made the odd and almost monarchist Unitarian Party constitution of 1819 disappear, permitted

7182-423: The army to suppress internal rebellions in 1816. A fraction of the army was used to reinstate the governor of La Rioja Province and, at the beginning of the following year, the governor of Santiago del Estero Province . A little later, another part of the army helped deposed the governor of Córdoba Province and support his successor. In 1818, the director Pueyrredón decided to suppress Santa Fe Province with

7308-564: The arrival of Quiroga, who was then marching from La Rioja to his aid. However, Paz attacked Bustos unexpectedly on April 22, 1829, in the Battle of San Roque , resulting in Bustos's total defeat. Bustos escaped to La Rioja, seeking Quiroga's help. Quiroga mustered a force of troops from his own province and Córdobese militias to confront Paz, under the command of Bustos. They fought Paz's forces at La Tablada on June 22, 1829. Paz's forces, though outnumbered, defeated Bustos. During his retreat, he

7434-524: The barracks to harangue the troops and prepare them for the following day. According to the minutes, only about 251 out of the 450 officially invited guests attended the open cabildo. French and Beruti, in command of 600 men armed with knives, shotguns and rifles, controlled access to the square to ensure that the open cabildo had a majority of criollos. All noteworthy religious and civilian people were present, as well as militia commanders and many prominent residents. The only notable absence

7560-414: The birth of the autonomous government in Buenos Aires Province, equalized the rights of the people, and opened the way for an equal treatment and relations between the provinces (a path that would prove to be difficult, as it would take 50 years of more civil wars in Argentina). Possibly, if the Army of the North would have followed its path to the north, the war between Buenos Aires and the federalists from

7686-511: The conflict between the Federalists and the Directory to avoid being accused of having supported the enemy. Bustos then had about 1,600 men, and Fernández de la Cruz, slightly fewer than 1,400. Bustos demanded to receive half of their armament, munitions, and head of cattle, which Cruz seemed to accept at the beginning. However, at noon, he started a march towards the south although the promised goods had not been delivered. Bustos ordered Heredia to pursue his former commander, which occurred when he

SECTION 60

#1732773215061

7812-481: The country, delaying the return of the Northern Army to the northern border. At the same time, interim Governor Díaz announced that he was thinking of an association with the Littoral Caudillos (Santa Fé, Entre Ríos and Corrientes Provinces) in their fight against Buenos Aires; that is, the signing of some alliance pact with José Gervasio Artigas , Ramírez or López. That was not Bustos's objective and so he actively opposed Díaz's policies. Looking for allies, he reached

7938-420: The creation of a junta. This proposal received 35 votes, and sought simply to replace Cisneros with Huidobro: Huidobro was the most senior military officer, and thus the natural candidate under current laws to replace the viceroy in the lack of a new appointment from Spain. Juan Nepomuceno Solá proposed a junta composed of delegates from all the provinces of the viceroyalty, while the Cabildo should govern in

8064-434: The current international situation with that prevailing at the time of the mutiny of Álzaga over a year earlier, pointed out that Spain was now almost entirely under Napoleonic control and that the undefeated Spanish provinces were very small in comparison with the Americas. He rejected the claim of sovereignty of Cadiz over the Americas, and concluded that the local armies wanted to look after themselves, rather than following

8190-473: The declaration of fidelity to the king was a necessary ruse to conceal the true objective—to achieve independence—from a population that was not yet ready to accept such a radical change, but there is strong evidence of the truly loyal to the Spanish crown. The Argentine Declaration of Independence was issued at the Congress of Tucumán on July 9, 1816. The U.S. declaration of independence from Great Britain in 1776 led criollos (Spanish peoples born in

8316-448: The defeat of the federalist party in the civil wars carried forward their enemies, that point of view was the one which survived. Many years later, the school of Argentina historical revisionism started to see the Arequito Revolt with different eyes. Also, Córdoba historians valued their first autonomous governors, who had supported or participated in the events. In the mid-20th century, with the historical revisionism firmly established and

8442-459: The disbanded peninsular militias, and pardoned those responsible for the mutiny. Álzaga was not freed, but his sentence was commuted to house arrest. There was concern about events in Spain and about the legitimacy of local governors in Upper Peru as well. On May 25, 1809, the Chuquisaca Revolution deposed Ramón García de León y Pizarro as Governor of Chuquisaca and replaced him with Juan Antonio Alvarez de Arenales . On July 16,

