Asturica Augusta was a Roman city corresponding to the Spanish city of Astorga , in the province of León . Founded around 14 B.C. as a camp of the Legio X Gemina , at the beginning of the first century it developed as a civil center and was the capital of the Asturicense conventus iurudicus, within the province of Tarraconense .
134-468: Located on a hill overlooking a large territory, from the mountains of León to the plains of the Páramo , during the first and second centuries it acquired great importance due to the control of gold mining in the northwest of the peninsula, and was an important communications hub, which, via numerous roads, linked the city with some of the most important centers of Roman Hispania . Its ruins are hidden under
268-656: A Christian community at an early date. However, the establishment of Christianity was threatened by the barbarian invasions and, in the religious field, by the expansion of the Priscillianist and Manichaeist doctrines, against which Hydatius or Saint Toribius later fought after the condemnation made at the Council of Saragossa in 380. After the execution of Priscillian in Trier in 385, Bishop Symposium converted to Catholicism, as did his successors Dictinus and Comasius;
402-640: A Priscillianist stronghold had been organized around them in Astorga in the second half of the 4th century. After the barbarian invasions, the establishment of the Suevi in the territory of the ancient Gallaecia around 410 put an end to the Roman domination over the city, suffering the first destructions or looting by the Suevi Hermeric . The first signs of interest in researching the city's past came after
536-536: A Visigothic hermitage, Santa Maria de Lara . It also embodied the continuity of Roman order. Native Hispano-Romans continued to run the civil administration and Latin continued to be the language of government and of commerce on behalf of the Visigoths. Religion was the most persistent source of friction between the Chalcedonian ( Catholic ) native Hispano-Romans and their Arian Visigothic overlords, whom
670-532: A city of the Asturians , specifically the capital of the Amachus , the only time they are mentioned in the classical sources. However, although there are reports of several Iron Age settlements around Astorga, the archaeological excavations carried out in the city have not provided evidence of pre-Roman occupation of the hill. Such hypotheses would have their origin in those ideological foundations, fashionable in
804-517: A forum since, on the one hand, it occupies an area much larger than the average of the Hispano-Roman cities (11.6% compared to an average of no more than 2%), and on the other hand it seems that some structures were already there before the planning of the city, i.e. its construction may have been contemporary to the camp period, during the presence of the Legion X Gemina . Proof of this could be
938-606: A gold torque of unknown origin deposited in the National Archaeological Museum , two bronze ring fibulae, typically Roman, Iberian coins from private collections and a boulder with a hemispherical hole carved in it. Another argument for its pre-Roman condition is its mention in one of the classical sources that refer to the city, the Geography of Claudius Ptolemy ; in Book II he mentions Asturica as
1072-469: A granary and a major source of metals for the Roman market, and its harbors exported gold , tin , silver , lead , wool , wheat , olive oil , wine , fish , and garum . Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use today. The Romanized Iberian populations and the Iberian-born descendants of Roman soldiers and colonists had all achieved
1206-569: A move which coincides to the Vandal occupation of Carthage late the same year. Rome made attempts to restore control in 446 and 458. Success was temporary. After the death of emperor Majorian in 461 Roman authority collapsed except in Tarraconensis the northeastern quadrant of the peninsula. The Visigoths, a Germanic people , whose kingdom was located in southwest Gaul, took the province when they occupied Tarragona in 472. They also confined
1340-648: A plan of an ancient street paved with slabs, identified as Roman because it was associated with structures of that time. It was not until 1946 that José María Luengo carried out a study of the sewer located in the Garden of the Synagogue. The same author continued to carry out archaeological interventions in Astorga, within the Annual Plan of the Ministry of Culture, being the first ones carried out officially. When
1474-476: A rabbit. Others derive the word from Phoenician span , meaning 'hidden', and make it indicate "a hidden", that is, "a remote", or "far-distant land". Other theories have been proposed. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania of Iberian origin and derived it from the pre-Roman name for Seville , Hispalis . This was revived for instance by the etymologist Eric Partridge (in his work Origins ) who felt that this might strongly hint at an ancient name for
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#17327719347861608-413: A site was excavated between Blanco de Cela and Río Eria streets, where evidence of the first urban fortification was found; the remains of the camp fortification, the first urban wall and a house were found superimposed. In them, the filling of the camp moat is also produced at the end of the reign of Tiberius, but especially under the rule of Claudius. Therefore it would not be in the time of Augustus but in
1742-593: A struggle for the throne between the Visigothic kings Agila and Athanagild , the Byzantine emperor Justinian I sent an army under the command of Liberius to take back the peninsula from the Visigoths. This short-lived reconquest recovered only a small strip of land along the Mediterranean coast roughly corresponding to the ancient province of Baetica , known as Spania . Under the Visigoths, culture
1876-399: A text by Floro that would refer to the demilitarization of the camp: ...he ordered them to dwell and reside in his camp, located in the plain, to hold their assemblies there and to adopt it as their capital. Likewise, José María Luengo considered Legio X responsible for the city's foundation, in whose construction its soldiers would have participated. Francisco Javier Lomas also related
2010-412: Is 50 meters, its width is 5.30 meters and its average height is also 5.30 meters. Its plan would be U-shaped, being the existing structure at its eastern closure, since from its ends depart foundations in the direction of the current Plaza Mayor. This gallery would be the substructure of a building, perhaps an Ara Augusta , an altar dedicated to the emperor. This whole complex may not have been conceived as
2144-405: Is conditioned by the topography of the hill, with an irregular trapezoidal floor plan. Its current state of conservation is poor due to the repairs and restorations it has undergone, and what can be seen is the result of the 20th-century works that hid the original walls. The original layout of the towers has also been modified. Of all the accesses it had, the only one documented from the Roman period
2278-700: Is considered to have been decisive in hastening the decline of the Western Roman Empire. However, their departure allowed the Romans to recover 90% of the Iberian peninsula until 439. After the departure of the Vandals only the Sueves remained in a northwest corner of the peninsula. Roman rule which had survived in the eastern quadrant was restored over most of Iberia until the Sueves occupied Mérida in 439,
