Butrint ( Greek : Βουθρωτόν and Βουθρωτός , romanized : Bouthrōtón , Latin : Buthrōtum , Albanian : Butrint ) was an ancient Greek polis and later Roman city and the seat of an early Christian bishopric in Epirus .
168-738: Originally a settlement of the Greek tribe of the Chaonians , it later became part of the state of Epirus and later a Roman colonia and a Byzantine bishopric . It entered into decline in Late Antiquity , before being abandoned during the Middle Ages after a major earthquake flooded most of the city. In modern times it is an archeological site in Vlorë County , Albania , some 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) south of Sarandë , close to
336-408: A Fourier synthesizer, a tide-predicting machine , which summed the individual harmonic components. Another category, not nearly as well known, used rotating shafts only for input and output, with precision racks and pinions. The racks were connected to linkages that performed the computation. At least one U.S. Naval sonar fire control computer of the later 1950s, made by Librascope, was of this type, as
504-640: A Roman protectorate alongside Corfu. In the middle of the second century BC Buthrotum was the centre of an independent state, possibly the "Koinon of the Prasaiboi", as listed in the list of the theorodokoi at the Oracle of Delphi . In the next century, it became a part of a province of Macedonia . In 44 BC, Caesar designated Buthrotum as a colony to reward soldiers who had fought for him against Pompey . Local landholder Titus Pomponius Atticus objected to his correspondent Cicero who lobbied against
672-482: A common root may point to a term referring to a "rugged area". Significant phonemic differences between them, in particular Χᾱον- and the root *χᾰF-, render their relation even more improbable. The original root of the name may have even been entirely different and unrelated to *χᾰF-, but became unrecognizable during the course of its historical uses. Several narratives were produced about the Chaonian ethnonym during
840-428: A comparatively intimate control and understanding of the problem, relative to digital simulations. Electronic analog computers are especially well-suited to representing situations described by differential equations. Historically, they were often used when a system of differential equations proved very difficult to solve by traditional means. As a simple example, the dynamics of a spring-mass system can be described by
1008-627: A fully electronic analog computer at Peenemünde Army Research Center as an embedded control system ( mixing device ) to calculate V-2 rocket trajectories from the accelerations and orientations (measured by gyroscopes ) and to stabilize and guide the missile. Mechanical analog computers were very important in gun fire control in World War II, the Korean War and well past the Vietnam War; they were made in significant numbers. In
1176-674: A geographical perspective the territory of Epirus hardly goes beyond the Acroceraunian Mountains, which represent a natural border that is difficult to cross, the Llogara pass being the only crossing between these two regions. According to Dausse, although most of the time various mountain ranges such as the Acroceraunians were marked as border areas they frequently turned to meeting places of various groups instead of border zones. N. G. L. Hammond has proposed that
1344-639: A land route, ravaging its territory without experiencing any resistance. It has been suggested that the Illyrian invaders crossed Chaonian territory, due their position between the Illyrians and the Molossians. The passage of the Illyrians must have been eased by some alliance between them and the Chaonians. Both Chaonians and Thesprotians were perhaps affected by the expedition of the Illyrians. As such
1512-487: A major power in the region until it was conquered by Rome in 170 BC. Chaonia was an area where pastoral life was prominent, as is also evidenced by the local numismatic iconography. The pastoral character of the area was particularly renowned during Roman times. In Virgil's Georgics , a poem that described and idealized rural life, the author praised the goods of agriculture, contrasting the pre-eminent pastoral model; that of Chaonia. In general, Roman poets praised Chaonia as
1680-480: A model of bucolic life; similar to that of Arcadia . Rich Roman businessmen settled in Chaonia, where they established large villas with agricultural and livestock units. The most prominent example is that of Titus Pomponius Atticus , who built Amaltheion or Amaltheia near Bouthrotos, and bred horses and 120 herds of oxen. However, it is clear that the contrast between the agricultural and pastoral communities
1848-486: A new economic policy, based on coinage and therefore more oriented towards exchanges, according to the model provided by central Greece. By minting their own currency Chaonians declared and stressed their political autonomy. From the 4th century BC Chaonians were invited to various Panhellenic Games , being no longer perceived as 'barbarians'. Chaonia is mentioned in a list of theorodokoi of Epidauros dating back to c. mid-4th century BC, which provides evidence for
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#17327806093172016-400: A physical panel with connectors or, in more modern systems, as a software interface that allows virtual management of signal connections and routes. Output devices in analog machines can vary depending on the specific goals of the system. For example, they could be graphical indicators, oscilloscopes , graphic recording devices, TV connection module , voltmeter , etc. These devices allow for
2184-543: A place visited by the theoroi , in an Epidaurian list of theorodokoi . Theoroi were sent by the major Panhellenic sanctuaries throughout the Greek world, and theorodokoi's duty was to host and assist the former in preparation of the Panhellenic games and festivals . The list was compiled in 360 or 356 BC. The worship of many Greek gods is attested in Chaonia; these include Athena , Artemis , Asclepius , Zeus , Pan and Poseidon . In particular, at Bouthrotos ,
2352-592: A regular public bus service runs between Sarandë port and Butrint. Others arrive from the Qafe Bote border crossing with Greece near Konispol and cross the Vivari Channel by the cable ferry at Butrint. Chaonians The Chaonians ( Ancient Greek : Χάονες , romanized : Cháones ) were an ancient Greek people that inhabited the historical region of Epirus which today is part of northwestern Greece and southern Albania . Together with
2520-402: A series of prehistoric fortifications located throughout the Chaonian coast. To the uncertainty of the most ancient phases of population settlement of the Chaonian indigenous hinterland corresponds the solid projection of Korkyra on the "Mainland", reflected in the 7th century BC pre-colonial emergence of Bouthroton . During the archaic and early classical era the coastal part of Chaonia
2688-477: A supply base for troops. The reorganization of the economy also created new sources of wealth, through artisanship, which improved transactions and prompted Chaonians to create their first coins in the 4th century BC. The excavation of Phoenice – the capital of the Chaonians – unearthed 800 coins, of which 20 were issued by the Chaonians; evidence of their economic prosperity, extroversion, and independent development. Women had rights over family property (including
2856-587: A thorough transformation, with the construction of a new city wall and the reactivation of the harbor and sanctuary. With the reorganization of the epineion of Bouthroton, Chaonia was opened towards the sea. Apart from those two cities the rest of the Chaonian territory retained its kata komas rural organization at the last half of the 4th century. Onchesmos (present-day Saranda ) was another harbor of Chaonia, however archaeological finds dating back to this period are lacking so far, possibly reflecting Onchesmos' secondary role in relation to that of Bouthroton. In
3024-453: A uniform picture in the sense of dialect use is far from certain, at least regarding the northern parts bordering Southern Illyria, namely Chaonia, where interaction with Southern Illyria and a certain degree of bilingualism in the northern parts must have been a reality, especially in later times. David R. Hernandez (2018) states that an older theory by Pierre Cabanes (1979) that Chaonians spoke Illyrian, while Molossians and Thesprotians Greek
3192-444: A voltage on a particular wire). Therefore, each problem must be scaled so its parameters and dimensions can be represented using voltages that the circuit can supply —e.g., the expected magnitudes of the velocity and the position of a spring pendulum . Improperly scaled variables can have their values "clamped" by the limits of the supply voltage. Or if scaled too small, they can suffer from higher noise levels . Either problem can cause
3360-471: Is highlighted by their explicit role as creators and organizers of the 429 BC expedition to Acarnania. Although it is unlikely that Chaonians' direct territorial control stretched as far south as Ambracia, their political interests reached this area. Thucydides records another passage that provides evidence for a Chaonian territorial expansion southwards, as he reports that the River Thyamis constituted
