129-486: Skull and Bones (also known as The Order , Order 322 or The Brotherhood of Death ) is an undergraduate senior secret student society at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut . The oldest senior-class society at the university, Skull and Bones has become a cultural institution known for its powerful alumni and conspiracy theories. Skull and Bones is considered one of the "Big Three" societies at Yale University;
258-738: A temporary restraining order to block the move, arguing that a formal change in bylaws was needed. Other alumni, such as John Kerry and R. Inslee Clark, Jr. , spoke out in favor of admitting women. The dispute was highlighted on an editorial page of The New York Times . A second alumni vote, in October 1991, agreed to accept the Class of 1992, and the lawsuit was dropped. In recent years, Skull and Bones, like other elite Yale institutions, "utterly transformed", according to The Atlantic . The society tapped its first entirely non-white class in 2020. Few descendants of alumni get in, and progressive activism
387-496: A 1974 book, Brooks Mather Kelley attributed the interest in Yale senior societies to the fact that underclassmen members of then freshman , sophomore , and junior class societies returned to campus the following years and could share information about society rituals, while graduating seniors were, with their knowledge of such, at least a step removed from campus life. Since its founding, Skull and Bones annually selects 15 members of
516-565: A Catholic (or Christian or "white") form of Freemasonry . Other critics label Opus Dei as "Holy Mafia" or "Santa Mafia" The National Christian Association (1868–1983) is an example of an organization opposed to secret societies. Because some secret societies have political aims, they are illegal in several countries. Italy ( Constitution of Italy, Section 2, Articles 13–28 ) and Poland, for example, ban secret political parties and political organizations in their constitutions. Many student societies established on university campuses in
645-642: A Greek professor and academician , believes that Isaeus helped Demosthenes edit his initial judicial orations against his guardians. Demosthenes is also said to have admired the historian Thucydides . In the Illiterate Book-Fancier, Lucian mentions eight beautiful copies of Thucydides made by Demosthenes, all in Demosthenes' own handwriting. These references hint at his respect for a historian he must have assiduously studied. According to Plutarch, when Demosthenes first addressed himself to
774-413: A bad erastes to Aristarchus so as not even to deserve the name. His crime, according to Aeschines, was to have betrayed his eromenos by pillaging his estate, allegedly pretending to be in love with the youth so as to get his hands on the boy's inheritance. Nevertheless, the story of Demosthenes' relations with Aristarchus is still regarded as more than doubtful, and no other pupil of Demosthenes
903-450: A book on Yale secret societies, wrote: The forty-acre retreat is intended to allow Bonesmen to "get together and rekindle old friendships." A century ago the island sported tennis courts and its softball fields were surrounded by rhubarb plants and gooseberry bushes. Catboats waited on the lake. Stewards catered elegant meals. Bonesmen spend a week in the late summer getting to know each other at Deer Island. The Russell Trust Association
1032-516: A compilation edited by Kris Millegan and published in 2003. Among prominent alumni are former presidents William Howard Taft (a founder's son), George H. W. Bush , and George W. Bush . In the 2004 U.S. Presidential election , both the Democratic and Republican nominees were members of Skull and Bones. When asked what it meant that he and George W. Bush were both Bonesmen, former presidential candidate John Kerry said, "Not much, because it's
1161-515: A complete absence of proof; as J. H. Vince states "there was no room for chivalry in Athenian political life". Such rivalry enabled the demos ("citizen-body") to reign supreme as judge, jury and executioner. Demosthenes was to become fully engaged in this kind of litigation and he was also to be instrumental in developing the power of the Areopagus to indict individuals for treason, invoked in
1290-468: A conspicuous radical ; a Whiffenpoof ; a swimming captain; a notorious drunk with a 94 average; a film-maker; a political columnist; a religious group leader; a Chairman of the Lit; a foreigner; a ladies' man with two motorcycles; an ex-serviceman; a negro, if there are enough to go around; a guy nobody else in the group had heard of, ever ... Like other Yale senior societies, Skull and Bones's membership
1419-509: A disordered fashion. Demosthenes undertook a disciplined programme to overcome his weaknesses and improve his delivery, including diction, voice and gestures. According to one story, when he was asked to name the three most important elements in oratory, he replied "Delivery, delivery and delivery!" It is unknown whether such vignettes are factual accounts of events in Demosthenes' life or merely anecdotes used to illustrate his perseverance and determination. To make his living, Demosthenes became
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#17327907551431548-595: A focus and a raison d'être . Demosthenes saw the King of Macedon as a menace to the autonomy of all Greek cities and yet he presented him as a monster of Athens's own creation; in the First Philippic he reprimanded his fellow citizens as follows: "Even if something happens to him, you will soon raise up a second Philip [...]". The theme of the First Philippic (351–350 BC) was preparedness and
1677-454: A human skull with links to Skull and Bones. The Skull and Bones Hall, located at 64 High St. in New Haven, Connecticut , is otherwise known as the "Tomb". The building was built in three phases: the first wing was built in 1856, the second wing in 1903, and Davis-designed Neo-Gothic towers were added to the rear garden in 1912. The front and side facades are of Portland brownstone in an Egypto-Doric style . The 1912 tower additions created
1806-480: A large mirror. As soon as Demosthenes came of age in 366 BC, he demanded his guardians render an account of their management. According to Demosthenes, the account revealed the misappropriation of his property. Although his father left an estate of nearly fourteen talents (equivalent to about 220 years of a labourer's income at standard wages, or 11 million dollars in terms of median U.S. annual incomes). Demosthenes asserted his guardians had left nothing "except