2412-448: Is located in the southeastern part of the city. Chronologically, three phases can be distinguished: the first in the middle of the first century, the second at the end of the first or beginning of the second century, and the third in the middle of the second century, when it underwent a major restructuring of the spaces. They are in a good state of preservation: frigidarium , tepidarium , sudatorium and two caldaria , as well as
2546-493: Is made of opus sectile , with a geometric design. Traditionally, this space has been considered an Aedes Augusti , for the official ceremonies of imperial worship, but later interpretations suggest that it may have been used as the seat of the curia . In the central area of the forum is the structure known as the Roman Ergastula . It is a gallery covered with a barrel vault and built-in opus caementicium. Its length
2680-594: Is mentioned for the first time in the work of the Roman historian Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus , in the 1st century BC. Although Hispania is the Latin root for the modern name Spain , the words Spanish for Hispanicus or Hispanic , or Spain for Hispania , are not easily interchangeable, depending on context. The Estoria de España ('The History of Spain') written on the initiative of Alfonso X of Castile El Sabio ('the Wise'), between 1260 and 1274, during
2814-738: Is mentioned on several occasions in classical historiography . Pliny the Elder , who visited the city in about 73, during the rule of Vespasian , notes the following: Following them are the twenty-two peoples of the Asturians, divided into Augustans and Transmontans, with Asturica, a magnificent city: among them are the Gigurians, the Pesicans, the Lancians, and the Zoelas. The number of freemen in
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#17327719347862948-485: Is observed, with grid planning, giving rise to square or rectangular blocks. The other end, the southern one, is organized in relation to its eastern boundary, with streets parallel to it, including the Forum itself, which occupies a large area of that zone. Such an interesting find was immediately put to use, and today the population has a service that would never have been provided if chance had not come across it. In 1863
3082-466: Is the one located at what is traditionally known as the Iron Gate. It was excavated in the 1970s and re-excavated in the 1990s. It has two semicircular towers of 8.20 meters in diameter made of opus quadratum , at least in its lower part, which leave a four-meter span through which a paved road ran. Other doors were Puerta de Rey, Puerta del Sol, Puerta del Obispo and Postigo de San Julián . None of
3216-607: Is worth mentioning the repairs carried out in the 13th century by Bishop Nuño , which may have significantly transformed the appearance of the fortification, and the destruction caused by the Sieges of Astorga during the War of Independence . Its structure has two exterior walls that function as formwork for a core built with quartzite blocks mixed with mortar. In the exterior walls, irregular quartzite blocks were used, being substituted in some prestigious places by granite ashlars. Its layout
3350-587: The Reconquista ('reconquest') of Spain, is believed to be the first extended history of Spain in Old Spanish using the words España ('Spain') and Españoles ('Spaniards') to refer to Medieval Hispania. The use of Latin Hispania , Castilian España , Catalan Espanya and Old French Espaigne , among others, to refer to Roman Hispania or Visigothic Hispania was common throughout all
3484-579: The Battle of Philippi against the murderers of Caesar. After this, they followed Mark Antony in his campaign against Parthia and were defeated with him at Actium . Augustus then took control of the legion and settled the veterans in Patras . The legion rebelled and lost its cognomen Equestris as punishment. Replacements were added from other legions, and the Tenth was rebaptized Gemina . From about 30 BC
3618-643: The Carthaginians , the Iberians , the Lusitanians , the Gallaecians and other Celts . It was not until 19 BC that the Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14) was able to complete the conquest (see Cantabrian Wars ). Until then, much of Hispania remained autonomous. Romanization proceeded quickly in some regions where there are references to the togati, and very slowly in others, after
3752-776: The Celtiberians from relieving the Roman siege of Contrebia ). Through the 2nd century AD warm temperatures dominated particularly in the mountains along the north coast , punctuated by further cool spells from c. 155 to 180. After about 200 the temperatures fluctuated, trending toward cool. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Country Studies . Federal Research Division . Other classical sources have been accessed second-hand (see references above): Footnotes Citations Legio X Gemina Legio X Gemina ("10th Twin(s) Legion" in English ),
3886-749: The Cro-Magnon ) migrated and recolonized all of Western Europe . In this period one finds the Azilian culture in Southern France and Northern Iberia (to the mouth of the Douro river), as well as the Muge Culture in the Tagus valley. The Neolithic brought changes to the human landscape of Iberia (from the 5th millennium BC onwards), with the development of agriculture and the beginning of
4020-729: The European Megalith Culture . This spread to most of Europe and had one of its oldest and main centres in the territory of modern Portugal , as well as the Chalcolithic and Beaker cultures. During the 1st millennium BC, in the Bronze Age , the first wave of migrations into Iberia of speakers of Indo-European languages occurred. These were later (7th and 5th centuries BC) followed by others that can be identified as Celts . Eventually urban cultures developed in southern Iberia, such as Tartessos , influenced by
4154-912: The Late Middle Ages . A document dated 1292 mentions the names of foreigners from Medieval Spain as Gracien d'Espaigne . Latin expressions using Hispania or Hispaniae (e.g. omnes reges Hispaniae ) were often used in the Middle Ages, while the Spain Romance languages of the Reconquista use the Romance version interchangeably. In the James Ist Chronicle Llibre dels fets , written between 1208 and 1276, there are many instances of this. The borders of modern Spain do not coincide with those of
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4288-510: The Latin language, "gemina" can refer to either "female twin" or "neuter twins." Male twin (referring to one twin in a set of twins) would be written as "geminus", and Male twins (referring to both member of a set of twins) would be written as "gemini." In the Gallic Wars , X Equestris played an important role on Caesar's military success and for this reason is sometimes said to be his favorite. In Caesar's campaigns they were present in
4422-575: The Legio I Augusta , II Augusta , IV Macedonica , V Alaudae , VI Victrix , IX Hispana , and X Gemina . In total, adding legionaries and auxiliary corps, there were about 77,000–80,000 men. In 26 B.C. the Bellum Cantabricum began, with Segisamo as a base camp. In the eastern zone, the Romans followed the course of the Pisuerga and subdued Vellica (Monte Cildá); they continued towards