3528-420: Is linked to Chaonian control over this area which prevented the Greek city-states from establishing colonies. The population of Chaonia lived mostly in rural settlements before the 4th century BCE. Phoenice which in time became the capital and most urbanized settlement of the Chaonians first developed in the late 4th century BCE. Phoenice peaked as an urban settlement in the mid-3rd century BCE. Bouthroton ,
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#17327806093173696-522: Is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time–distance problems in light aircraft. In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a perpetual-calendar machine , which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 (that is, 1 BC) to AD 4000, keeping track of leap years and varying day length. The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872
3864-513: Is striking in terms of mathematics. They can be modeled using equations of the same form. However, the difference between these systems is what makes analog computing useful. Complex systems often are not amenable to pen-and-paper analysis, and require some form of testing or simulation. Complex mechanical systems, such as suspensions for racing cars, are expensive to fabricate and hard to modify. And taking precise mechanical measurements during high-speed tests adds further difficulty. By contrast, it
4032-764: Is the PEAC (Practical Electronics analogue computer), published in Practical Electronics in the January 1968 edition. Another more modern hybrid computer design was published in Everyday Practical Electronics in 2002. An example described in the EPE hybrid computer was the flight of a VTOL aircraft such as the Harrier jump jet . The altitude and speed of the aircraft were calculated by
4200-497: Is to combine the two processes for the best efficiency. An example of such hybrid elementary device is the hybrid multiplier, where one input is an analog signal, the other input is a digital signal and the output is analog. It acts as an analog potentiometer, upgradable digitally. This kind of hybrid technique is mainly used for fast dedicated real time computation when computing time is very critical, as signal processing for radars and generally for controllers in embedded systems . In
4368-536: Is today listed by the Catholic Church as a Latin titular see since the diocese was nominally restored in 1933 as titular bishopric of Buthrotum (Latin) / Butrinto (Curiate Italian) / Butrint (Albanian). Following titular bishops have been nominated: The first modern archaeological excavations began in 1928 when the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini 's Italy sent an expedition to Butrint. The aim
4536-642: Is unlikely since the notion of any ethnic and lingual division inside Epirus appears unfounded. Also concluding that Chaonians spoke a West Greek dialect as spoken elsewhere in Epirus as well in Acarnania . The sanctuary of Dodona was a religious site frequented by all the Epirote peoples, including the Chaonians. Chaonians constructed their own treasury, likely as a way to highlight their participation and to enhance their identity. The region of Chaonia appears as
4704-405: Is very inexpensive to build an electrical equivalent of a complex mechanical system, to simulate its behavior. Engineers arrange a few operational amplifiers (op amps) and some passive linear components to form a circuit that follows the same equations as the mechanical system being simulated. All measurements can be taken directly with an oscilloscope . In the circuit, the (simulated) stiffness of
4872-585: The Acroceraunian mountains . In Bouthrotos, he was one of the main deities with the epithet " Soter " ( Zeus Soter 'Zeus the Saviour'); the epithet "Soter" is associated with the protection of sailors. In the same city, Zeus was also invoked with the epithet "Kassios". Heracles – who was a son of Zeus – was another deity that was worshipped in Bouthrotos. The worship of Poseidon was popular in
5040-568: The Acroceraunians ) in the northwest, to the last offshoots of the massif of Kurveleshi in the north, to the mountain chain of Lunxhëri - Bureto in the northeast, to the river Thyamis in the south. The region of the lower course of the Aoos as well as the Gulf of Aulon lay outside the Chaonian territory. As part of the southward expansion of Apollonia the lower Aoos region came under
5208-652: The Byzantine Empire fragmented, Buthrotum falling to the breakaway Despotate of Epirus . In the following centuries, the area was a site of conflict between the Byzantines, the Angevins of southern Italy, and the Venetians . The fortifications were probably strengthened by Byzantine Emperor Michael I. In 1267, Charles of Anjou took control of both Butrint and Corfu, leading to further restorations of
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5376-688: The Dexaroi bordered the Enchele to their north. Strabo reports a narrative which probably traces back to Theopompus of Chios ( c. mid-4th century BC), according to which Chaonians first, and then Molossians, were the most powerful regional groups. This may reflect in text the memory of a Chaonian territorial expansion and influence before the Molossian ascendancy of the 4th century BCE. This remained an isolated account in ancient historiography, leaving even fewer archaeological evidence. During
5544-649: The Epirote League until 170 BC when their territory was annexed by the Roman Republic . The ethnic name Χάονες Cháones is attested indirectly in the fragments of Hecataeus of Miletus ( fl. c. 500 BC), the author of Περίοδος Γῆς or Περιήγησις ( Description of the Earth or Periegesis ), which have been preserved in the geographical lexicon Ἐθνικά ( Ethnica ) of Stephanus of Byzantium ( fl. 6th century AD). The Chaonians are directly mentioned for
5712-577: The Epirote state under the Aeacids is that Chaonians joined king Pyrrhus of Epirus in his Italian campaign (280–275 BC). Moreover, the Epirote contingents that fought in the campaigns of Magna Graecia and Sicily consisted also of elite Chaonian warriors. In circa 233 BC, Queen Deidamia II of Epirus, the last member of the Aeacid ruling dynasty, was assassinated. As such the monarchy in Epirus
5880-779: The Greek border. It is located on a hill overlooking the Vivari Channel and is part of the Butrint National Park . Today Bouthrotum is a Latin Catholic titular see and also features the Ali Pasha Castle . The city is considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Albania. On the strength of the immense wealth of cultural, historical and natural value with a considerable history, Butrint
6048-923: The Kingdom of Epirus is linked to increasing control of Chaonian territories as royal lands by the Molossian King Pyrrhus . In the area of the Drino valley, Pyrrhus founded Antigonea in the early 3rd century BCE. It is unclear whether Pyrrhus founded Antigonea with approval from Chaonian elites or not. Nevertheless it indicates Pyrrhus' authority to interfere in the organization of the Epirote kingdom. A number of fortified farmsteads which likely belonged to landowners linked to Pyrrhus appeared during this era, mostly between Phoenice and Bouthroton in Matomara, Metoqi , Çumpora, Çuka and Malathrea and in Dobra . In
6216-676: The Molossians and the Thesprotians , they formed the main tribes of the northwestern Greek group. In historical times on their southern frontier lay the Epirote kingdom of the Molossians, to their southwest stood the kingdom of the Thesprotians, and to their north the Illyrians . By the 5th century BC, they had conquered and combined to a large degree with the neighboring Thesprotians and Molossians. The Chaonians were part of
6384-863: The Peloponnesian War , the Chaonians appear in several campaigns and battles as allies of the Peloponnesian League . Thucydides , the chief historian of the Peloponnesian War highlights in his work the campaigns against Acarnania (430-429 BCE) and the battles against the Korkyra near Bouthroton (427 BCE). In both cases, Chaonians supported military forces allied with the Peloponnesian League. The first account on Ambracia 's attempt to conquer Amphilochian Argos and other Acarnanian territories in 430-429 BC, during
6552-489: The Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax (4th century BCE) and Periodos to Nicomedes by Pseudo-Scymnus (5th century CE) based on Ephoros of Kyme (mid 4th century BCE), Chaonia begins to the south of the ancient Greek city of Oricum, which the Periplus locates within the territory of Illyrian Amantia . Pseudo-Scymnus lists Chaonia as one of the lands of "barbarian" tribes between the two cities of Oricum and Ambrakia. The author of
6720-578: The metropolitan bishopric of Nafpaktos , the ecclesiastical province that took the name of the old provincial capital of Nicopolis . Arab traveller Muhammad al-Idrisi noted in the 12th century that Buthrotum is a densely populated city with a number of markets. It remained an outpost of the Byzantine empire fending off assaults from the Normans until 1204 when following the Fourth Crusade ,
6888-465: The spring constant and g {\displaystyle g} the gravity of Earth . For analog computing, the equation is programmed as y ¨ = − d m y ˙ − c m y − g {\displaystyle {\ddot {y}}=-{\tfrac {d}{m}}{\dot {y}}-{\tfrac {c}{m}}y-g} . The equivalent analog circuit consists of two integrators for