8568-417: The dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta the previous January. The city of Seville had been invaded by French armies, which were already dominating most of the Iberian Peninsula . The newspapers reported that some of the former members of the Junta had taken refuge on the Isla de León in Cadiz. This was confirmed in Buenos Aires on May 17, when the British ship John Parish arrived in Montevideo;

8694-462: The end of his term on February 25, 1825, his party proposed him for reelection, but the Provincial Congress of Córdoba instead assigned the role to José Julián Martínez, a moderate Unitarian . This enraged Bustos's followers, who with the help of the commanders of rural militias, dissolved the Congress and elected new representatives. On March 30, 1825, these confirmed Bustos as governor once again. The Federalist position held by Bustos clashed with

8820-444: The fall of Cornelio Saavedra's sector, he was removed from his military command. He worked as a merchant until 1812, when—with the fall of the First Triumvirate —he rejoined the active service as a colonel in command of the 2nd Infantry Battalion. In 1815, the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , Ignacio Álvarez Thomas , assigned Bustos to the Army of the North . However, Bustos did not participate in

8946-492: The fate of Spain. Finally, he pointed out that the Supreme Central Junta that appointed Cisneros as Viceroy no longer existed, so he rejected Cisneros' legitimacy as Viceroy and denied him the protection of the troops under his command. Castelli and Martín Rodríguez moved to the Fort for an interview with Cisneros. Juan Florencio Terrada , commander of the Infantry Grenadiers, joined them, because their barracks were located under Cisneros' window, and his presence would not allow

9072-499: The federalist governor of Buenos Aires following Rivadavia's resignation. Bustos's prestige and successful administration made him a natural leader or caudillo of the provinces; consequently, he became one of the main targets of the Unitarian reaction following Dorrego's assassination. In particular, his former comrade and fellow Córdoban but fervent Unitarian, José María Paz —the most skilled Unitarian military commander—marched on Córdoba, where he had "old debts" to reclaim. Among these

9198-543: The fight in the north. In one of those letters he clarified: "The weapons of the motherland, distracted from their main objective, as they were not used but to spill the blood of their citizens, the same ones from which sweat and labor insured their subsistence." After meeting with López's envoys at La Herradura, by the Tercero River , Bustos moved his army to Córdoba Province, where he was triumphantly received. Governor Manuel Antonio Castro had recently resigned and

9324-469: The first time that a Spanish viceroy was deposed by local government institutions, and not by the King of Spain himself; King Charles IV ratified the appointment at a later time. Liniers armed the entire population of Buenos Aires, including criollos and slaves, and defeated a second British invasion attempt in 1807. The Liniers administration was popular among criollos, but not among peninsulars such as

9450-519: The following year to repel the combined attack of Francisco Ramírez and José Miguel Carrera . The Arequito Revolt was reported by early historians in a bad light. The chronicles by Lamadrid and Paz called it treason to the motherland or an obscure event organized to place Bustos in the Córdoba government house and nothing more. Historians in the second half of the 19th century, starting with Bartolomé Mitre and Vicente Fidel López accused him of both. Nobody dared to defend Bustos and his followers, and as

9576-522: The fort at 7 pm, to demand military support. There were rumors that it could be a trap to capture them and take control of the barracks. To prevent this, they took command of the grenadiers that guarded the Fort and seized the keys of all entrances while meeting with the Viceroy. Colonel Cornelio Saavedra, head of the Regiment of Patricios, responded on behalf of all the criollo regiments. He compared

9702-409: The freedom of Buenos Aires, and a small fight ensued. After the play, the revolutionaries returned to Peña's house. They learned the result of the meeting with Cisneros, but were unsure as to whether Cisneros intended to keep his word. They organized a demonstration for the following day to ensure that the open cabildo would be held as decided. At 3 pm, the Cabildo began its routine work, but

9828-468: The government and the authority of the Viceroy. The principle of retroversion of the sovereignty to the people stated that, in the absence of the legitimate monarch, power returned to the people; they were entitled to form a new government. This principle was commonplace in Spanish scholasticism and rationalist philosophy , but had never been applied in case law. Its validity divided the assembly into two main groups: one group rejected it and argued that