1935-530: A leading part in his city's uprising. According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventh day after the death of his daughter, and though the ceremonies of mourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood making thank-offerings, violating all decency." Demosthenes also sent envoys to Attalus , whom he considered to be an internal opponent of Alexander. Nonetheless, Alexander moved swiftly to Thebes, which submitted shortly after his appearance at its gates. When
2064-711: A major role in Chinese affairs for centuries. They were a key aspect of the Anti-Qing sentiments of the 20th century. After the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, they were tacitly supported by and actively collaborated with the Nationalist government. Having played prominent roles in history, they were targeted by the anti-secret society campaigns of the newly established government of the People's Republic of China during
2193-500: A means to attack him. In the case of Aristion, a youth from Plataea who lived for a long time in Demosthenes' house, Aeschines mocks the "scandalous" and "improper" relation. In another speech, Aeschines brings up the pederastic relation of his opponent with a boy called Cnosion. The slander that Demosthenes' wife also slept with the boy suggests that the relationship was contemporary with his marriage. Aeschines claims that Demosthenes made money out of young rich men, such as Aristarchus,
2322-464: A member of the organization. This membership information was kept privately for over fifteen years, as Sutton feared that the photocopied pages could somehow identify the member who leaked it. He wrote a book on the group, America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull and Bones . The information was finally reformatted as an appendix in the book Fleshing out Skull and Bones ,
2451-438: A more activist foreign policy, wherever opportunity might provide. Although his early orations were unsuccessful and reveal a lack of real conviction and of coherent strategic and political prioritisation, Demosthenes established himself as an important political personality and broke with Eubulus' faction, of which a prominent member was Aeschines. He thus laid the foundations for his future political successes and for becoming
2580-421: A plain near Chaeronea , where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere hoplite . Such was Philip's hatred for Demosthenes that, according to Diodorus Siculus , the King after his victory sneered at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesman Demades is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of Agamemnon , are you not ashamed to act
2709-418: A political quid pro quo , whereby Apollodorus secretly pledged support for unpopular reforms that Demosthenes was pursuing in the greater, public interest (i.e. the diversion of Theoric Funds to military purposes). Demosthenes was admitted to his dêmos ( δῆμος ) as a citizen with full rights probably in 366 BC, and he soon demonstrated an interest in politics. In 363 and 359 BC, he assumed
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#17327907551432838-494: A portion of his inheritance. According to Pseudo-Plutarch , Demosthenes was married once. The only information about his wife, whose name is unknown, is that she was the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent citizen. Demosthenes also had a daughter, "the only one who ever called him father", according to Aeschines in a trenchant remark. His daughter died young and unmarried a few days before Philip II's death. In his speeches, Aeschines uses pederastic relations of Demosthenes as
2967-583: A professional litigant, both as a " logographer " ( λογογράφος , logographos ), writing speeches for use in private legal suits, and as an advocate ( συνήγορος , sunégoros ) speaking on another's behalf. He seems to have been able to manage any kind of case, adapting his skills to almost any client, including wealthy and powerful men. It is not unlikely that he became a teacher of rhetoric and that he brought pupils into court with him. However, though he probably continued writing speeches throughout his career, he stopped working as an advocate once he entered
3096-447: A public presence. The exact qualifications for labeling a group a secret society are disputed, but definitions generally rely on the degree to which the organization insists on secrecy , and might involve the retention and transmission of secret knowledge, the denial of membership or knowledge of the group, the creation of personal bonds between members of the organization, and the use of secret rites or rituals which solidify members of
3225-498: A reed, pretending he wanted to write a letter to his family. When Demosthenes felt that the poison was working on his body, he said to Archias: "Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as
3354-413: A school of rhetoric he had opened and instead devote himself wholly to Demosthenes, his new pupil. Another version credits Isaeus with having taught Demosthenes without charge. According to Sir Richard C. Jebb , a British classical scholar, "the intercourse between Isaeus and Demosthenes as teacher and learner can scarcely have been either very intimate or of very long duration". Konstantinos Tsatsos ,
3483-401: A secret." Members are assigned nicknames. Examples include "Long Devil", the tallest member, "Boaz", a varsity football captain, or "Sherrife", prince of the future. Many of the chosen names are drawn from literature (e.g., " Hamlet ", " Uncle Remus ") religion, and myth. The banker Lewis Lapham passed on his nickname, " Sancho Panza ", to the political adviser Tex McCrary . Averell Harriman
3612-423: A significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide insight into the politics and culture of ancient Greece during the 4th century BC. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studying the speeches of previous great orators. He delivered his first judicial speeches at the age of 20, in which he successfully argued that he should gain from his guardians what was left of his inheritance. For
3741-481: A small enclosed courtyard in the rear of the building, designed by Evarts Tracy and Edgerton Swartwout of Tracy and Swartwout , New York. Evarts Tracy was an 1890 Bonesman, and his paternal grandmother, Martha Sherman Evarts, and maternal grandmother, Mary Evarts, were the sisters of William Maxwell Evarts , an 1837 Bonesman. The architect was possibly Alexander Jackson Davis or Henry Austin . Architectural historian Patrick Pinnell includes an in-depth discussion of