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7056-489: The "Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer" ("the largest and most impressive general-purpose analyzer facility for the solution of field problems") developed there by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Locanthi . Educational analog computers illustrated the principles of analog calculation. The Heathkit EC-1, a $ 199 educational analog computer, was made by the Heath Company, US c. 1960 . It
7224-544: The "Scaean Gate" (named by Ugolini for the famous gate at Troy mentioned in the Homeric Iliad ). After the communist government of Enver Hoxha took Albania over in 1944, foreign archaeological missions were banned. Albanian archaeologists including Hasan Ceka continued the work. Nikita Khrushchev visited the ruins in 1959 and suggested that Hoxha should turn the area into a submarine base. The Albanian Institute of Archaeology began larger scale excavations in
7392-523: The 14th century, it was under the jurisdiction of the Metropolis of Ioannina . Two of its Byzantine (pre-Eastern Schism) bishops are mentioned in extant documents: A Latin see was established circa 1250 under the Italian name Butrinto , functioning under Angevin and Venetian rule, but suppressed circa 1400. The 6th-century basilica was rebuilt by king Charles I of Naples in 1267. Buthrotum
7560-465: The 1950s to the 1970s, general-purpose analog computers were the only systems fast enough for real time simulation of dynamic systems, especially in the aircraft, military and aerospace field. In the 1960s, the major manufacturer was Electronic Associates of Princeton, New Jersey , with its 231R Analog Computer (vacuum tubes, 20 integrators) and subsequently its EAI 8800 Analog Computer (solid state operational amplifiers, 64 integrators). Its challenger
7728-569: The 1970s. Since 1993 further major excavations have taken place led by the Butrint Foundation in collaboration with the Albanian Institute of Archaeology. Recent excavations in the western defences of the city have revealed evidence of the continued use of the walls, implying the continuation of life in the town. The walls themselves certainly seem to have burnt down in the 9th century, but were subsequently repaired. After
7896-468: The 7th century and then Corinthian and Attic pottery of the 6th century, however there are no indications of a prehistoric settlement. Bouthroton was in a strategically important position due its access to the Straits of Corfu , and its location at the crossroads of mainland Greece and Magna Graecia , the Greek and the "barbarian" worlds. Thus, it became one of the two ancient ports in lower Chaonia ,
8064-545: The Amantes that separated them from the Chaonians were Cerja on the right side of Shushica , and Matohasanaj, which controlled a natural route between southern Illyria and Epirus. The southern borders of Chaonia were located at Cestrine , an area contested between the Chaonians and the Thesprotians. Cestrine stretched along the modern Greek-Albanian border in the Filiates and Konispol areas. According to Šašel Kos, at
8232-591: The Aoos river. Oricum was located on the foot of the Acroceraunian Mountains and was thus in a border area between the Chaonians, who were located south of the Acroceraunians mountains, and the southernmost Illyrians, who were located on the foot of these mountains. This placement caused misunderstandings among ancient authors about Oricum's location in Illyria or Epirus. Ptolemy locates Oricum in Chaonia and similarly Flavius Philostratus locates it in Epirus. However, from
8400-414: The Byzantine authorities seems to coincide during the reign of Leo VI (886–912). Imperial administrators of that time possibly governed the region from the "oikos" ( Greek : οίκος , residence ) from Vrina plain rather than from the citadel. Archaeological records become stronger in the 10th century. The inventories of bishoprics from the 10th to 12th centuries identify the bishop of Butrint as subject to
8568-399: The Byzantines from the area in 1278. Then, pressed by Charles, Nikephoros ultimately ended up recognizing Charles' rights to all the town that Michael II had awarded to Manfred of Hohenstaufen as part of his wife Helen 's dowry, as Charles was his successor, thus ceding to him Butrint as well as the entire Acroceraunian Coast from Vlora to Butrint. From 1284 Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II
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#17327806093178736-562: The Chaonian tribe of the Dexaroi bordered the Enchele to their north. According to Sharon Stocker , Chaonia in the 5th century BC was not considered part of "Greece", but was considered part of it by the beginning of the Hellenistic period . For Lazari and Kanta-Kitsou (2010), the main geographical positions of the peoples of Epirus had become fixed by the 8th century BCE with further divisions involving internal re-organization between smaller units. In ancient sources, including,
8904-457: The Chaonians and other Epirote tribes spoke Greek at least from the Dark Ages (1100–800 BC). Hammond further argues that Pseudo-Scylax's description of the situation about 380-360 BC indicates that they did not speak Illyrian and that their acceptance in 330 BC into the Epirote League is a strong indication that they spoke Greek; Chaonian inscriptions, all in Greek, began around 329 BC. In
9072-448: The Chaonians and the other peoples of the area as nomads. The descriptions of ancient authors indicate that the region was densely populated during the 4th century BC. This made the adoption of a new way of life imperative, because the nomadic or semi-nomadic economy could not sustain the ever-increasing population, while constant raids and military operations would make extensive living in unfortified villages problematic; especially with
9240-568: The Chaonians, while the rule of the Molossians started only later. According to Thucydides , their leaders were chosen on an annual basis; he names two such leaders, Photius and Nikanor "from the ruling lineage". In the 4th century BC, the Chaonians adopted the term prostates (Greek: προστάτης, "ruler") to describe their leaders, like most Greek tribal states at the time. Other terms for office were grammateus (Greek: Γραμματεύς , "secretary"), demiourgoi (Greek: δημιουργοί , "creators"), hieromnemones (Greek: ἱερομνήμονες , "of
9408-661: The Dumaresq were produced of increasing complexity as development proceeded. By 1912, Arthur Pollen had developed an electrically driven mechanical analog computer for fire-control systems , based on the differential analyser. It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I . Starting in 1929, AC network analyzers were constructed to solve calculation problems related to electrical power systems that were too large to solve with numerical methods at
9576-585: The Hellenistic period Himara was the most northwestern fortification of Chaonia and an important center according to epigraphic and historical sources. Himara was of the earliest Chaonian fortifications and served as a fortified refuge for the rural settlements forming a restricted chora around it. Another stronghold in northwest of Chaonia was in Borsh , which controlled a crucial road that connected Chaonia and southern Illyria. The inclusion of Chaonia in
9744-540: The Ionian coast in 550 and may have attacked Buthrotum. In the end of 6th century groups of Slavs possibly arrived at Buthrotum. Evidence from the excavations shows that importation of commodities, wine and oil from the Eastern Mediterranean continued into the early years of the 7th century when the early Byzantine Empire lost these provinces . During the period of Slavic invasions and population movements in
9912-479: The Mollosians perhaps took advange towards their Epirote counterparts during the reign of Alcetas and expanded their power in part of the Epirote coast. 4th century BC dynamics led to a reorganization of Chaonia from the perspective of both political and settlement structures. Starting from around mid-4th century BC Chaonians minted coins, bearing the inscription ΧΑ, which is to be read as ΧΑΟΝΩΝ. They adopted
10080-485: The Peloponnesian War profoundly shaped political developments in Epirus, with a progressive emergence of the monarchy in Molossia. The weakening of Korkyrean power, which was consumed by the civil war, and the ever expansive Athenian influence among the Epirote groups, in particular in favor of the Molossians, led to a shift in the internal political balances and tribal territorial boundaries in Epirus. It appears that by
10248-529: The Peloponnesian War. In the events of 430 BC, the Chaonians are mentioned along with other adjacent tribes as allies of Ambracia called " barbarian " by Thucydides, attacking Argos, however without managing to conquer the city. The next year the Ambraciots organized a large campaign to invade Acarnania, which was Athens' ally. They requested the help of Sparta , and the Spartan fleet commander Cnemus led
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#173278060931710416-490: The Periplus differentiated between the Illyrian peoples, barbarians, like the Amantes , to the north of Chaonia, and the Chaonians to the south. On the Amantes there is no agreement on their identity since Proxenos (3rd century B.C) and Hesychius consider them Epirotes, while Pliny the Elder "barbarians". Pliny and Strabo define the natural border of Chaonia at the Acroceraunian Mountains, while Appian in his description of Illyria describes Epirus as starting south of