4556-687: The Lower Paleozoic , and on the other the plain of the Tuerto river, of Tertiary materials later covered during the Quaternary . Between both areas and at the confluence of the Jerga and Tuerto rivers, the city proper was located on a promontory, at 870 m above sea level, whose profile resembles a spur, becoming smoother at its western end. It was located on the northwestern border of the Meseta; to
4690-524: The Phoenician colonization of coastal Mediterranean Iberia, with strong competition from the Greek colonization. These two processes defined Iberia's cultural landscape – Mediterranean towards the southeast and Continental in the northwest. Roman armies invaded the Iberian peninsula in 218 BC and used it as a training ground for officers and as a proving ground for tactics during campaigns against
4824-628: The Phoenician language of colonizing Carthage . Specifically, it may derive from a Punic cognate ʾī šāpān ( 𐤀𐤉 𐤔𐤐𐤍 ) of Hebrew ʾī šāfān ( Hebrew : אִי שָׁפָן ) meaning literally 'island of the rabbit ', referring to the European rabbit (Phoenician-Punic and Hebrew are both Canaanite languages and therefore closely related to each other). Some Roman coins of the Emperor Hadrian, born in Hispania, depict Hispania and
4958-701: The Roman province of Hispania or of the Visigothic Kingdom , and thus medieval Spain and modern Spain exist in separate contexts. The Latin term Hispania , often used during Antiquity and the Low Middle Ages , like with Roman Hispania, as a geographical and political name, continued to be used geographically and politically in the Visigothic Spania , as shown in the expression laus Hispaniae , 'Praise to Hispania', to describe
5092-845: The Sarmatian Alans moved into Iberia in September or October 409 at the request of Gerontius , a Roman usurper. The Suevi established a kingdom in Gallaecia in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal . The Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, also established a kingdom in another part of Gallaecia. The Alans established a kingdom in Lusitania – modern Alentejo and Algarve , in Portugal . The Silingi Vandals briefly occupied parts of South Iberia in
5226-584: The battle of the Sabis , the invasions of Britain , and the battle of Gergovia . They remained faithful to Caesar in the civil war against Pompey , being present in the battles of Pharsalus (49 BC) and Munda (45 BC). In 45 BC Caesar disbanded the legion, giving the veterans farmlands near Narbonne in Gaul and in Hispania. The legion was reconstituted in 42 BC and fought for Augustus (commonly referred to by Octavian by historians), Lepidus and Mark Antony in
5360-468: The 15th century under the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, only Navarra and Portugal were left to complete the whole peninsula under one monarchy . Navarre followed soon after in 1512, and Portugal, after over 400 years as an independent and sovereign nation, in 1580. During this time, the concept of Spain was still unchanged. It was after the restoration of Portugal's independence in 1640 when
5494-465: The 19th century and part of the 20th century, that sought a Celtic origin for the city. The first contact of Rome with the northwest peninsular took place in the 2nd century B.C. with the expedition of Decimus Junius Brutus Gallicus in 138. C., and in the first century B.C. with those of Publius Licinius Crassus and Julius Caesar. C. After the integration of the Vacceans and Celtiberians into
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5628-435: The 3rd century, it must have been established as an episcopal see, with Basilides being its first bishop, around 249. This fact is mentioned by Cyprian of Carthage, who points out that in 253–254 Christian communities had been established in Zaragoza , Mérida , Leon , and Astorga . All this, together with the presence of Bishop Decentius at the Council of Elvira in 300, confirms the incipient presence and organization of
5762-402: The 5th century, Jordanes in the 6th century, and St. Isidore , who lived between the 6th and 7th centuries. Likewise, in the acts of several councils, such as those of Serdica, I of Saragossa, the Bracarenses III and IV, and Toletanus III, IV, VII, VIII, and X, different bishops of Asturica sign. As for epigraphy , 83 inscriptions from Astorga are known, to which should be added 21 found in
5896-421: The 5th century. Vexillationes of the X Gemina fought against the rebellion of Simon bar Kokhba in 132-135, in Iudaea , others participated in the Parthian campaign of Lucius Verus in 162. Another major campaign was the one fought against the Quadi , Marcomanni and the Lombards , in Moravia , ( Dyje-Svratka Vale ) under the command of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (168-180). A garrison of Legio X GPF
6030-419: The 5th century. The Council of Bishops became an important instrument of stability during the ascendancy of the Visigoths . The last vestiges of (Western·classical) Roman rule ended in 472. The undoing of Roman Spain was the result of four tribes crossing the Rhine in 406. After three years of depredation and wandering about northern and western Gaul, the Germanic Buri , Suevi and Vandals , together with
6164-474: The Astorga camp would belong to the period of wars, being moved to the Vidriales valley, Petavonium , after the end of the wars, and that the epigraphs of soldiers would refer to the detachment dedicated to the construction of the city. Finally, Tomás Mañanes also indicated the presence of Legio X in the epigraphs of the soldiers and a possible camp base in the urban planning of the present city. This military origin has been confirmed by archaeology. In addition to
6298-539: The Carthaginians and then by the Romans for its abundant silver deposits developed Hispania into a thriving multifaceted economy. Several metals, olives, oil from Baetica, salted fish and garum , and wines were some of the goods produced in Hispania and traded throughout the Empire. Gold mining was the most important activity in the north-west parts of the peninsula. This activity is attested in archaeological sites as Las Médulas (Spain) and Casais ( Ponte de Lima , Portugal). Precipitation levels were unusually high during
6432-433: The East. You are the honor and ornament of the orb and the most illustrious portion of the Earth ... And for this reason, long ago, the golden Rome desired you In modern history, Spain and Spanish have become increasingly associated with the Kingdom of Spain alone, although this process took several centuries. After the union of the central peninsular Kingdom of Castile with the eastern peninsular Kingdom of Aragon in
6566-435: The Emperor himself. The titles Antoniniana (awarded by Caracalla or Elagabalus ), Gordiana (by Gordian III ), Deciana (by Decius ), Floriana (by Florianus ), and Cariniana (by Carinus ) were short-lived, however, and dropped after the death of the Emperor. For its support of Emperor Gallienus against Postumus , the Gemina was awarded the title Pia VI Fidelis VI , "six times faithful, six times loyal". At
6700-418: The Plaza Arquitecto Gaudí, two parallel walls and a foundation cube of an opilar column were found, which would belong to the eastern flank of the building. The archaeological works that have been carried out have provided information about the different defensive enclosures that were built in Roman times. The first would correspond to the fence or vallum built by the legionaries of the Legion X Gemina, of which