3870-616: A special Athenian embassy led by Phocion , an opponent of the anti-Macedonian faction, was able to persuade Alexander to relent. According to ancient writers, Demosthenes called Alexander "Margites" ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Μαργίτης ) and a boy. Greeks used the word Margites to describe foolish and useless people, on account of the Margites . Despite the unsuccessful ventures against Philip and Alexander, most Athenians still respected Demosthenes, because they shared his sentiments and wished to restore their independence. In 336 BC,
3999-400: A speech for Phormion (350 BC), a wealthy banker, and then communicated it to Apollodorus, who was bringing a capital charge against Phormion. Plutarch much later supported this accusation, stating that Demosthenes "was thought to have acted dishonourably" and he also accused Demosthenes of writing speeches for both sides. It has often been argued that the deception, if there was one, involved
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4128-699: A time, Demosthenes made his living as a professional speechwriter ( logographer ) and a lawyer , writing speeches for use in private legal suits . Demosthenes grew interested in politics during his time as a logographer, and in 354 BC he gave his first public political speeches. He went on to devote his most productive years to opposing Macedon 's expansion. He idealized his city and strove throughout his life to restore Athens' supremacy and motivate his compatriots against Philip II of Macedon . He sought to preserve his city's freedom and to establish an alliance against Macedon, in an unsuccessful attempt to impede Philip's plans to expand his influence southward, conquering
4257-765: A war in Euboea against Philip, which ended in a stalemate. In 348 BC a peculiar event occurred: Meidias , a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped Demosthenes, who was at the time a choregos at the Greater Dionysia , a large religious festival in honour of the god Dionysus . Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea. He also was an old enemy of Demosthenes; in 361 BC he had broken violently into his house, with his brother Thrasylochus, to take possession of it. Demosthenes decided to prosecute his wealthy opponent and wrote
4386-558: Is a reference to the year 322 BC and that members measure dates from this year instead of from the anno domini . In 322 BC, the Lamian War ended with the death of Demosthenes and Athenians were made to dissolve their government and establish a plutocratic system in its stead, whereby only those possessing 2,000 drachmas or more could remain citizens. Documents in the Tomb have purportedly been found dated to "Anno-Demostheni." One legend
4515-526: Is an asset. The class of 2021 admitted no conservatives. The society's badge is gold and consists of a skull that is supported by crossed bones, with the number 322 on the lower jaw. Its members worshipped Eulogia, a fictional goddess of eloquence. The number "322" appears in Skull and Bones' insignia and is widely reported to be significant as the year of Greek orator Demosthenes ' death. A letter between early society members in Yale's archives suggests that 322
4644-436: Is considered to be the best of his political orations. Using all the power of his eloquence, he demanded resolute action against Philip and called for a burst of energy from the Athenian people. He told them that it would be "better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip". Demosthenes now dominated Athenian politics and was able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines. In 341 BC Demosthenes
4773-571: Is criticised for having overrated Athens's capacity to revive and challenge Macedon. His city had lost most of its Aegean allies, whereas Philip had consolidated his hold over Macedonia and was master of enormous mineral wealth. Chris Carey, a professor of Greek in UCL , concludes that Demosthenes was a better orator and political operator than strategist. Nevertheless, the same scholar underscores that "pragmatists" like Aeschines or Phocion had no inspiring vision to rival that of Demosthenes. The orator asked
4902-482: Is illustrated by the inscription his countrymen engraved on the base of his statue: Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were, the Macedonian would not have conquered her. George Grote notes that already thirty years before his death, Demosthenes "took a sagacious and provident measure of the danger which threatened Grecian liberty from the energy and encroachments of Philip." Throughout his career "we trace
5031-409: Is known by name. Between his coming of age in 366 BC and the trials that took place in 364 BC, Demosthenes and his guardians negotiated acrimoniously but were unable to reach an agreement, for neither side was willing to make concessions. At the same time, Demosthenes prepared himself for the trials and improved his oratory skill. According to a story repeated by Plutarch , when Demosthenes
5160-436: Is probable that Demosthenes actually suffered from rhotacism , mispronouncing ρ (r) as λ (l). Aeschines taunted him and referred to him in his speeches by the nickname "Batalus", apparently invented by Demosthenes' pedagogues or by the little boys with whom he was playing —which corresponded to how someone with that variety of rhotacism would pronounce " Battaros ," the name of a legendary Libyan king who spoke quickly and in
5289-596: Is that of The Philomaths , which is now a legitimate academic association founded on a strict selection of its members. While their existence had been speculated for years, Internet-based secret societies first became known to the public in 2012 when Cicada 3301 began recruiting from the public via Internet-based puzzles. The goals of the society remain unknown, but it is believed to be involved in cryptography . The following contemporary and historic secret societies formed in Africa, by country: Secret societies played
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5418-539: Is that the number represents "founded in '32, 2nd corps", referring to a first Corps in an unknown German university. Another possible reference of 322 is the Freemasonic Lodge of Virtue and Silence no. 322, in Suffolk, UK, signaling a fraternal but unspoken sponsorship between the two "secret society" organizations, regarding which silence is considered virtuous. Lodge 322 was founded in 1811, 21 years before