10584-434: The Roman era the main urban center was transferred to Hadrianopolis , on the left bank of the Drinos replacing Antigonea. The first phases of occupation found in Hadrianopolis seem to date back to at least the Hellenistic age. The borders in Epirus cannot be reconstructed with certainty before the 5th century BC. The broadest borders documented for Chaonia in historical times correspond to the mountain chain of Llogara (in
10752-482: The Venetians. Its fisheries were a vital contributor to the supply of Corfu, and olive growing together with cattle and timber were the principal economic activities. The Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797 split between France and Austria the territory of the Republic of Venice, which France had just occupied and abolished , and under article 5 of the treaty, Butrinto and the other former Venetian enclaves in Albania came under French sovereignty . However, in October 1798
10920-428: The advent of digital computers, because at the time they were typically much faster, but they started to become obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, although they remained in use in some specific applications, such as aircraft flight simulators , the flight computer in aircraft , and for teaching control systems in universities. Perhaps the most relatable example of analog computers are mechanical watches where
11088-454: The alliance with (and possibly subjection to) the Molossian state , which the rest of Epirus would have already joined. It has been suggested that the mention of Phoinike in the list of theorodokoi of Argos (ca. 330-328 BC) provides evidence that the Argive theoroi visited the city, but that it does not provide evidence that the koinon of the Chaonians might not have also constituted part of the state of Epirus. Molossian expansion resulted in
11256-478: The allied army in the attack against the capital of Acarnania, Stratos and suffered heavy losses as they were defeated by Stratians. As the Chaonians suffered the heaviest losses of all groups from Epirus which were involved, this may have been the era when Molossians exploited Chaonian weakness and allied with themselves with Athens as the starting point for their later ascendancy during the 4th century BCE. The Chaonians temporary control over Thesprotian territory
11424-568: The analog computer readout was limited chiefly by the precision of the readout equipment used, generally three or four significant figures. (Modern digital simulations are much better in this area. Digital arbitrary-precision arithmetic can provide any desired degree of precision.) However, in most cases the precision of an analog computer is absolutely sufficient given the uncertainty of the model characteristics and its technical parameters. Many small computers dedicated to specific computations are still part of industrial regulation equipment, but from
11592-631: The analog part of the computer and sent to a PC via a digital microprocessor and displayed on the PC screen. In industrial process control , analog loop controllers were used to automatically regulate temperature, flow, pressure, or other process conditions. The technology of these controllers ranged from purely mechanical integrators, through vacuum-tube and solid-state devices, to emulation of analog controllers by microprocessors. The similarity between linear mechanical components, such as springs and dashpots (viscous-fluid dampers), and electrical components, such as capacitors , inductors , and resistors
11760-405: The appearance of some 6th century BC tumuli in the Korça basin containing the burials of new rulers, who are considered Chaonians by Hammond. However according to Bogdani the archaeological evidence is far from certain, since there are no elements of connection between the Chaonians and these new rulers, and the same consideration can be made for the historical source, especially taking into account
11928-430: The area of Chaonians for the period around the 6th century BC was a vast northern dominion of the Chaonians in an area which expanded from the Bay of Vlorë in the south to the Korçë Plain in the north and the lakeland area in the east. According to Hammond's historical reconstruction, the Chaonians might have lost some pastures, but they would have kept control of the pastures in the area that stretched from Grammos to
12096-414: The bay of Grammata is only reachable from the sea at the northern border of Chaonia in the Acroceraunians. Analog computer An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computation machine (computer) that uses physical phenomena such as electrical , mechanical , or hydraulic quantities behaving according to the mathematical principles in question ( analog signals ) to model
12264-407: The circuit to produce an incorrect simulation of the physical system. (Modern digital simulations are much more robust to widely varying values of their variables, but are still not entirely immune to these concerns: floating-point digital calculations support a huge dynamic range , but can suffer from imprecision if tiny differences of huge values lead to numerical instability .) The precision of
12432-474: The citadel, that bore the inscription "ΑΘΑ" ( ATHA ), which has been rendered as "ΑΘΑΝΑΣ" ( ATHANAS ) and indicates that the archaic temple of Bouthrotos was probably dedicated to Athena. Regardless of whether the temple of Athena Polias – mentioned on the lamella from Dodona – was located in Phoenice, Bouthrotos, or elsewhere, the importance and prominent position of the goddess in Chaonia is also confirmed by
12600-526: The city was conquered by the local Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha Tepelena , and after his death, it officially became a part of the Ottoman Empire until Albania gained its independence in 1912. By that time, the site of the original city had been unoccupied for centuries and was surrounded by malarial marshes. During Ottoman rule in Epirus, the inhabitants of Butrint displayed continuous support for Greek revolutionary activities. In 1913, after
12768-508: The coins of the ethnos, where she is depicted with a Corinthian helmet The cult of Athena was introduced to Epirus for the first time by the Corinthian colonists. Between the end of the 4th century and the beginning of the 3rd century BC, a temenos was assigned to the god of medicine and healing, Asclepius. The establishment of his worship probably took place under the reign of Pyrrhus ; however, Pyrrhus might only be responsible for
12936-819: The collapse of the communist regime in 1992, the new democratic government planned various major developments at the site. The same year remains of Butrint were included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites . A major political and economic crisis in 1997 and lobbying stopped the airport plan and UNESCO placed it on the List of World Heritage in Danger because of looting , lack of protection, management and conservation. Archaeological missions during 1994–9 uncovered further Roman villas and an early Christian church. In 2004, archaeological excavations continued under principal investigator, David R. Hernandez. Climate change means that
13104-434: The continuous and periodic rotation of interlinked gears drives the second, minute and hour needles in the clock. More complex applications, such as aircraft flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar , remained the domain of analog computing (and hybrid computing ) well into the 1980s, since digital computers were insufficient for the task. This is a list of examples of early computation devices considered precursors of
13272-510: The control of this polis (during the capture of Thronium c. 450 BC). It has been suggested that Apollonia's expansion towards the south may have been due to the control of the northern end of the land route that crossed all of Epirus; from south to north. Apollonia was the northernmost Greek colony in direct interaction to Epirus, although the city itself located in Illyria. As such a major cultural border between Chaonia and Illyria could be found around that area. The eastern border of Chaonia
13440-546: The core of which was the house, and therefore all the members attached to it were largely integral. There is today an overall consensus that the Chaonians were among the Greek-speaking population of Epirus, which spoke the North-West Doric dialect of Ancient Greek , akin to that of Aetolia , Phocis, and certain other regions, this is also attested by the available epigraphic evidence in Epirus. Due to
13608-404: The current basin of Ioannina and to the south with the Thesprotians. The Shushica River (which has been tentatively identified with Ancient Greek : Πολύανθος Polyanthos or Χαωνίτης Chaonites ) set a clear boundary between Chaonians and Amantes , who constituted two distinct tribal communities separated and protected against each other by fortification systems. Strongholds of