6834-476: The Republic, only the coastal strip at the foot of the Cantabrian , where the Cantabrians and Asturians were located, remained unconquered. At the end of the 1st century B.C., the war episode took place, after which the whole northwest was subdued. This was part of Augustus ' political program; after coming to power, he carried out a reform of the army, entrusting it with the protection of the borders, which were delimited through various campaigns, and in this context
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#17327719347866968-401: The Roman city and its evolution during the first centuries of our era. These studies, in addition to their purely scientific interest, have given rise to conservation work in situ of some of the findings, forming part of one of the tourist attractions of the city, the so-called Roman Route. In May 2005, work began on its museumization, and it was reopened in the summer of 2009. The plan of
7102-413: The Roman sewage system was found by chance; specifically it was a collector located between the Plaza de San Julián and Manuel Gullón Street, which on its opposite side poured its waters into the Jerga River. In 1867 another branch was discovered under García Prieto Street (formerly La Redecilla) which flowed into Puerta de Rey. At the end of the century, in 1896, the master builder A. G. del Campo recorded
7236-430: The Sueves who had ruled most of the region to Galicia and northern Portugal. In 484 the Visigoths established Toledo as the capital of their kingdom. Successive Visigothic kings ruled Hispania as patricians who held imperial commissions to govern in the name of the Roman emperor. In 585 the Visigoths conquered the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia , and thus controlled almost all of Hispania. A century later, taking advantage of
7370-427: The Tuerto, and the abundance of stone in the surrounding area -mainly quartzite- provided materials for construction. Likewise, the proximity to the gold deposits found in the surrounding mountainous area is another of the arguments put forward to justify its foundation; among them those of the Omaña river valley, the valleys of the Duerna and Eria rivers and the Bierzo, with the exploitation of Las Médulas . The city
7504-424: The Visigothic king Ataulf). The Visigoths, the remnants of the two tribes who joined them and the Sueves were confined to a small area in the northwest of the peninsula. The diocese may even have been re-established with its capital at Mérida in 418. The Roman attempt under General Castorius to dislodge the Vandals from Cordoba failed in 422. The Vandals and Alans crossed over to North Africa in 429, an event which
7638-415: The abolition of the imperial Tetrarchs under the Western Emperor (in Rome itself, later Ravenna). The diocese, with its capital at Emerita Augusta (modern Mérida ), comprised: Before the Punic Wars, Hispania was a land with much untapped mineral and agricultural wealth, limited by the primitive subsistence economies of its native peoples outside of a few trading ports along the Mediterranean . Occupation by
7772-494: The action of Rome in the northwest peninsular took place. The conflict was described by various classical sources, such as Florus , Orosius , and Dion Cassius , and among its causes were strategic, the personal prestige of the emperor, and economic ones. The first Roman intervention took place in 29 B.C., led by Titus Statilius Taurus , which was followed by others in the following two years, until 26 when Augustus arrived in person. The military troops that participated belonged to
7906-484: The advancing migrations of modern humans . In the 40th millennium BC, during the Upper Paleolithic and the last ice age , the first large settlement of Europe by modern humans occurred. These were nomadic hunter-gatherers originating on the steppes of Central Asia . When the last ice age reached its maximum extent, during the 30th millennium BC, these modern humans took refuge in Southern Europe , namely in Iberia , after retreating through Southern France . In
8040-432: The aim of consolidating his power in the newly annexed territories. The first to point out its possible military origin was Manuel Gómez-Moreno at the beginning of the 20th century, who indicated Legio X Gemina as the detachment installed there. Later it was Adolf Schulten who placed Legio X in Asturica based on the reconstruction of the military actions against the Asturians, five epitaphs of soldiers of that legion, and
8174-413: The apparatus of the Roman state but not the ability to make it operate to their advantage. In the absence of a well-defined hereditary system of succession to the throne, rival factions encouraged foreign intervention by the Greeks , the Franks , and finally the Muslims in internal disputes and in royal elections . According to Isidore of Seville , it is with the Visigothic domination of Iberia that
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#17327719347868308-447: The beginning of the 20th century, two more branches were discovered under Pío Gullón and Santiago streets. In 1946 José María Luego investigated the sewer section under the garden of the Synagogue and, based on the constructive differences between the different branches, established two different chronologies for its sewer network. Roman cities of ancient construction sometimes lacked a sewage network; however, in newly founded cities after
8442-416: The brief reign of Galba (68-69), it was transferred back to Hispania. However, its stay in Hispania was to be very brief. In 70, after the Batavian rebellion was suppressed by the new emperor Vespasian , X Gemina was sent to Batavia in Germania Inferior to police the lands and prevent new revolts. From 71 to 103, the legion was stationed at the base built by II Adiutrix near Oppidum Batavorum ,
8576-398: The building. All of them used stone to build their walls, although it must have been shared with other types of materials, such as adobe or rammed earth. The stone used was mainly quartzite from the Cape Series, and slate from Luarca. Both are easily found in the surroundings of the city, due to the fact that such geological formations predominate in the area. Hispania Hispania
8710-497: The camp base in the current urbanism, in the northwestern area of the hill, two parallel moats were found, fossae fastigatae type, which would correspond to the defensive system of the legionary camp, and which present an analogy with similar findings excavated in the British and Germanic limes . Other findings that reveal this military origin are ceramic productions of Terra Sigillata Italica , coins, and metallic materials associated with military clothing. The size and depth of
8844-401: The city shows a space of 26 hectares of extension, limited by a wall of 2200 in length. The shape of such an enclosure is not completely rectangular due to a narrowing of the hill in its southern corner, forming the wall in that part a triangular shape. This may be the cause of the different disposition of the urban road, differentiating two zones: on the one hand, a rectangle of 430 by 380 meters