5547-561: Is the business name of Skull and Bones Society . It was incorporated in 1856 by William Huntington Russell as president and Daniel Coit Gilman as treasurer. The association holds the society's assets, including its endowment and property, and oversees property upkeep. According to its 2016 filing with the IRS , the Russell Trust Association, filing as RTA Incorporated, has assets of $ 3,906,458, including Deer Island and
5676-751: Is the secret society of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers . Notable examples in Canada include Episkopon at the University of Toronto 's Trinity College , and the Society of Thoth at the University of British Columbia . Secret societies are disallowed in a few colleges. The Virginia Military Institute has rules that no cadet may join a secret society, and secret societies have been banned at Oberlin College from 1847 to
5805-517: The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Seventh-day Adventists . California drought manipulation Demosthenes Demosthenes ( / d ɪ ˈ m ɒ s . θ ə n iː z / ; Greek : Δημοσθένης , romanized : Dēmosthénēs ; Attic Greek : [dɛːmostʰénɛːs] ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens . His orations constitute
5934-655: The Amphictyonic Council . During a meeting of the council, Philip accused the Amfissian Locrians of intruding on consecrated ground. The presiding officer of the council, a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of an Amphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon the Locrians. Aeschines agreed with this proposition and maintained that the Athenians should participate in
6063-807: The International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies and Fraternal Orders , defines a secret society as an organization that: Historian Richard B. Spence of the University of Idaho offered a similar three-pronged definition: Spence also proposes a sub-category of "Elite Secret Societies" (composed of high-income or socially influential people) and notes that secret societies have a frequent if not universal tendency towards factionalism, infighting, and claiming origins older than can be reliably documented. Spence's definition includes groups traditionally thought of as secret societies ( Freemasons and Rosicrucians ) and other groups not so traditionally classified such as certain organized crime cabals (
6192-579: The League of Corinth , a confederation of Greek states under his leadership, and returned to Pella. In 336 BC, Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter, Cleopatra of Macedon , to King Alexander of Epirus . The Macedonian citizens swiftly proclaimed Alexander III of Macedon , then twenty years old, as the new King of Macedon. Greek cities like Athens and Thebes saw in this change of leadership an opportunity to regain their full independence. Demosthenes celebrated Philip's assassination and played
6321-621: The Peloponnese , to detach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence, but his efforts were generally unsuccessful. Most of the Peloponnesians saw Philip as the guarantor of their freedom and sent a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities. In response, Demosthenes delivered the Second Philippic , a vehement attack against Philip. In 343 BC Demosthenes delivered On
6450-575: The Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field shook Demosthenes. In 351 BC, Demosthenes felt strong enough to express his view concerning the most important foreign policy issue facing Athens at that time: the stance his city should take towards Philip. According to Jacqueline de Romilly , a French philologist and member of the Académie française , the threat of Philip would give Demosthenes' stances
6579-496: The Triballians . The Thebans and the Athenians rebelled once again, financed by Darius III of Persia , and Demosthenes is said to have received about 300 talents on behalf of Athens and to have faced accusations of embezzlement. Alexander reacted immediately and razed Thebes to the ground. He did not attack Athens, but demanded the exile of all anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all. According to Plutarch ,
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#17327907551436708-629: The Yale University Art Gallery . In the late 1990s, New Hampshire landscape architects Saucier and Flynn designed the wrought iron fence that surrounds a portion of the complex. The society owns and manages Deer Island , an island retreat on the St. Lawrence River ( 44°21′33″N 75°54′34″W / 44.359063°N 75.909345°W / 44.359063; -75.909345 ( Location of New Skull & Bones Society Lodge on Deer Island ) ). Alexandra Robbins , author of
6837-657: The ekklesia by a process called ἀπόφασις ( apóphasis ). In 354 BC, Demosthenes delivered his first political oration, On the Navy , in which he espoused moderation and proposed the reform of the symmoriai (boards) as a source of funding for the Athenian fleet. In 352 BC, he delivered For the Megalopolitans and, in 351 BC, On the Liberty of the Rhodians. In both speeches he opposed Eubulus ,
6966-517: The group . Anthropologically and historically, secret societies have been deeply interlinked with the concept of the Männerbund, the all-male "warrior-band" or "warrior-society" of pre-modern cultures (see H. Schurtz, Alterklassen und Männerbünde , Berlin, 1902; A. Van Gennep , The Rites of Passage , Chicago, 1960). A purported "family tree of secret societies" has been proposed, although it may not be comprehensive. Alan Axelrod , author of
7095-731: The 1950s. Examples of Chinese secret societies include: Secret societies in India include: Secret societies in Japan include: Secret societies in Malaysia include: Secret societies in the Philippines include: Secret societies in Australia include: Several secret societies existing across Europe, including: Other organizations are listed by country. Secret societies in Canada that are non-collegiate include: Secret societies in
7224-862: The 19th century. British universities have a long history of secret societies or quasi-secret clubs, such as The Pitt Club at Cambridge University , Bullingdon Club at Oxford University , the Kate Kennedy Club , The Kensington Club and the Praetorian Club at the University of St Andrews , and the 16' Club at St David's College . Another British secret society is the Cambridge Apostles , founded as an essay and debating society in 1820. Not all British universities host solely academic secret societies; both The Night Climbers of Cambridge and The Night Climbers of Oxford require both brains and brawn. In France, Vandermonde