9954-455: The government that had appointed him Viceroy no longer existed. To maintain a sense of continuity, Cisneros was initially appointed president of the Junta. However, this caused much popular unrest, and so Cisneros resigned under pressure on May 25. The newly formed government, the Primera Junta, included only representatives from Buenos Aires and invited other cities of the Viceroyalty to send delegates to join them. The revolutionary army began

10080-418: The handover. Manuel Belgrano proposed that Liniers should resist on the grounds that he had been confirmed as Viceroy by a King of Spain, whereas Cisneros lacked such legitimacy. The criollo militias shared Belgrano's proposal, but Liniers handed over the government to Cisneros without resistance. Javier de Elío accepted the authority of the new Viceroy, and dissolved the Junta of Montevideo. Cisneros rearmed

10206-477: The idea that it would be a crime to end one's allegiance to the parent state. The ideals of the French Revolution of 1789 spread across Europe and the Americas as well. The overthrow and execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette ended centuries of monarchy and removed the privileges of the nobility. Liberal ideals in the political and economic fields developed and spread through

10332-431: The interim; this proposal received nearly 20 votes. Cornelio Saavedra, whose aforementioned proposal was that the Cabildo should appoint a Junta and rule in the interim, got the largest number of votes. A number of other proposals received only a few votes each. At dawn on May 23, the Cabildo informed the population that the Viceroy would end his mandate. The highest authority would be transferred temporarily to

10458-403: The interior of the country, in the name of their respective territories, insistently requested to have equal participation in the national government and to elect their own local governments. For years, the different governments from Buenos Aires made an effort in the opposite way. All governors were appointed directly by the central government, and the city of Buenos Aires had a representation that

10584-403: The leader in the province. A little later, Corrientes Province followed and ended its obedience to the central government. The dissent followed to Santa Fe Province , which revolted against porteño dominance in 1815 and again in 1816 under the command of Mariano Vera , later succeeded by Estanislao López . The central government vehemently denied them the right of separation, as its territory

10710-399: The main hall but stayed in the Plaza. Belgrano protested about the guest list, which consisted of the wealthiest citizens, and thought that if the poor people were left outside there would be further unrest. The members of the Cabildo tried to convince him to give his support, but he left. Belgrano's departure enraged the crowd, as he did not explain what had happened, and the people feared

10836-573: The merchant Martín de Álzaga and the Governor of Montevideo, Francisco Javier de Elío . They requested the Spanish authorities appoint a new viceroy. In the wake of the outbreak of the Peninsular War, de Elío created the Junta of Montevideo , which would scrutinise all the orders from Buenos Aires and reserve the right to ignore them, but did not openly deny the authority of the Viceroy or declare Montevideo independent. Martín de Álzaga began

10962-400: The military rebellion. The arrested Colonels Cornelio Zelaya and Manuel Guillermo Pinto in the middle of the night, traveled to a short distance from Fernández de la Cruz encampment, and decided to negotiate with him. They told him that they refused to continue with the civil war and to go back to the northern front against the royalists instead. They explicitly declared themselves neutral in

11088-513: The more than 5,000 soldiers sent from Lima. He and the other leaders were later beheaded, and their heads were exhibited as a deterrent. These measures contrasted sharply with the pardon that Martín de Álzaga and others had received after a short time in prison, and the resentment of criollos against the peninsulars deepened. Juan José Castelli was present at the deliberations of the University of Chuquisaca, where Bernardo Monteagudo developed

11214-434: The most recent newspapers reported that members of the Supreme Central Junta had been dismissed. The Council of Regency of Cadiz was not seen as a successor of the Spanish resistance but as an attempt to restore absolutism in Spain. The Supreme Central Junta was seen as sympathetic to the new ideas. South American patriots feared both a complete French victory in the peninsula and an absolutist restoration. Cisneros monitored

11340-440: The mutiny, but most of them did not. They felt that Álzaga wanted to remove the Viceroy to avoid his political authority while keeping the social differences between criollos and peninsulars unchanged. The riot was quickly routed when criollo militias led by Cornelio Saavedra surrounded the plaza and dispersed the rebels. As a result of the failed mutiny, the rebel militias were disarmed. This included all peninsular militias, and

11466-527: The natives when there is no longer a Spaniard there. If even a single member of the Central Junta of Seville were to land on our shores, we should receive him as the Sovereign. Juan José Castelli was the main speaker for the revolutionaries. He based his speech on two key ideas: the government's lapsed legitimacy—he stated that the Supreme Central Junta was dissolved and had no rights to designate