13776-515: The early 1970s, analog computer manufacturers tried to tie together their analog computers with a digital computers to get the advantages of the two techniques. In such systems, the digital computer controlled the analog computer, providing initial set-up, initiating multiple analog runs, and automatically feeding and collecting data. The digital computer may also participate to the calculation itself using analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters . The largest manufacturer of hybrid computers
13944-569: The end of the First Balkan War , Butrint was ceded to Greece but Italy challenged the decision and in the Treaty of London the region was given to the newly created Principality of Albania . As such Butrint was located near the southern border of the newly established Albanian state in a largely Greek-speaking territory. The local Greek population was enraged and created an Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus , for six months, before it
14112-448: The end of the 5th century BC Chaonia lost its expansion and influence in the south, with Cestrine being ceded to the Thesprotians. Molossian expansion under Tharyps (c. 430-392 BC) weakened the Chaonians. During the Illyrian invasions in Molossia, the first in 385/384 BC led most likely by Bardylis with the support of Dionysius I of Syracuse , and the other in 316 BC, it appears that Illyrians moved southwards into Molossia along
14280-432: The equation m y ¨ + d y ˙ + c y = m g {\displaystyle m{\ddot {y}}+d{\dot {y}}+cy=mg} , with y {\displaystyle y} as the vertical position of a mass m {\displaystyle m} , d {\displaystyle d} the damping coefficient , c {\displaystyle c}
14448-534: The exception of the city of Antigonea, built by the Aeacid king of Epirus, Pyrrhus, in Chaonian territory, which was burnt down. Antigonea itself was destroyed due to infighting between different factions in Epirus. After 167 BCE, Chaonia itself was divided administratively in several semi-autonomous political communities. The koinon of the Prasaiboi was created with its center in Bouthroton. The Prasaiboi before
14616-418: The existence of a Chaonian independent tribal state. The appearance of Phoinike in the list of theorodokoi of Argos ca. 330-328 BCE suggests that the Chaonians now had an urban center of reference or capital city, in addition to the villages of the traditional type. The itineraries of the theorodokoi sacred envoys may also confirm Chaonian independence until the end of the fourth century BC, delaying
14784-410: The expedition of the Greek forces and those troops. Among the latter were 1,000 kingless Chaonians commanded by their annual "prostates" ( Greek : προστάτες , "protectors") Photios and Nikanor. The Thesprotians, who were kingless as well, were arrayed along with the Chaonians. Thucydides mentions that the Chaonians who "were famed for being the best from that part of the mainland" occupied the center of
14952-545: The fact that Greek toponyms preserving archaic features are very densely found in the wider area, it appears, according to Vladimir I. Georgiev , that speakers of the Proto-Greek language inhabited a region which included Chaonia before the Late Bronze Age migrations (ca. 2500 BC). Eugene Borza argues that the Molossians originated from a pool of Proto-Greek tribes inhabiting northwestern Greece. Hammond argues
15120-471: The fact that the knowledge about the northern Chaonian tribe of the Dexaroi is limited to a single fragment of Hecataeus of Miletus . The formation process of the Chaonians remains an unsolved complex problem. In the territory where Chaonians appeared during the late Iron Age, tumulus burial was persistent during the final period of the Bronze Age, a practice which to a degree continued to be in use in
15288-414: The fall of Troy with Neoptolemus and his concubine Andromache . Both Virgil and the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus recorded that Aeneas visited Bouthroton after his own escape from the destruction of Troy. The acropolis was erected on a hill on the bank of a lake Butrint (or lake Bouthrotum). The first extension of the 7th century BC acropolis occurred during the 5th century BC. During
15456-540: The first of the two Illyrian Wars the following year. An Epirote force sent to Phoenice was defeated prompting an appeal to Achaeans and Aetolians for support. They reinforced the remaining Epirote units and were ready to face the Illyrians at Helicranon . However, the later withdrew on terms. Chaonia and the rest of Epirus were annexed by the Romans after the Third Macedonian War (168-167 BCE). During
15624-460: The first time in c. 429 BC by Thucydides , the author of History of the Peloponnesian War . The etymology of the ethnic name Χάονες Cháones is uncertain. In modern bibliography, a connection of Χᾱον- to words like χάος 'void' and χάσκω 'to yawn, gape', has been proposed by linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev (also by Radoslav Katičić ). The semantic shift which is required for Chaones to be linked to them may contain irregularities, although
15792-496: The first years of the second Peloponnesian War (413-404 BC) the Corkyreans built fortifications stretching from Ksamil to Buthrotum. Buthrotum being previously an independent city, became subject to nearby Corfu. By the 4th century BC it had grown in importance and included a theatre , a sanctuary dedicated to Asclepius and an agora . The acropolis of Bouthrotum was protected by three circuit walls. The last and outer wall
15960-456: The inclusion of the Chaonians in a unified Epirote state in the era between c. 340-330 BC under Alexander I and c. 297-295 BCE. It can't be ruled out that this unification may have taken place sometime earlier than 330 BC. Between 317 BC-297 BC political changes, as indicated by an inscription on a bronze plate found in Dodona , reveal the expansion of the Molossian state and the creation of
16128-481: The lamella states: "Good fortune. The polis of the Chaonians asks Zeus Naos and Dione if it is desirable, better, and more advantageous to move and rebuild the Temple of Athena Polias." According to Evangelidis and Gjongecaj , the aforementioned polis pertains to the capital of the Chaonians, Phoenice. There is evidence that this temple was initially located at Bouthrotos; such as a number of Corinthian ostraca from
16296-481: The late classical era. According to the construction of mythological genealogies, Chaonians allegedly received their name from an eponymous ancestor named Xάων Cháon , a Trojan hero who supposedly settled in Epirus. The Athenian comic playwright Aristophanes , in his play The Knights , punningly associated the ethnonym of the Chaonians with the similar sounding verb χάσκω, chásko 'to yawn', while in his play The Acharnians , with χάος, cháos 'chaos'; implying
16464-652: The marine wealth of the town. The Grand Basilica of Buthrotum was built during the first half of the 6th century on the northeast side of the settlement. Other monuments include the Acropolic Basilica (4th century), the Triconch Palace (6th century), the Baptistery with a large, complex mosaic (6th century), the Lake Gate church (9th century) and the Baptistery church (9th century). Colonization by
16632-530: The mathematical understanding of the Gibbs phenomenon of overshoot in Fourier representation near discontinuities. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers. The Dumaresq
16800-538: The military alliance of the Epirotes ( symmachia ), with Chaonia being part of it. This change initiated a period of political stability in the area. The foundation of the city of Antigonia around 296/295 BC on the Drino valley in Chaonia by Pyrrhus of Epirus , naming it after his first wife, Antigone , marks the end of this process of unification. Another fact that provide certain evidence of Chaonian inclusion into
16968-414: The modern computers. Some of them may even have been dubbed 'computers' by the press, though they may fail to fit modern definitions. The Antikythera mechanism , a type of device used to determine the positions of heavenly bodies known as an orrery , was described as an early mechanical analog computer by British physicist, information scientist, and historian of science Derek J. de Solla Price . It
17136-463: The monumental construction of the asclepeion , while the worship itself may have been inherent due to the geophysical wealth of the site. During the excavations, hydrocarbon deposits and sulfur gas were found; the latter is one of the main components of thermal springs, whose main deity was Asclepius. Liberation acts of the 2nd - 1st c. BC were found at the city's theater (western parodos and diazoma ), most of which were dedicated to Asclepius. Among
17304-657: The need for the Corcyraeans of Bouthroton who belonged to the democratic faction to defend themselves at the crucial point of connection with the hinterland by building the Dema Wall. Fortifications in the vicinity of Bouthroton seem to have been increasingly built since 475 BCE. In 427 BCE, Thucydides reports that the Korkyrean oligarchic faction took control of the defensive structures of Bouthroton with Corinthian and Chaonian support. The defeat of democratic polities in
17472-708: The neighboring Greek nations. Also, to the north-east the Chaonians bordered the Atintanians , whose position is in question. In the east they were adjacent to the Paraueans who populated the valley on the right bank of the Aoos between the Straits of Këlcyrë and the Sarantaporos or alternatively only the southern part of the upper Aoos. In the southeast the Chaones were adjacent to the Molossians who occupied