8978-400: The city to the legion based on Floro's text. For his part, R. F. J. Jones proposed a first camp of the legion in Asturica before being transferred to Caldas de Reyes , where two epigraphs linked to soldiers of the legion were found, and both Mauricio Pastor and Alain Tranoy pointed out the presence of the legion by the epigraphs alluding to its soldiers. Patrick Le Roux was of the opinion that
9112-415: The concept of Spain started to shift and be applied to all the Peninsula except Portugal. Latin was the official language of Hispania during Roman rule, which exceeded 600 years. By the empire's end in Hispania around 460 AD, all the original Iberian languages, except the ancestor of modern Basque, were extinct. Even after the fall of Rome and the invasion of the Germanic Visigoths and Suebi , Latin
9246-416: The conquest, as in this case, the sanitary infrastructure was part of the urban planning. Therefore, Asturica Augusta had a network of sewers to evacuate dirty water from both domestic use and public buildings such as baths . Their layout coincides with that of the streets, making them important for reconstructing the urban plan. They are in a very good state of preservation so many of the sections are used for
9380-402: The country of *Hispa , presumably an Iberian or Celtic root whose meaning is now lost. Hispalis may alternatively derive from Heliopolis (Greek for 'city of the sun'). However, according to modern research by Manuel Pellicer Catalán, the name derives from Phoenician spal 'lowland' . Occasionally Hispania was called Hesperia ultima 'farthest western land' by Roman writers since
9514-429: The depiction of the geography, climate and inhabitants of the peninsula, writing: This Hispania produces tough soldiers, very skilled captains, prolific speakers, luminous bards. It is a mother of judges and princes; it has given Trajan , Hadrian , and Theodosius to the Empire. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century. However, little headway
9648-537: The discovery of a series of Roman inscriptions. The epigraphic collection of Asturica began when the City Council, around the 1830s, agreed to the creation of a public garden in one of the corners of the walled enclosure, the Garden of the Synagogue. All the inscriptions deposited in the Town Hall were placed on both sides of the access gates. They remained there from 1840 until 1901, when they were moved back to
9782-461: The ditches and the existence of wooden constructions seem to indicate that it was a camp not involved in the military actions of the wars, that is to say, it would be later than these. This would be corroborated by the chronology of the archaeological materials found, since they do not date from before 15–10 BC. Therefore, on a strategic hill, on the border between the countryside of the Duero basin and
9916-425: The dwellings found could be excavated in their entirety, nor could any structure related to artisanal activity be identified. This is due to the problem of obtaining, in a complete way, the plan of the ancient buildings: the plot of the modern city is not similar to that of the Roman period. Among all the known asturian domus a series of them stand out for their construction and for the ornaments that were part of
10050-474: The emperor Caracalla made a new division which lasted only a short time. He split Hispania Citerior again into two parts, creating the new provinces Provincia Hispania Nova Citerior and Asturiae-Calleciae . In the year 238 the unified province Tarraconensis or Hispania Citerior was re-established. In the 3rd century, under the Soldier Emperors, Hispania Nova (the northwestern corner of Spain)
10184-456: The end of mining operations in the time of Diocletian the city began to decline. Apart from the legend that attributes to St James the Apostle the preaching in these lands and the foundation of the bishopric, the discovery in the vicinity of Astorga of one of the oldest Roman-Christian sarcophagi in the peninsula indicates the presence of an early Christian movement. In the middle years of
10318-508: The end of the Empire. See also : Early Roman Empire Its birth as a civil nucleus must be traced through the information provided by archaeology. Between 1990 and 1992 the Domus del Pavimento of Opus Signinum was excavated, in which the camp structures were replaced by civil ones at the end of the reign of Tiberius and the beginning of Claudius ' reign. In addition, between 1993 and 1996
10452-441: The existence of a paved street associated with a sewer in what would be the first documents relating archaeological discoveries of Roman Astorga. It described a construction of masonry walls 1.10 meters high up to the fascia line and 0.60 meters thick. The width of the collector was 0.90 meters and the height of the gallery was 1.50 meters. On the walls, there was a semicircular vault and a concrete slab about 20 cm thick. At
10586-480: The fact that the urban layout of present-day Astorga did not show orderly urban planning that would suggest a Roman origin, an indigenous origin for the city has traditionally been considered. The first to point this out was Manuel Gómez-Moreno in 1905, who endorsed its pre-Roman origin through the elevated position of the city. Later it was José María Luengo who tried to support this pre-Roman origin with archaeological finds; specifically, he pointed out, among others,
10720-423: The first through a square construction, possibly vestibulum , and the second was verified thanks to the location of the apodyterium . A large frigidarium has been documented, annexed to four other spaces: three of them with hypocaustum , cella tepidaria and two circular sudatoria , and a fourth, interpreted as apodyterium . The Termas Menores -discovered in the early 1980s on a site on Padre Blanco Street-
10854-536: The flight of birds. Likewise, the presence of an immigrant population, specifically of oriental origin, can be seen thanks to the inscription in Greek and their names, such as Lyda and Taumasto. Among those inscriptions that refer to cults and divinities, the cult of the emperor -as a form of recognition of Roman political power-, the cult of the Capitoline triad and the cult of the goddess Fortuna stand out. Due to
10988-455: The former considered heretical. At times this tension invited open rebellion, and restive factions within the Visigothic aristocracy exploited it to weaken the monarchy. In 589, Recared , a Visigothic ruler, renounced his Arianism before the Council of Bishops at Toledo and accepted Chalcedonian Christianity ( Catholic Church ), thus assuring an alliance between the Visigothic monarchy and
11122-431: The hill where the city is located, and coincides in part with the current Plaza Mayor . The complex would extend over an area of more than 31,000 meters2 and the buildings, in this area of the city, would follow a north–south axis, unlike the northern area, where they follow a northwest–southeast axis. The closing of this space repeats the same scheme, as has been found in the different excavations carried out, for example,
11256-520: The history of the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula of Isidore of Seville 's Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum : You are, O Spain , holy and always happy mother of princes and peoples, the most beautiful of all the lands that extend far from the West to India . You, by right, are now the queen of all provinces, from whom the lights are given not only the sunset, but also