11592-628: The new Junta to govern until the arrival of representatives from other cities, Leiva arranged for former viceroy Cisneros to be appointed president of the Junta and commander of the armed forces. There are many interpretations of his motives for departing from the decision of the open cabildo in this way. Four other members were appointed to the Junta: criollos Cornelio Saavedra and Juan José Castelli, and peninsulars Juan Nepomuceno Solá and José Santos Inchaurregui . Juan Bautista Bustos Juan Bautista Bustos (August 29, 1779 - September 18, 1830)

11718-504: The only buyer and vendor for their international trade. This situation damaged the viceroyalty, as Spain's economy was not powerful enough to produce the huge supply of goods that the numerous colonies would need. This caused economic shortages and recession. The Spanish trade routes favored the ports of Mexico and Lima , to the detriment of Buenos Aires. As a result, Buenos Aires smuggled those products that could not be obtained legitimately. Most local authorities allowed this smuggling as

11844-416: The open cabildo would lack legitimacy if too many criollos were allowed to take part in it as a result of the aforementioned manipulation of the guest list. The meeting lasted from morning to midnight, including the reading of the proclamation, the debate and the vote. There was no secret ballot; votes were heard one at a time and recorded in the minutes. The main themes of the debate were the legitimacy of

11970-465: The political offices in the viceroyalty, usually favoring Spaniards from Europe. In most cases, the appointees had little knowledge of or interest in local issues. Consequently, there was a growing rivalry between criollos and peninsulars (those born in Spain). Most criollos thought that peninsulars had undeserved advantages and received preferential treatment in politics and society. The lower clergy had

12096-437: The political system. A small group supported the proposal of Martín José de Choteco, who also supported Cisneros. There were also many different proposals involving the removal of Cisneros. Many of them required the new authorities to be elected by the Cabildo. Pascual Ruiz Huidobro proposed that the Cabildo should rule in the interim and appoint a new government, but this proposal made no reference to popular sovereignty or

12222-563: The power of the criollos increased as a result. The leaders of the plot, with the exception of Moreno, were exiled to Carmen de Patagones . Javier de Elío freed them and gave them political asylum at Montevideo. The Supreme Central Junta replaced Liniers with the naval officer Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros , a veteran of the Battle of Trafalgar , to end the political turmoil in the Río de la Plata. He arrived in Montevideo in June 1809 for

12348-513: The preparations for the second invasion, in spite of the prohibition against them. The Patricios Regiment , led by Cornelio Saavedra , was the biggest criollo army. These events gave criollos military power and political influence that they did not have before and, since the victory was achieved without any help from Spain, it boosted criollo confidence in their independent capabilities. The Portuguese royal family left Europe and settled in their colony of Brazil in 1808, after their escape from

12474-417: The public treasury while the battle was still in progress. A law enacted in 1778 required the treasury to be moved to a safe location in the case of a foreign attack, but Sobremonte was still seen as a coward by the population. The Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires did not allow his return to Buenos Aires and elected Liniers, acclaimed as a popular hero, as an interim Viceroy. This was an unprecedented action,

12600-440: The result, inviting people that would be likely to support the Viceroy. The revolutionaries countered this move with a similar one, so that most people would be against Cisneros instead. The printer Agustín Donado , supporting the revolutionaries, printed nearly 600 invitations instead of the 450 requested, and distributed the surplus among the criollos. During the night, Castelli, Rodríguez, French and Beruti visited all

12726-547: The rivalry between criollos and peninsulars; the Viceroy supporters felt that the will of peninsulars should prevail over that of criollos. One of the speakers for the first position was the bishop of Buenos Aires, Benito Lue y Riega , leader of the local church, who said: Not only is there no reason to get rid of the Viceroy, but even if no part of Spain remained unsubdued, the Spaniards in America ought to take it back and resume command over it. America should only be ruled by

12852-515: The second British Invasion, he led a troop of 30 soldiers against a British fort of the 88th Regiment and achieved their surrender. For his valor, he was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel of the Arribeños. He participated in the May Revolution of 1810 as one of its principal proponents in the provinces. In April 1811, he was assigned as a member of the Tribunal of Public Security. However, upon