17640-612: The next era. There is a lack of attestation of a certain continuity between the facies of the Late Bronze Age and of the Early Iron Age , which is documented by the tumulus necropolises and by populated areas that sometimes appear to be enclosed, and the more organized settlements of the late Classical and Hellenistic periods. This discontinuity reveals a more drastic change in the settlement schemes and socio-economic structures of Chaonia in comparison to those found in
17808-457: The northern border of Thesprotia, thus assuming that the region of Cestrine belonged to Chaonia, while usually it is said to have belonged to Thesprotia. Another classical source that provides evidence for a southern Chaonian expansion down to Ambracia is a fragment of Hellanicus of Lesbos (late 5th century BC). Chaonian politics of 429 BC and the interests of the polis of Korkyra (led by its democratic faction) were in contrast which explains
17976-576: The northern citadel. The Orthodox Bishopric was transferred to nearby Glyki in 1337 or 1338. The town was reduced in size during the end of the 14th century, due to the tumultuous unrest in the region. The dogal Republic of Venice purchased the area including Corfu from the Angevins in 1386; however, the Venetian merchants were principally interested in Corfu and Butrinto once again declined. By 1572
18144-448: The northern part of the region of Epirus, contact with Illyrian-speakers may have further increased sub-dialectal variation within North-West Doric, although concrete evidence outside of onomastics is lacking. On the other hand, penetration of Greek speech, including Epirote, was much more evident among the adjacent Illyrian tribes. Filos asserts that Epirus was a largely Greek-speaking region, as indicated in epigraphic material, although
18312-449: The oldest known analog computer , the so-called Antikythera Mechanism (c. 150 to 100 BC). The theatre is known for the impressive number of inscriptions carved on its stones. Most of them deal with manumissions and give a great amount of details on the city during the Hellenistic era. The names of those slaves were almost exclusively Greek with a few exception of Latin ones which bore Greek family names. In 228 BC Buthrotum became
18480-443: The other asclepieia; such as those of Nafpaktos, Orchomenos, Chaeronia, Epidaurus, etc. With the development of Bouthrotos' urban center, Asclepius seems to have become the patron god of the city, replacing Athena, who is not mentioned in any inscription thereafter. On the Chaonian coast numerous euploia sanctuaries have been found where sailors have left their epigraphic trace on the rock of cliffs or natural cavities. Among those
18648-488: The other being Onchesmos (modern Sarandë). Bouthroton (modern day Butrint) was originally one of the major centres of the Epirote tribe of the Chaonians , part of the northwestern Greek group of tribes. They had close contacts to the Corinthian colony of Corcyra (modern Corfu ). According to the Roman writer Virgil , its legendary founder was the seer Helenus , a son of king Priam of Troy , who had moved West after
18816-572: The other ethnic districts of Epirus. Ancient authors also starting from Hecataeus of Miletus (6th-5th centuriec BC) highlighted the contiguity of the Chaonians to the Illyrian people settled north of the Acroceraunian Mountains , but they have never identified or affiliated Chaonians with Illyrian tribes. Archaeological material from the classical and Hellenistic periods near Tragjas , Vlorë , (Bregu i Kishës) fits well into
18984-561: The patch panel, various connections and routes can be set and switched to configure the machine and determine signal flows. This allows users to flexibly configure and reconfigure the analog computing system to perform specific tasks. Patch panels are used to control data flows , connect and disconnect connections between various blocks of the system, including signal sources, amplifiers, filters, and other components. They provide convenience and flexibility in configuring and experimenting with analog computations. Patch panels can be presented as
19152-670: The period 1930–1945 in the Netherlands, Johan van Veen developed an analogue computer to calculate and predict tidal currents when the geometry of the channels are changed. Around 1950, this idea was developed into the Deltar , a hydraulic analogy computer supporting the closure of estuaries in the southwest of the Netherlands (the Delta Works ). The FERMIAC was an analog computer invented by physicist Enrico Fermi in 1947 to aid in his studies of neutron transport. Project Cyclone
19320-470: The plan in the Senate. As a result, only small numbers of colonists were settled. In 31 BC, Roman Emperor Augustus fresh from his victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium renewed the plan to make Buthrotum a veterans' colony. New residents expanded the city and the construction included an aqueduct , a Roman bath , houses, a forum complex and a nymphaeum . During that era
19488-478: The possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators . Several systems followed, notably those of Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo , who built various analog machines for solving real and complex roots of polynomials ; and Michelson and Stratton, whose Harmonic Analyser performed Fourier analysis, but using an array of 80 springs rather than Kelvin integrators. This work led to
19656-405: The potentiometer was then equivalent to the formula of the equation being solved. Multiplication or division could be performed, depending on which dials were inputs and which was the output. Accuracy and resolution was limited and a simple slide rule was more accurate. However, the unit did demonstrate the basic principle. Analog computer designs were published in electronics magazines. One example
19824-617: The problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically and by discrete values of both time and amplitude ( digital signals ). Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomograms are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog computers were among the most complicated. Complex mechanisms for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions. Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications even after
19992-424: The recorded officials, the priest of the god is also included. The priests of Asclepius came from the local ruling class, since the inscriptions show that some people had served both as generals and priests of the god; this indicates that the cult of Asclepius was intertwined with the public affairs of the city. The publication of the liberation acts at the temene is not only characteristic of Bouthrotos, but also of
20160-454: The region and Taurian Poseidon ( Greek : Ταύρειος Πωσειδών ) is associated with chthonic features, being protector of the shepherds and the flocks. This kind of worship was quite archaic in the region and was preserved from prehistoric Mycenaean Greece (1600-1100 B.C). A temple dedicated to Athena Polias was erected in Chaonian territory, which is attested from an oracular lamella from Dodona dated to ca. 330–320 BC. The inscription on
20328-462: The region, the Drino valley represented a key land route between Illyria and northern Greece, which probably explains the reasons of the independence and notability of the Chaonians in classical antiquity. Chaonia manifested a 'continental' propensity and the natives of the region had scarce interest for the sea. Nevertheless, with its strategic position on the routes towards Italy, Chaonia appears to have been precociously and continuously affected by
20496-481: The sacred memory") and synarchontes (Greek: συνάρχοντες , "co-rulers"). They were loosely associated with the rest of the Epirote tribes ( Ancient Greek : φυλαί , romanized : phylae ), including the Thesprotians and Molossians. They joined the Epirote League, founded in 325/320 BC, uniting their territories with those of the rest of the Epirotes in a loosely federated state that became
20664-575: The same era, such sites have been found in Melan, while sites in Lekel (possibly ancient Hecatompedon ), Labova (possibly ancient Omphalion ), Dholani e Derviçan and Selo secured various access points to the valley. The sites in Labovë e Sipërme, Dholan and Derviçan may have been fortified residences which developed around Antigonea in the same manner as the farmsteads between Phoenice and Bouthroton. In
20832-409: The settlement survived into the late antique era, becoming a major port in the province of Old Epirus. The town of late antiquity included the grand Triconch Palace , the house of a major local notable that was built around 425. The walls of the city were extensively rebuilt, most probably at the end of the 5th century, perhaps by Byzantine Emperor Anastasius . The Ostrogoths under Indulf raided
21000-455: The site, especially the area of the ancient theatre and Roman forum, can sometimes be covered with water, and a new management plan for both the cultural and natural assets has been implemented. The site of Butrint is accessible from Sarandë , along a road first built in 1959 for a visit by the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev . This road was upgraded during the summer of 2010. The construction