11390-522: The idea of a peninsular unity is sought after, and the phrase Mother Hispania is first spoken. Up to that date, Hispania designated all of the peninsula's lands. In Historia Gothorum , the Visigoth Suinthila appears as the first monarch under whose rule Hispania is dealt with as a Gothic nation. During the first stages of Romanization, the peninsula was divided in two by the Romans for administrative purposes. The closest one to Rome
11524-834: The invasion of Britannia but aligned against Augustus so it was disbanded. Once rebuilt, it fought in the Cantabrian Wars and remained in Hispania until 63 (with camps in Asturica and Petavonium ). After five years in Carnuntum , in the Danubian Limes, in 68 it returned to Hispania , from where it left again in 70 for Arenacum and Noviomagus, in the Rhenish Limes, to, around 103, settle in Aquincum . Finally, in 107, it moved to Vindobona , where it remained until
11658-433: The last campaign of the war, after which the dominion of the whole northwest peninsular culminated. The city's foundation is linked to the territorial organization carried out by Augustus after the end of the Cantabrian Wars, who applied a set of administrative, political, and fiscal measures to consolidate Augustus after the end of the Cantabrian Wars, who applied a set of administrative, political, and fiscal measures with
11792-756: The millennia that followed, the Neanderthals became extinct and local modern human cultures thrived, producing pre-historic art such as that found in L'Arbreda Cave and in the Côa Valley . In the Mesolithic period, beginning in the 10th millennium BC, the Allerød Oscillation occurred. This was an interstadial deglaciation that lessened the harsh conditions of the Ice Age. The populations sheltered in Iberian Peninsula (descendants of
11926-401: The moats that were built at its feet have been found, whose purpose was to increase its defensive potential. The second fence was a stone wall built once the settlement ceased to have a military character, giving way to a civilian settlement. There is only evidence of this wall in a plot of the city; it was 2.5 meters wide and had circular cubes at intervals, one of them 5 meters in diameter. It
12060-432: The most characteristic elements of Romanization, that is, the assimilation of an indigenous god to another of the Roman pantheon. With the territorial reorganization that took place in the 3rd century, the city became part of the province of Gallaecia , with its capital at Bracara Augusta . A new wall was also built, with a perimeter of two kilometers, remains of which are still visible in the so-called Roman Gate, but with
12194-521: The most part, emerged as the qualified personnel to manage higher administration in concert with local powerful notables who gradually displaced the old town councils. As elsewhere in early medieval Europe, the church in Hispania stood as society's most cohesive institution. The Visigoths are also responsible for the introduction of mainstream Christianity to the Iberian peninsula; the earliest representation of Christ in Spanish religious art can be found in
12328-511: The mountains of León , around 15-10 B.C., a military garrison was installed whose mission was the surveillance and control of the newly conquered territory, still in the pacification phase. Its importance would be confirmed by its inclusion in the network of roads. The military unit that settled there was the Legio X Gemina , with a long history in Roman history. It participated in the Gallic War , being Julius Caesar 's favorite legion, and in
12462-542: The municipal offices. Therefore, the first publications were epigraphic in nature, with studies by Emil Hübner , Fidel Fita and Marcelo Macías. In 1863, several of the Roman sewer galleries were found and put back into use. The historian Matías Rodríguez also reported a discovery in 1896 in García Prieto Street (formerly La Redecilla), where the master builder of the City Hall had the opportunity to make
12596-614: The name Hesperia 'western land' had already been used by the Greeks to refer to the Italian peninsula. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Jesuits scholars like Larramendi and José Francisco de Isla tied the name to the Basque word ezpain 'lip', but also 'border, edge', thus meaning the farthest area or place. During Antiquity and Middle Ages, the literary texts derive the term Hispania from an eponymous hero named Hispan , who
12730-544: The native Hispano-Romans. This alliance would not mark the last time in the history of the peninsula that political unity would be sought through religious unity. Court ceremonials – from Constantinople – that proclaimed the imperial sovereignty and unity of the Visigothic state were introduced at Toledo. Still, civil war, royal assassinations, and usurpation were commonplace, and warlords and great landholders assumed wide discretionary powers. Bloody family feuds went unchecked. The Visigoths had acquired and cultivated
12864-598: The newly formed X Gemina was relocated to Petavonium in Hispania Tarraconensis , where Augustus was preparing a campaign against the Cantabrians . Their veterans were among the first inhabitants of modern Zaragoza and Emerita Augusta, modern Mérida . The legion was sent to Carnuntum in Pannonia in about 63 AD (or a bit earlier) after legio XV Apollinaris left and went to the east. During
12998-478: The north is the Cantabrian mountain range, which divided the Asturians themselves into Transmontane and Augustan, to the east the alluvial countryside characteristic of the Duero basin, and to the west the mountains of León, with the summit of Teleno, which was the object of religious worship by both the Asturians and the Romans. The fertile plains of the rivers allowed for agricultural use, especially that of
13132-421: The north, up to Aracillum and Mons Vindius , where the Cantabrians had taken refuge, and there they defeated them. In the western zone, under the orders of Publius Carisius , they took Lancia and later they went to the west, where the confrontation of Mons Medullius took place, which meant the defeat of the Asturians. Finally, in 19 B.C. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa arrived, who together with Silio Nerva directed
13266-462: The northwest of the peninsula underwent a limited process of Romanization, there is evidence that shows the development of clearly Roman structures; the forum is an example of a public space typical of any Roman city, although designed in its own style. We would find ourselves before a center of state, administrative and fiscal machinery, which would exceed the local level. Likewise, a plaque with an inscription dedicated to Mars Tilenus proves another of
13400-412: The northwest of the peninsula, although widespread in those located along the most important communication routes. Although there are different hypotheses, the current thesis defends a chronology for this third fence between the end of the third century and the beginning of the fourth, a time when the crisis of the third century was overcome and economic recovery took place. In the history of this wall, it
13534-428: The other Flavian . The public baths , in addition to being places for personal hygiene and care, served as a center for social relations and occupied an important place in the organization and enjoyment of leisure. As in most Roman cities, Asturica Augusta had facilities of this type, of which two public complexes are currently known as Termas Mayores (Major baths) and Termas Menores (Minor baths) . In August 1984,