7353-582: The Areopagus conducted an inquiry and charged Demosthenes and others with mishandling twenty talents. Among the accused, Demosthenes was the first to be brought to trial before an unusually numerous jury of 1,500. He was found guilty and fined 50 talents. Unable to pay this huge amount, Demosthenes escaped and only returned to Athens nine months later, after the death of Alexander. Upon his return, he "received from his countrymen an enthusiastic welcome, such as had never been accorded to any returning exile since
7482-561: The Athenians learned that Alexander had moved quickly to Boeotia, they panicked and begged the new King of Macedon for mercy. Alexander admonished them but imposed no punishment. In 335 BC Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians , but, while he was campaigning in the north, Demosthenes spread a rumour—even producing a bloodstained messenger—that Alexander and all of his expeditionary force had been slaughtered by
7611-433: The Athenians to choose that which is just and honourable, before their own safety and preservation. The people preferred Demosthenes' activism and even the bitter defeat at Chaeronea was regarded as a price worth paying in the attempt to retain freedom and influence. According to Professor of Greek Arthur Wallace Pickarde, success may be a poor criterion for judging the actions of people like Demosthenes, who were motivated by
7740-429: The Athenians turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides, among others. Following his order, the ekklesia had no choice but to reluctantly adopt a decree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. Demosthenes escaped to a sanctuary on the island of Kalaureia (modern-day Poros ), where he was later discovered by Archias, a confidant of Antipater. He died by suicide before his capture by taking poison out of
7869-555: The Congress. Demosthenes however reversed Aeschines' initiatives and Athens finally abstained. After the failure of a first military excursion against the Locrians, the summer session of the Amphictyonic Council gave command of the league's forces to Philip and asked him to lead a second excursion. Philip decided to act at once; in the winter of 339–338 BC, he passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa and defeated
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#17327907551437998-635: The Council of the League. Demosthenes was among those who adopted a pragmatic approach, and recommended this stance in his oration On the Peace . For Edmund M. Burke, this speech heralds a maturation in Demosthenes' career: after Philip's successful campaign in 346 BC, the Athenian statesman realised that, if he was to lead his city against the Macedonians, he had "to adjust his voice, to become less partisan in tone". In 344 BC Demosthenes travelled to
8127-588: The Exam Ethics Project lobby group estimated that 115 students and teachers had been killed between 1993 and 2003. The Mandatory Monday Association is thought to operate out of a variety of Australian universities including the Australian Defence Force Academy . The Association has numerous chapters that meet only on Mondays to discuss business and carry out rituals. The only secret society abolished and then legalized
8256-585: The False Embassy against Aeschines, who was facing a charge of high treason. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by the narrow margin of thirty votes by a jury which may have numbered as many as 1,501. In 343 BC, Macedonian forces were conducting campaigns in Epirus and, in 342 BC, Philip campaigned in Thrace. He also negotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of Philocrates. When
8385-568: The Great of Prussia ; or that Skull and Bones controls the CIA . Secret society#Colleges and universities A secret society is an organization about which the activities, events, inner functioning, or membership are concealed. The society may or may not attempt to conceal its existence. The term usually excludes covert groups, such as intelligence agencies or guerrilla warfare insurgencies, that hide their activities and memberships but maintain
8514-661: The Greek states. After Philip's death, Demosthenes played a leading part in his city's uprising against the new king of Macedonia , Alexander the Great . However, his efforts failed, and the revolt was met with a harsh Macedonian reaction. To prevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexander's successor in this region, Antipater , sent his men to track Demosthenes down. Demosthenes killed himself to avoid being arrested by Archias of Thurii , Antipater's confidant. The Alexandrian Canon , compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace , called Demosthenes one of
8643-500: The Greeks. The historian maintains that Demosthenes measured everything by the interests of his own city, imagining that all the Greeks ought to have their eyes fixed upon Athens. According to Polybius, the only thing the Athenians eventually got by their opposition to Philip was the defeat at Chaeronea. "And had it not been for the King's magnanimity and regard for his own reputation, their misfortunes would have gone even further, thanks to
8772-532: The Locrians. After this significant victory, Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338 BC. He then turned south-east down the Cephissus valley, seized Elateia , and restored the fortifications of the city. At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with Euboea , Megara , Achaea , Corinth , Acarnania and other states in the Peloponnese. However the most desirable ally for Athens
8901-680: The Macedonian army approached Chersonese (now known as the Gallipoli Peninsula ), an Athenian general named Diopeithes ravaged the maritime district of Thrace, thereby inciting Philip's rage. Because of this turbulence, the Athenian Assembly convened. Demosthenes delivered On the Chersonese and convinced the Athenians not to recall Diopeithes. Also in 342 BC, he delivered the Third Philippic , which
9030-636: The Mafia ), religious groups ( Order of Assassins and Thelema ) and political movements ( Bolsheviks and Black Dragon Society ). Historian Jasper Ridley says that Freemasonry is "the world's most powerful secret Society". The organization " Opus Dei " ( Latin for "Work of God") is portrayed as a "secret society" of the Catholic Church . Critics such as the Jesuit Wladimir Ledóchowski sometimes refer to Opus Dei as