21168-774: The situation that prevailed in Athenian foreign policy, and the indolent nature of Athenian politicians. Chaonia ( Ancient Greek : Χαονία ) was in the northwestern part of Epirus . It was one of the three main ethnic divisions of Epirus; the other two were Thesprotia and Molossia . The chronological arc when the toponym of Chaonia is attested ranges from the Classical Era to the Roman Era . Important river valleys that were included within Chaonia were those of Drino , Bistrica , Kalasa and Pavlla . Being under Chaonian control and playing an important geopolitical role in
21336-459: The size of the town was doubled. A number of new structures were built next to the existing ones especially around the theatre and the temple of Asklepeios. In the 3rd century AD, an earthquake destroyed a large part of the town, levelling buildings in the suburbs on the Vrina Plain and in the forum of the city centre. Excavations have revealed that city had already been in decline. However,
21504-415: The slaves), and they could manage it, sell it, or even give it up, without the mediation of a male guardian. Also, it was common for slaves, after their liberation acts, to remain at the side of their former masters, for as long as the latter lived. This reveals the strong bond between the slaves and their owners; possibly due to the late adoption of slavery in the region, and the preservation of tribal ties,
21672-500: The south-western side of the lakeland region. They would also have suffered losses at the hands of the Illyrian Taulantii and the settlers at Apollonia , who would have captured the southern part of the coastal plain, which coincides with the present-day region of Malakastra . Hammond's hypothesis is based on an information provided by Hecataeus, according to which Chaonians and Enchelei were neighboring peoples, and on
21840-730: The speed of analog computers was their fully parallel computation, but this was also a limitation. The more equations required for a problem, the more analog components were needed, even when the problem wasn't time critical. "Programming" a problem meant interconnecting the analog operators; even with a removable wiring panel this was not very versatile. While a wide variety of mechanisms have been developed throughout history, some stand out because of their theoretical importance, or because they were manufactured in significant quantities. Most practical mechanical analog computers of any significant complexity used rotating shafts to carry variables from one mechanism to another. Cables and pulleys were used in
22008-445: The spring, for instance, can be changed by adjusting the parameters of an integrator. The electrical system is an analogy to the physical system, hence the name, but it is much less expensive than a mechanical prototype, much easier to modify, and generally safer. The electronic circuit can also be made to run faster or slower than the physical system being simulated. Experienced users of electronic analog computers said that they offered
22176-411: The state variables − y ˙ {\displaystyle -{\dot {y}}} (speed) and y {\displaystyle y} (position), one inverter, and three potentiometers. Electronic analog computers have drawbacks: the value of the circuit's supply voltage limits the range over which the variables may vary (since the value of a variable is represented by
22344-402: The time of Pseudo-Scylax, Chaonians as well as all the peoples to the north and to the south of Chaonia were living in villages, while Greece began at the Greek polis of Ambracia . However, Šašel Kos also stated that both northern and southern Epirus was part of the Greek world, but possessing their own ethnic identity. As reported in a fragment of Hecataeus of Miletus (around 6th century BC),
22512-503: The time. These were essentially scale models of the electrical properties of the full-size system. Since network analyzers could handle problems too large for analytic methods or hand computation, they were also used to solve problems in nuclear physics and in the design of structures. More than 50 large network analyzers were built by the end of the 1950s. World War II era gun directors , gun data computers , and bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. In 1942 Helmut Hölzer built
22680-416: The trans-Ionian and trans-Adriatic navigation routes that required their own cultural landscape. Among the oldest of these cultural landscapes was a ' colonial ' landscape, the precocity of which is acknowledged only within the cultural sphere of the peraia of Korkyra . Hammond (1982) suggests that the lack of ancient Greek colonies in the territories of where Chaonians are attested since the classical era
22848-434: The transhumant seasonal movement of men. This required a shift to a more permanent and organized settlement, which ensured better defense and the parallel exercise of various economic activities, such as agriculture, hunting, fishing and animal husbandry ; the latter, however, on a more limited scale than that of nomadic or semi-nomadic. Henceforth, there was import and export of cereals in the region, while it also served as
23016-407: The use of ethnic names: Aixonios, Tharios, Kotulaios, O...-atas and Prochtheios. The Chaonians were settled Kata Komas ( Ancient Greek : Κατά Κώμας ) meaning in a collection of villages and not in an organized polis (despite the fact that they called their community a polis ) and were a tribal state in the 5th century BC. As reported by the most common ancient account Epirus was first ruled by
23184-470: The visualization of analog signals and the representation of the results of measurements or mathematical operations. These are just general blocks that can be found in a typical analog computing machine. The actual configuration and components may vary depending on the specific implementation and the intended use of the machine. Analog computing devices are fast; digital computing devices are more versatile and accurate. The idea behind an analog-digital hybrid
23352-596: The walls and the Grand Basilica. In 1274, Byzantine forces re-entered Butrint, an act which caused conflict between the Byzantines and the Despotate of Epirus , because Despot Nikephoros considered the site to be his domain. Despite deep religious differences between the Catholic Charles of Anjou and the staunchly Orthodox Nikephoros, the two allied against Byzantine Emperor Michael, and together drove
23520-530: The war were probably one of the smaller communities in Chaonia and possibly Thesprotia which benefited from their alliance with Rome and acquired a separate administrative status. It is unclear if Phoinike was at the early era of Roman rule under the Prasaiboi or a separate Chaonian community and what relations it held with another community which appears as the Epirotes around Phoinike . The Prasaiboi seem to have consisted of at least five communities as attested in
23688-429: The war, Molossians and the major Thesprotian groups supported the anti-Roman coalition, while Chaonians fought as allies of the Roman army. As such, there is a strong contrast between the development of Chaonia, Molossia and Thesprotia after the war. While the latter regions faced great destruction including the burning of many settlements and widespread enslavement, Chaonia remained unaffected and continued to flourish with
23856-575: The wars between Venice and the Ottoman Empire had left Butrinto ruinous and the acropolis was abandoned, while at the order of Domenico Foscarini, the Venetian commander of Corfu, the administration of Butrinto and its environs was shifted to a small triangular fortress associated with the extensive fish weirs. The area was lightly settled afterwards, occasionally being seized by the Ottoman Turks, in 1655 and 1718, before being recaptured by
24024-455: The wider region Butrotum was one of the few cities in Epirus that survived and retained its status as a seat of a bishopric without interruption. Because of the scarcity of sources, it is difficult to assess whether Buthrotos was controlled by Slavs or Byzantines between the 7th to 10th centuries. Byzantine written sources of that time mention that Saint Elias of Enna was detained as a spy in Bouthrotos, while Arsenios of Corfu (876–953) noted
24192-466: The worship of Athena, Asclepius and Zeus Soter is attested; the combined worship of the three, is associated with coastal areas and may have been part of a common cult that is also attested in other parts of the Greek world. Zeus , the central figure of the Greek Pantheon , was a popular deity among the Chaonians, as well as the rest of northern Greece. Zeus Chaonius was also associated with
24360-537: Was Electronic Associates . Their hybrid computer model 8900 was made of a digital computer and one or more analog consoles. These systems were mainly dedicated to large projects such as the Apollo program and Space Shuttle at NASA , or Ariane in Europe, especially during the integration step where at the beginning everything is simulated, and progressively real components replace their simulated parts. Only one company