13668-750: The peninsula's population were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class and they participated in governing Hispania and the Roman Empire, although there was a native aristocracy class who ruled each local tribe. The latifundia (sing., latifundium ), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system. The Romans improved existing cities, such as Lisbon ( Olissipo ) and Tarragona ( Tarraco ), established Zaragoza ( Caesaraugusta ), Mérida ( Augusta Emerita ), and Valencia ( Valentia ), and reduced other native cities to mere villages. The peninsula's economy expanded under Roman tutelage. Hispania served as
13802-418: The possible municipal status of the city, reference is made to the positions of magistratus , curator , sacerdos , and flamines . The Tablet of Hospitality of Astorga or Pact of the Zoelas , ratified in Asturica in the year 152, also stands out, although the place where it was found is unknown. Some of the citizens mentioned are a grammaticus -a literate man- and an avium inspex -a fortune teller from
13936-718: The present city and among these are the Roman Ergastula , the two thermal complexes and the sewage system, as well as the domus of the Mosaic of the Bear and the Birds. The present-day municipality of Astorga is located in the northwestern part of the Duero river basin and its surroundings present, in general, a gentle relief but with two distinct areas: on the one hand a series of ESE-WEST oriented mountain ranges, with materials from
14070-433: The present day Dutch city of Nijmegen . As part of the army of Germania Inferior , X Gemina fought against the rebellion of the governor of Germania Superior , L. Antonius Saturninus , against Emperor Domitian . For this reason, the Tenth — as well as the other legions of the army, I Minervia , VI Victrix , and XXII Primigenia — received the title Pia Fidelis Domitiana , "faithful and loyal to Domitian", with
14204-750: The province of Baetica . In an effort to retrieve the region, the Western Roman emperor, Honorius (r. 395–423), promised the Visigoths a home in southwest Gaul if they destroyed the invaders in Spain. They all but wiped out the Silingi and Alans. The remnant joined the Asding Vandals who had settled first in the northwest with the Sueves but south to Baetica. It is a mystery why the Visigoths were recalled by patrician Constantius (who in 418 married Honorius' sister who had been married briefly to
14338-703: The reference to the Emperor dropped at his death and subsequent damnatio memoriae . During Trajan's first campaign in Dacia (101–102), the legion participated at the Second Battle of Tapae , fighting against the army of the Dacians led by King Decebalus . In 103, it was moved to Aquincum and later to Vindobona (modern Vienna ), in Pannonia Superior , which would be the legion's camp until
14472-470: The reign of Alexander Severus, points out the program of urban foundations carried out by Augustus . The Itinerary of Antoninus mentions it on several occasions as a mansio of the various Roman roads that converged in the city, while the Anonymous of Ravenna mentions it in one of his itineraries. The city is also mentioned by Bishop Cyprian of Carthage . Later we have mentions of Bishop Hydatius in
14606-517: The remains of what would be called the Termas Mayores were found. They were located in the central area of the city, next to the intersection of the two main roads. Two construction periods have been documented: a first phase, between the middle of the first century and the middle of the third century, and a second phase, from the fifth century, after undergoing a major remodeling. The accesses were made through its southern and northern limits;
14740-491: The results were published in 1961, Luengo took the opportunity to report various findings in several places in the urban area. Subsequently, Tomás Mañanes carried out some excavations, among which those carried out in the section of the wall next to the Episcopal Palace stand out, where, in 1971 and 1972, he identified the only known Roman door of the city, and in the so-called Termas Mayores in 1984, of which he
14874-558: The sandstone ashlars with the inscription LXG that were used in the construction of a building next to the northeastern portico. On the other hand, the archaeological work carried out on the occasion of the rehabilitation of the Gullón Theater made it possible to document, at the eastern end of the forum, the remains of the basilica : a semicircular apse , with four buttresses on the outside, and at its opening two columns in antis, all in opus caementicium. In another nearby plot, in
15008-424: The sanitation of the modern city. The constructive modality of the different branches is not uniform since in their enclosure it is possible to observe both a semicircular vault and a linteled roof. In some cases the linteled sections are replaced by collectors with vaulted roofs, which would indicate that the flat roof is chronologically earlier: it would represent two different urban phases, one Julio-Claudian and
15142-411: The service rooms such as those used for the furnaces or praefurnia . The forum is the most prominent public space in any Roman city and concentrated religious, political and economic activities. Therefore, it was the image that best projected the sense of Romanization, especially in cities located in newly conquered territory. Asturica Augusta is located in an elevated area, at the southern end of
15276-570: The side of Augustus during the War of Actium which ended the Crisis of the Roman Republic . The legion remained active for centuries, with surviving records of its continued existence in Vienna as late as the 5th century AD. The legion's symbol was a bull . Early on in its history, the legion was called X Equestris ( mounted ), because Caesar once used the legionaries as cavalry . In
15410-483: The site of the Old Hospice, Santocildes Square, Alonso Luengo Street; it has a double portico in which semicircular apses and rectangular exedras open, whose base uses the same construction technique, the opus caementicium . On the western limit, and in an axial position, there is a rectangular room with a semicircular head, which is accessed through an entrance presided by two columns in antis, and whose pavement
15544-402: The so-called Iberian–Roman Humid Period . Roman Spain experienced its three phases: the most humid interval in 550–190 BC, an arid interval in 190 BC–150 AD and another humid period in 150–350. In 134 BC the army of Scipio Aemilianus in Spain had to march at night due to extreme heat, when some of its horses and mules died of thirst (even though earlier, in 181 BC, heavy spring rains prevented
15678-453: The status of full Roman citizenship by the end of the 1st century. The Iberian denarii, also called argentum oscense by Roman soldiers, circulated until the 1st century BC, after which it was replaced by Roman coins. Hispania was separated into two provinces (in 197 BC), each ruled by a praetor : Hispania Citerior ("Hither Hispania") and Hispania Ulterior ("Farther Hispania"). The long wars of conquest lasted two centuries, and only by