9159-469: The Roman biographer Hermippus, he was a student of Plato . Lucian , a Roman-Syrian rhetorician and satirist , lists the philosophers Aristotle , Theophrastus and Xenocrates among his teachers. These claims are nowadays disputed. According to Plutarch, Demosthenes employed Isaeus as his master in rhetoric, even though Isocrates was then teaching this subject, either because he could not pay Isocrates
9288-479: The Skull and Bones Hall. As of 2024, the organization had an endowment of $ 17 million. Skull and Bones' membership developed a reputation in association with the " power elite ". Regarding the qualifications for membership, Lanny Davis wrote in the 1968 Yale yearbook: If the society had a good year, this is what the "ideal" group will consist of: a football captain; a Chairman of the Yale Daily News ;
9417-443: The Skull and Bones". The first senior members included Russell, Taft, and thirteen other members. Alternative names for Skull and Bones are The Order, Order 322 and The Brotherhood of Death. The first extended description of Skull and Bones, published in 1871 by Lyman Bagg in his book Four Years at Yale , noted that "the mystery now attending its existence forms the one great enigma which college gossip never tires of discussing." In
9546-605: The United States have been considered secret societies. Perhaps one of the most famous secret collegiate societies is Skull and Bones at Yale University . The influence of undergraduate secret societies at colleges such as Harvard College , Cornell University , Florida State University , Dartmouth College , Emory University , the University of Chicago , the University of Virginia , Georgetown University , New York University , and Wellesley College has been publicly acknowledged, if anonymously and circumspectly, since
9675-574: The United States that are non-collegiate include: The Catholic Church strongly opposed secret societies, especially the Freemasons . It did relent somewhat in the United States and allowed membership in labour unions and the Knights of Columbus , but not the Masons. Some Christian denominations continue to forbid their members from joining secret societies in the 21st century. Others example,
9804-484: The beginning, to these he kept constant to the end; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, that he chose rather to forsake his life than his purpose". On the other hand, Polybius , a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world , was highly critical of Demosthenes' policies. Polybius accused him of having launched unjustified verbal attacks on great men of other cities, branding them unjustly as traitors to
9933-568: The conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued Phocis ; Athens made no move to support the Phocians. Supported by Thebes and Thessaly, Macedon took control of Phocis' votes in the Amphictyonic League , a Greek religious organisation formed to support the greater temples of Apollo and Demeter . Despite some reluctance on the part of the Athenian leaders, Athens finally accepted Philip's entry into
10062-471: The creation of the Skull and Bones association in 1832. Skull and Bones has a reputation for stealing keepsakes from other Yale societies or campus buildings; society members reportedly call the practice "crooking" and strive to outdo each other's "crooks". The society has been accused of possessing the stolen skulls of Martin Van Buren , Geronimo , and Pancho Villa . In January 2010, Christie's auctioned
10191-680: The days of Alkibiades ." Such a reception, the circumstances of the case, Athenian need to placate Alexander, the urgency to account for the missing funds, Demosthenes' patriotism and wish to set Greece free from Macedonian rule, all lend support to George Grote's view that Demosthenes was innocent, that the charges against him were politically-motivated, and that he "was neither paid nor bought by Harpalus." Mogens Hansen , however, notes that many Athenian leaders, Demosthenes included, made fortunes out of their political activism, especially by taking bribes from fellow citizens and such foreign states as Macedonia and Persia. Demosthenes received vast sums for
10320-480: The dispute over the identity of the original architect in his 1999 Yale campus history. Pinnell speculates that the re-use of the Davis towers in 1911 suggests Davis's role in the original building and, conversely, Austin was responsible for the architecturally similar brownstone Egyptian Revival Grove Street Cemetery gates, built-in 1845. Pinnell also discusses the Tomb's esthetic place about its neighbors, including
10449-418: The division between political and military offices was beginning to be strongly marked. Almost no politician, with the exception of Phocion, was at the same time an apt orator and a competent general . Demosthenes dealt in policies and ideas, and war was not his business. This contrast between Demosthenes' intellectual prowess and his deficiencies in terms of vigour, stamina, military skill and strategic vision
10578-536: The ekklesia had refused to hear him and he was going home dejected, an actor named Satyrus followed him and entered into a friendly conversation with him. As a boy Demosthenes had a speech impairment : Plutarch refers to a weakness in his voice of "a perplexed and indistinct utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing his sentences much obscured the sense and meaning of what he spoke." There are problems in Plutarch's account, however, and it
10707-750: The first Jewish player ( Al Hessberg , class of 1938) and African-American player ( Levi Jackson , class of 1950), although Jackson declined the tap, instead electing to join Berzelius . Judith Ann Schiff, Chief Research Archivist at the Yale University Library , has written: "The names of its members weren't kept secret—that was an innovation of the 1970s—but its meetings and practices were." While resourceful researchers could assemble member data from these sources, in 1985, Charlotte Thomson Iserbyt provided Antony C. Sutton with rosters and records that had belonged to her father,
10836-419: The house, and fourteen slaves and thirty silver minae " (30 minae = ½ talent). At the age of 20 Demosthenes sued his trustees to recover his patrimony and delivered five orations: three Against Aphobus during 363 and 362 BC and two Against Onetor during 362 and 361 BC. The courts fixed Demosthenes' damages at ten talents. When all the trials came to an end, he only succeeded in retrieving