12978-421: The senior alcalde (municipal magistrate), while Castelli would meet with the procurator Julián de Leiva , to ask for their support. They asked the Viceroy to allow an open cabildo, and said that if it was not freely granted the people and the criollo troops would march to the Plaza, force the Viceroy to resign by any means necessary, and replace him with a patriot government. Saavedra commented to Lezica that he

13104-473: The situation in Europe and the possibility that Napoleon's forces could conquer the American colonies demanded an urgent resolution. He then expounded the "argument of the elder sister", reasoning that Buenos Aires should take the initiative and make the changes deemed necessary and appropriate, on the express condition that the other cities would be invited to comment as soon as possible. The rhetorical device of

13230-482: The situation should remain unchanged; this group supported Cisneros as Viceroy. The other group supported change, and considered that they should establish a junta, like the ones established in Spain to replace the Viceroy. There was also a third position, taking the middle ground. The promoters of change did not recognize the authority of the Council of Regency, and argued that the colonies in America were not consulted in its formation. The debate tangentially discussed

13356-440: The territories of present-day Argentina , Bolivia , Paraguay , Uruguay , and parts of Brazil . The result was the removal of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and the establishment of a local government, the Primera Junta ( First Junta ), on May 25. The May Revolution was a direct reaction to Napoleon's invasion of Spain . In 1808, King Ferdinand VII of Spain abdicated in favor of Napoleon , who granted

13482-408: The throne to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte . A Supreme Central Junta led resistance to Joseph's government and the French occupation of Spain, but eventually suffered a series of reversals that resulted in the Spanish loss of the northern half of the country. On February 1, 1810, French troops took Seville and gained control of most of Andalusia . The Supreme Junta retreated to Cádiz , formed

13608-445: The treasury, led the rioters. It was rumored that Cisneros had been killed, and that Saavedra would take control of the government. Saavedra was at the barracks at that moment, concerned about the demonstration. He thought the violence should be stopped and that radical measures such as the assassination of Cisneros should be prevented, but he also thought that the troops would mutiny if the demonstrations were suppressed. The people in

13734-453: The vote, Castelli's position coincided with that of Saavedra. Manuel Belgrano stood near a window and, in the event of a problematic development, he would give a signal by waiving a white cloth, upon which the people gathered in the Plaza would force their way into the Cabildo. However, there were no problems and this emergency plan was not implemented. The historian Vicente Fidel López revealed that his father, Vicente López y Planes , who

13860-481: The war and this resulted in the outbreak of a secessionist Civil war between the regions that accepted the outcome of the events at Buenos Aires and those that remained loyal to Spain. The May Revolution began the Argentine War of Independence , although no declaration of independence from Spain was issued at the time and the Primera Junta continued to govern in the name of the king, Ferdinand VII, as

13986-471: Was allowed to take muskets or swords out of the barracks. The Viceroy, trying to calm the criollos, gave his own version of events in a proclamation. He asked for allegiance to King Ferdinand VII, but popular unrest continued to intensify. He was aware of the news, but only said that the situation on the Iberian Peninsula was delicate; he did not confirm the fall of the Junta. His proposal

14112-598: Was already surrounded by López's federalist troops (they were already in Santa Fe Province, a federalist stronghold). Seeing that he could not continue forward, Fernández de la Cruz decided to give his army to Bustos and returned to Buenos Aires almost alone and followed by only a few loyal officers like Lamadrid . The next day, Bustos started his return to Córdoba, and on January 12, he reached Esquina, at Córdoba's border. He wrote to López and Rondeau from there to explain what had occurred and his plans to return to

14238-428: Was always greater than the rest in the assemblies that followed. On the other hand, several of the central governments fell by coups d'état organized in Buenos Aires exclusively, and the national governments that followed them were invariably named by the cabildo of Buenos Aires. The reaction of the interior provinces was surprisingly slow but inevitable. The first effective response to the porteño control came from

14364-686: Was an Argentine politician and military leader who participated in the British invasions of the River Plate and the Argentine Civil Wars . In 1820, he became the first constitutional Governor of Córdoba . In 1806, Juan Bautista Bustos was captain in the militias that marched from Córdoba to liberate Buenos Aires during the first British Invasion. After the city's Reconquista, he joined the Battalion of Arribeños . In 1807, facing