15812-751: The surrounding area and 7 from other parts of the Peninsula but related to the city or the Asturicense Convent. Most of them are of a funerary nature (64), followed in number by votive inscriptions (17). The oldest date back to the first century and allude to military themes, especially those related to the Legio X Gemina . The others belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries; in them, among which two in Greek stand out, administrative and government positions are mentioned, such as Legati , Procuratores Augusti , procurator Asturiae et Gallaeciae , Augusti Dispensator and Praeses Provinciae . In relation to
15946-467: The time of Augustus did Rome managed to control Hispania Ulterior. Hispania was divided into three provinces in the 1st century BC. In the imperial era, three Roman emperors were born in Hispania: Trajan (r. 98–117), Hadrian (r. 117–138), and Theodosius (r. 379–395). In the 4th century, Latinius Pacatus Drepanius , a Gallic rhetorician, dedicated part of his work to
16080-525: The time of Augustus , and Hispania was divided into three separately governed provinces, and nine provinces by the 4th century. More importantly, Hispania was for 500 years part of a cosmopolitan world empire bound together by law, language, and the Roman road . But the impact of Hispania on the newcomers was also substantial. Caesar wrote that the soldiers from the Second Legion had become Hispanicized and regarded themselves as hispanici . Some of
16214-429: The time of Tiberius that the civilian nucleus would have been founded. This pattern is repeated in the different excavations carried out, in which a military horizon is amortized for its later transformation into a civilian nucleus, something that possibly took place coinciding with the capital of the conventus and the exploitation of the mining resources of its territory. In contrast to the theories that indicate that
16348-483: The whole population reaches two hundred and forty thousand. This qualification as magnificent may have been related to the growth it experienced as a result of gold mining during the first and second centuries. In the latter century, Claudius Ptolemy , in his work Geographia , includes Asturia as the capital of the Amachians . In the 3rd century, there are several mentions. Dion Cassius , who developed his work during
16482-625: Was a Roman legion , which was active during the late Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire as part of the Imperial Roman army . It was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, during the Roman invasion of Gaul . After being briefly disbanded, the legion was reconstituted by Augustus (also known as Octavian) and fought on the side of the Second Triumvirate during the Liberators' Civil War and later on
16616-409: Was also used in the period of Visigothic rule . The modern place names of Spain and Hispaniola are both derived from Hispania . The origin of the word Hispania is disputed. The evidence for the various speculations is based merely upon what are at best mere resemblances, likely to be accidental, and suspect supporting evidence. The most commonly held theory holds it to be of Punic origin, from
16750-467: Was called Citerior and the more remote one Ulterior . The frontier between both was a sinuous line which ran from Cartago Nova (now Cartagena ) to the Cantabrian Sea . In 27 BC, the general and politician Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa divided Hispania into three parts: The emperor Augustus in that same year returned to make a new division leaving the provinces as follows: By the 3rd century
16884-411: Was demolished, at least in part, in the third quarter of the first century, at which time a house occupied its space. Its construction would have taken place between the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius , which coincides with the first evidence of civil architecture in the city. Political instability in the lower imperial period provoked a process of fortification of urban centers, especially intense in
17018-598: Was found in the Czech Republic in Roman fortress in Moravia (Mušov) X Gemina supported its governor, Septimius Severus , in his bid for purple, and many men of the legion went to Rome to become part of the Praetorian Guard of the new Emperor. During the 3rd century, the legion fought for several emperors, who awarded the legion with titles showing the fidelity of the legion and the favour gained by
17152-561: Was later renamed "Callaecia" (or Gallaecia , whence modern Galicia ). From Diocletian 's Tetrarchy (AD 293) onwards, the south of the remainder of Tarraconensis was again split off as Carthaginensis , and all of the mainland Hispanic provinces, along with the Balearic Islands and the North African province of Mauretania Tingitana , were later grouped into a civil diocese headed by a vicarius . The name Hispania
17286-503: Was made in the countryside, until the late 4th century, by which time Christianity was the official religion of the Roman Empire. Some heretical sects emerged in Hispania, most notably Priscillianism , but overall the local bishops remained subordinate to the Pope . Bishops who had official civil as well as ecclesiastical status in the late empire continued to exercise their authority to maintain order when civil governments broke down there in
17420-519: Was not as highly developed as it had been under Roman rule, when a goal of higher education had been to prepare gentlemen to take their places in municipal and imperial administration. With the collapse of the imperial administrative super-structure above the provincial level (which was practically moribund) the task of maintaining formal education and government shifted to the Church from the old ruling class of educated aristocrats and gentry. The clergy, for
17554-449: Was split off from Tarraconensis, as a small province but the home of the only permanent legion in Hispania, Legio VII Gemina . After Diocletian's Tetrarchy reform in AD 293, the new Diocese of Hispania became one of the four dioceses —governed by a vicarius —of the praetorian prefecture of Gaul (also comprising the provinces of Gaul , Germania and Britannia ), after
17688-491: Was spoken by nearly all of the population, but in its common form known as Vulgar Latin , and the regional changes which led to the modern Iberian Romance languages had already begun. The Iberian peninsula has long been inhabited, first by early hominids such as Homo erectus , Homo heidelbergensis and Homo antecessor . In the Paleolithic period, the Neanderthals entered Iberia and eventually took refuge from
17822-551: Was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula . Under the Roman Republic , Hispania was divided into two provinces : Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior . During the Principate , Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Baetica and Lusitania , while Hispania Citerior was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis . Subsequently, the western part of Tarraconensis was split off, initially as Hispania Nova, which
17956-466: Was the discoverer. Since 1984, with the transfer of competencies to the Junta de Castilla y León , the archaeological excavations in Astorga suffered a strong impulse: from that moment on, any site located within the walled enclosure is excavated before the construction of a new building. In 2002, more than 100 plots were studied, giving rise to important data concerning the chronology and characteristics of
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