10965-485: The ideals of democracy political liberty. Athens was asked by Philip to sacrifice its freedom and its democracy, while Demosthenes longed for the city's brilliance. He endeavoured to revive its imperilled values and, thus, he became an "educator of the people" (in the words of Werner Jaeger ). The fact that Demosthenes fought at the battle of Chaeronea as a hoplite indicates that he lacked any military skills. According to historian Thomas Babington Macaulay , in his time
11094-453: The importance of the navy, of alliances and of national honour, are prosecutions ( γραφὴ παρανόμων , graphē paranómōn ) against individuals accused of illegally proposing legislative texts. In Demosthenes' time, different political goals developed around personalities. Instead of electioneering, Athenian politicians used litigation and defamation to remove rivals from government processes. Often they indicted each other for breaches of
11223-461: The judicial oration Against Meidias . This speech gives valuable information about Athenian law at the time and especially about the Greek concept of hybris (aggravated assault), which was regarded as a crime not only against the city but against society as a whole. He stated that a democratic state perishes if the rule of law is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men, and that the citizens acquire power and authority in all state affairs due "to
11352-420: The junior class to join the society. Skull and Bones selects new members among students every spring as part of Yale University's "Tap Day", and has done so since 1879. It taps those that it views as campus leaders and other notable figures for its membership. In the 1960s, secret societies adapted in response to criticism for elitism and discrimination. Skull and Bones admitted its first black member in 1965, and
11481-572: The leader of his own "party" (the issue of whether the modern concept of political parties can be applied in the Athenian democracy is hotly disputed among modern scholars). Most of Demosthenes' major orations were directed against the growing power of King Philip II of Macedon. Since 357 BC, when Philip seized Amphipolis and Pydna , Athens had been formally at war with the Macedonians . In 352 BC, Demosthenes characterised Philip as
11610-489: The many decrees and laws he proposed. Given this pattern of corruption in Greek politics, it appears likely, writes Hansen, that Demosthenes accepted a huge bribe from Harpalus, and that he was justly found guilty in an Athenian People's Court. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Demosthenes again urged the Athenians to seek independence from Macedon in what became known as the Lamian War . However, Antipater, Alexander's successor, quelled all opposition and demanded that
11739-489: The most powerful Athenian statesman of the period 355 to 342 BC. The latter was no pacifist but came to eschew a policy of aggressive interventionism in the internal affairs of the other Greek cities. Contrary to Eubulus' policy, Demosthenes called for an alliance with Megalopolis against Sparta or Thebes , and for supporting the democratic faction of the Rhodians in their internal strife. His arguments revealed his desire to articulate Athens' needs and interests through
11868-439: The office of the trierarch , being responsible for the outfitting and maintenance of a trireme . He was among the first ever volunteer trierarchs in 357 BC, sharing the expenses of a ship called Dawn , for which the public inscription still survives. In 348 BC, he became a choregos , paying the expenses of a theatrical production . Between 355 and 351 BC, Demosthenes continued practising law privately while he
11997-497: The orator Ctesiphon proposed that Athens honour Demosthenes for his services to the city by presenting him, according to custom, with a golden crown. This proposal became a political issue and, in 330 BC, Aeschines prosecuted Ctesiphon on charges of legal irregularities. In his most brilliant speech, On the Crown, Demosthenes effectively defended Ctesiphon and vehemently attacked those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. He
12126-565: The other are Scroll and Key and Wolf's Head . The society is known informally as "Bones", and members are known as "Bonesmen", "Members of The Order" or "Initiated to The Order". Skull and Bones was founded in 1832 after a dispute among Yale debating societies Linonia , Brothers in Unity , and the Calliopean Society over that season's Phi Beta Kappa awards. William Huntington Russell and Alphonso Taft co-founded "The Order of
12255-541: The part of Thersites [an obscene soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War ]?" Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour. After Chaeronea, Philip inflicted a harsh punishment upon Thebes, but made peace with Athens on very lenient terms. Demosthenes encouraged the fortification of Athens and was chosen by the ekklesia to deliver the Funeral Oration . In 337 BC, Philip created
12384-485: The people, he was derided for his strange and uncouth style, "which was cumbered with long sentences and tortured with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess". Some citizens, however, discerned his talent. When he first left the ekklesia (the Athenian Assembly) disheartened, an old man named Eunomus encouraged him, saying his diction was very much like that of Pericles . Another time, after
12513-480: The plan called for the creation of a rapid-response force, to be created cheaply with each ὁπλῑ́της ( hoplī́tēs ) to be paid only ten drachmas per month (two obols per day), which was less than the average pay for unskilled labourers in Athens—implying that the hoplite was expected to make up the deficiency in pay by looting. From this moment until 341 BC, all of Demosthenes' speeches referred to
12642-423: The policy of Demosthenes". Paparrigopoulos extols Demosthenes' patriotism, but criticises him as being short-sighted. According to this critique, Demosthenes should have understood that the ancient Greek states could only survive unified under the leadership of Macedon. Therefore, Demosthenes is accused of misjudging events, opponents and opportunities and of being unable to foresee Philip's inevitable triumph. He
12771-534: The political arena. Judicial oratory had become a significant literary genre by the second half of the fifth century, as represented in the speeches of Demosthenes' predecessors, Antiphon and Andocides . Logographers were a unique aspect of the Athenian justice system: evidence for a case was compiled by a magistrate in a preliminary hearing and litigants could present it as they pleased within set speeches; however, witnesses and documents were popularly mistrusted (since they could be secured by force or bribery), there