14490-418: Was interrupted by 600 armed men named the Infernal Legion, who occupied the Plaza de la Victoria and loudly demanded the convening of an open cabildo and the resignation of Viceroy Cisneros. They carried a portrait of Ferdinand VII and the lapels of their jackets bore a white ribbon that symbolized criollo–Spanish unity. Domingo French , the mail carrier of the city, and Antonio Beruti, an employee of

14616-639: Was met with severe resistance in Spain, which started the Peninsular War , and the Supreme Central Junta took power in the name of the absent king. This also led to Spain switching alliances from France to Britain. France eventually invaded Sevilla, and a Council of Regency based in Cadiz replaced the disbanded Supreme Central Junta. Spain forbade its American colonies to trade with other nations or foreign colonies, and imposed itself as

14742-561: Was not only his expulsion from the province eight years earlier, but also the scarce participation of Bustos in the ill-fated campaign on the Upper Peru and the Cisplatine War . Unable to resist Paz's advance on the city of Córdoba, Bustos retreated to San Roque (now covered by the waters of San Roque Lake ). He negotiated a truce with Paz, granting him leadership of the province and agreeing to elections in which neither candidate could participate. Meanwhile, he sought to buy time until

14868-415: Was present at the event, saw that Mariano Moreno was worried near the end in spite of the majority achieved. Moreno told Planes that the Cabildo was about to betray them. The debate took all day, and the votes were counted very late that night. After the presentations, people voted for the continuation of the Viceroy, alone or at the head of a junta, or his dismissal. The ideas explained were divided into

14994-511: Was proclaimed Governor by the Constituent Assembly of the province and sworn in on March 24. As governor, Bustos sought to strengthen ties with the rest of the country. He kept close relations with José de San Martín and with Güemes, although he did not send the Army of the North to the latter's aid. Bustos made peace with López and took part in a short civil war against the caudillo of Entre Ríos , Francisco Ramírez , and against

15120-440: Was suspected of betrayal because of his constant requests for cautious and measured steps. This comment was designed to pressure Lezica into speeding up the legal system to allow the people to express themselves, or otherwise risk a major rebellion. Lezica asked for patience and time to persuade the Viceroy, and leave a massive demonstration as a last resort. He argued that if the Viceroy was deposed in that way, it would constitute

15246-480: Was that of Martín de Álzaga, who was still under house arrest. A merchant, José Ignacio Rezábal, attended the open cabildo but, in a letter to the priest Julián S. de Agüero, said that he had some doubts which were shared by other people close to him. He feared that, no matter which party prevailed in the open cabildo, it would take revenge against the other, the Mutiny of Álzaga being a recent precedent. He felt that

15372-516: Was the obligatory route of communication with the interior of the country. No less than five military expeditions were launched from Buenos Aires to crush Santa Fe's resistance, but none of them succeeded. The Northern provinces followed suit, Salta established an autonomous government under General Güemes , the Province of Cuyo refused the replacement of their governor, José de San Martín , and Córdoba elected its own governor, José Javier Díaz,

15498-604: Was the prelude to the Spanish Cortes of Cádiz of 1810 and the Spanish Constitution of 1812 . All of these Spanish governments considered the Argentine Junta to be insurgent and denied it any legitimacy to govern the territories of the viceroyalty. At the other end, delegates of the Junta refused to recognize the Council of Regency in Spain and established a junta to govern in place of Cisneros, as

15624-577: Was the rural population, some ranchers, the lower clergy, and some groups that had followed José Gervasio Artigas . He oversaw a stable, progressive government, marked by tolerance for its opposition. On January 30, 1821, he approved the Constitution of Córdoba , which praised individual rights and liberties. On September 26, 1822, he created the Junta Protectora de Escuelas , with the aim of promoting elementary education in rural areas. At

15750-561: Was the sale of related books or their unauthorized possession. Spain instituted those bans when it declared war on France after the execution of Louis XVI and retained them after the peace treaty of 1796. News of the events of 1789 and copies of the publications of the French Revolution spread around Spain despite efforts to keep them at bay. Many enlightened criollos came into contact with liberal authors and their works during their university studies, either in Europe or at

15876-492: Was to make a government body that would rule on behalf of Ferdinand VII, together with Viceroy of Peru José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa , Governor of Potosí Francisco de Paula Sanz and President of the Royal Audiencia of Charcas Vicente Nieto . Not fooled by the Viceroy's communiqué, some criollos met at the houses of Nicolás Rodríguez Peña and Martín Rodríguez. During these secret meetings, they appointed

#60939