24528-660: Was Applied Dynamics of Ann Arbor, Michigan . Although the basic technology for analog computers is usually operational amplifiers (also called "continuous current amplifiers" because they have no low frequency limitation), in the 1960s an attempt was made in the French ANALAC computer to use an alternative technology: medium frequency carrier and non dissipative reversible circuits. In the 1970s, every large company and administration concerned with problems in dynamics had an analog computing center, such as: An analog computing machine consists of several main components: On
24696-526: Was a peraia of Korkyra, this development may have boosted political changes among the Chaonians who abolished their monarchy early compared to adjacents tribes. As part of that area around c. 500 BC Hecateus mentioned that the region of Chaonia included the Kiraios bay and its plain; a reference to the bay of Bouthrotos and the valley of the Pavllas. The same author also reports that the Chaonian tribe of
24864-498: Was a mechanical calculating device invented around 1902 by Lieutenant John Dumaresq of the Royal Navy . It was an analog computer that related vital variables of the fire control problem to the movement of one's own ship and that of a target ship. It was often used with other devices, such as a Vickers range clock to generate range and deflection data so the gun sights of the ship could be continuously set. A number of versions of
25032-408: Was abolished and a federal government of the Epirote League was established with Phoenice as its capital. Polybius recounts a devastating raid mounted in 230 BC by the Illyrians against Phoenice . The incident had major political ramifications where many Italian traders who were in the town at the time of the sacking were killed or enslaved by the Illyrians, prompting the Roman Republic to launch
25200-465: Was an analog computer developed by Reeves in 1950 for the analysis and design of dynamic systems. Project Typhoon was an analog computer developed by RCA in 1952. It consisted of over 4,000 electron tubes and used 100 dials and 6,000 plug-in connectors to program. The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic analogy of a national economy first unveiled in 1949. Computer Engineering Associates was spun out of Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using
25368-446: Was another settlement which developed during the Hellenistic era in Chaonia. The city and the territory it controlled was founded as a Korkyraian colony and enclave. It was abandoned in 475-350 BCE, which coincides with the involvement of Korkyra in the Peloponnesian War. Chaonians seem to have resettled this coastal area around 350-300 BCE. At the end of the 4th century BC, the city of Bouthroton, became Phoenice's harbor and experienced
25536-455: Was conquered by the Angevins, and remained so throughout the fourteenth century. Hodges argues that the "episodic" defensive investment in Butrint as a town during this period demonstrates that it still possessed an active urban population, although not one urban dwelling had been identified at the time of writing. Hodges argues this indicates that dwellings were concentrated on the slopes of
25704-421: Was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992 and further a National Park in 2000 under the leadership of Auron Tare , its first director. The earliest archaeological evidence of settled occupation dates to between 10th and 8th centuries BC, although some claim that there is earlier evidence of habitation dating from the 12th century BC. Excavation at Bouthroton has yielded Proto-Corinthian pottery of
25872-685: Was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation. The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm . It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions . Aviation
26040-576: Was discovered in 1901, in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera , between Kythera and Crete , and has been dated to c. 150~100 BC , during the Hellenistic period . Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later. Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere
26208-606: Was erected around 380 BC enclosing and area of 4ha. This 870m-long wall included bastions and five gates. Two of the most important gates were known as Scean and Lion gate. Moreover, the agora, the stoas , the residential zone and the theatre were located in a separate walled area. Several inscriptions in Buthrotum describe the organization of the Chaonians in the beginning of the 3rd cent. BC. which show that they too had an annual leader called Prostates ( Greek : Προστάτης Protector). The Greek calendar of Bouthroton appears in
26376-556: Was first described by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus . A combination of the planisphere and dioptra , the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy . The sector , a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots,
26544-471: Was geopolitical rather than scientific, aiming to extend Italian hegemony in the area. The leader was an Italian archaeologist, Luigi Maria Ugolini who despite the political aims of his mission was a good archaeologist. Ugolini died in 1936, but the excavations continued until 1943 and the Second World War . They uncovered the Hellenistic and Roman part of the city including the "Lion Gate" and
26712-579: Was in control of most of today's Albania and Angevin control on the Balkan mainland was limited to Butrinto, the later formed a single administrative unit together with nearby Corfu. In the 14th century the site shared a similar fate with Corfu. Butrint remained under Angevin rule until 1386, with only two other interruptions: in 1306, and in 1313–1331. In 1305-1306 it was controlled by the Despot of Epirus, Thomas I Komnenos Doukas . Butrint became Catholic after it
26880-481: Was initially a suffragan of the Metropolis of Nicopolis , the metropolitan capital of Epirus Vetus and in the papal sway, but in the 9th and 10th centuries it is listed with the suffragans of Naupaktos , which succeeded ruined Nicopolis as provincial capital and metropolis of the new Byzantine theme of Nicopolis , bringing it in the sway of the Byzantine Patriarchate of Constantinople . After
27048-414: Was known as offering general commercial computing services on its hybrid computers, CISI of France, in the 1970s. The best reference in this field is the 100,000 simulation runs for each certification of the automatic landing systems of Airbus and Concorde aircraft. After 1980, purely digital computers progressed more and more rapidly and were fast enough to compete with analog computers. One key to
27216-474: Was located along the Drino and Aoos rivers. The eastern and southern boundaries of the Chaonians were also not clear and also changed over the centuries. This occurred due to a number of factors and historical events; seasonal movements of nomadic or semi-nomadic populations and relations towards the neighboring populations including the interests of the southern Greek powers: Corinth and the Athens as well as of
27384-409: Was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location. The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration , used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 James Thomson had already discussed
27552-441: Was programmed using patch cords that connected nine operational amplifiers and other components. General Electric also marketed an "educational" analog computer kit of a simple design in the early 1960s consisting of two transistor tone generators and three potentiometers wired such that the frequency of the oscillator was nulled when the potentiometer dials were positioned by hand to satisfy an equation. The relative resistance of
27720-489: Was reluctantly ceded to Albania, with peace assured by Italian peacekeeping force until 1919. Italy rejected the decision because it didn't want Greece to control both sides of the Straits of Corfu . In the early 6th century, Buthrotum became the seat of a bishopric and new construction included the Buthrotum baptistery , one of the largest such paleochristian buildings of its type, and a basilica . The diocese of Buthrotum
27888-567: Was somewhat of an environmental disaster and may yet threaten Butrint's World Heritage Site status. The ancient city is becoming a popular tourist destination, attracting day-trippers from the nearby Greek holiday island of Corfu. Hydrofoils (30 minutes) and ferries (90 minutes) run daily between the New Port in Corfu Town and Saranda. Many visitors from Corfu use chartered coach services to visit Butrint from Sarandë, and additionally,
28056-548: Was the principal computer in the Mk. 56 Gun Fire Control System. Online, there is a remarkably clear illustrated reference (OP 1140) that describes the fire control computer mechanisms. For adding and subtracting, precision miter-gear differentials were in common use in some computers; the Ford Instrument Mark I Fire Control Computer contained about 160 of them. Integration with respect to another variable
28224-493: Was very subtle, and in part, largely plasmatic. The local society was generally rural, and its inhabitants tried to achieve self-sufficiency through a number of means that complemented each other. The character of the economy was a consequence of the mountainous environment. Chaonian winter pastures stretched from modern-day Konispol in the south to the Gulf of Aulon in the north. Additionally, with regard to pastoralism and nomadism, no source or archaeological document describes
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