12900-417: The prescribed fee or because Demosthenes believed Isaeus' style better suited a vigorous and astute orator such as himself. Curtius , a German archaeologist and historian, likened the relation between Isaeus and Demosthenes to "an intellectual armed alliance". It has also been said that Demosthenes paid Isaeus 10,000 drachmae (somewhat over 1½ talents) on the condition that Isaeus withdraw from
13029-478: The present, and at Princeton University since the beginning of the 20th century. Confraternities in Nigeria are secret-society-like student groups within higher education, some of which have histories of violence and organized crime. The exact death toll from confraternity activities is unclear. One estimate in 2002 was that 250 people had been killed in campus cult-related murders in the previous decade, while
13158-447: The president of Yale's gay student organization in 1975. Yale became coeducational in 1969, prompting some other secret societies such as St. Anthony Hall to transition to co-ed membership, yet Skull and Bones remained fully male until 1992. The Bones class of 1971's attempt to tap women for membership was opposed by Bones alumni, who dubbed them the "bad club" and quashed their attempt. "The issue", as it came to be called by Bonesmen,
13287-477: The reform of the Theoric fund , a mainstay of Eubulus' policy. In his rousing call for resistance, Demosthenes asked his countrymen to take the necessary action and asserted that "for a free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for their position". He thus provided for the first time a plan and specific recommendations for the strategy to be adopted against Philip in the north. Among other things,
13416-480: The same combination of earnest patriotism with wise and long-sighted policy." Had his advice to the Athenians and other fellow Greeks been followed, the power of Macedonia could have been successfully checked. Moreover, says Grote, "it was not Athens only that he sought to defend against Philip, but the whole Hellenic world. In this he towers above the greatest of his predecessors." The sentiments to which Demosthenes appeals throughout his numerous orations, are those of
13545-482: The same issue, the struggle against Philip. In 349 BC, Philip attacked Olynthus , an ally of Athens. In the three Olynthiacs , Demosthenes criticised his compatriots for being idle and urged Athens to help Olynthus. He also insulted Philip by calling him a "barbarian". Despite Demosthenes' strong advocacy, the Athenians would not manage to prevent the falling of the city to the Macedonians. Almost simultaneously, probably on Eubulus' recommendation, they engaged in
13674-475: The son of Moschus, whom he allegedly deceived with the pretence that he could make him a great orator. Apparently, while still under Demosthenes' tutelage, Aristarchus killed and mutilated a certain Nicodemus of Aphidna. Aeschines accused Demosthenes of complicity in the murder, pointing out that Nicodemus had once pressed a lawsuit accusing Demosthenes of desertion. He also accused Demosthenes of having been such
13803-515: The statute laws ( graphē paranómōn ), but accusations of bribery and corruption were ubiquitous in all cases, being part of the political dialogue. The orators often resorted to "character assassination" tactics ( δῐᾰβολή , diabolḗ ; λοιδορία , loidoría ), both in the courts and in the Assembly. The rancorous and often hilariously exaggerated accusations, satirised by Old Comedy , were sustained by innuendo, inferences about motives, and
13932-551: The strength of the laws". There is no consensus among scholars either on whether Demosthenes finally delivered Against Meidias or on the veracity of Aeschines' accusation that Demosthenes was bribed to drop the charges. In 348 BC, Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground; then conquered the entire Chalcidice and all the states of the Chalcidic federation that Olynthus had once led. After these Macedonian victories, Athens sued for peace with Macedon. Demosthenes
14061-507: The temple unpolluted." After saying these words, he passed by the altar, fell down and died. Years after Demosthenes' suicide, the Athenians erected a statue to honour him and decreed that the state should provide meals to his descendants in the Prytaneum . Plutarch lauds Demosthenes for not being of a fickle disposition. Rebutting historian Theopompus , the biographer insists that for "the same party and post in politics which he held from
14190-468: The ten greatest Attic orators and logographers. Longinus likened Demosthenes to a blazing thunderbolt and argued that he had "perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech, living passions, copiousness, readiness, speed." Quintilian extolled him as lex orandi ("the standard of oratory"). Cicero said of him that inter omnis unus excellat ("one exceeds among all"), and also praised him as "the perfect orator" who lacked nothing. Demosthenes
14319-470: The treaty, but he delayed the departure of the Athenian envoys, who had yet to receive the oaths from Macedon's allies in Thessaly and elsewhere. Finally, peace was sworn at Pherae , where Philip accompanied the Athenian delegation, after he had completed his military preparations to move south. Demosthenes accused the other envoys of venality and of facilitating Philip's plans with their stance. Just after
14448-407: The very worst enemy of his city; his speech presaged the fierce attacks that Demosthenes would launch against the Macedonian king over the ensuing years. A year later he criticised those dismissing Philip as a person of no account and warned that he was as dangerous as the king of Persia . In 352 BC, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip at Thermopylae , but the Macedonian victory over
14577-537: Was " Thor ", Henry Luce was " Baal ", McGeorge Bundy was " Odin ", and George H. W. Bush was " Magog ". Skull and Bones is featured in books and movies which claim that the society plays a role in a global conspiracy for world control . There have been rumors that Skull and Bones is a branch of the Illuminati , having been founded by German university alumni following the order's suppression in their native land by Karl Theodor, Elector of Bavaria and Frederick
14706-579: Was Thebes. To secure their allegiance, Demosthenes was sent by Athens, to the Boeotian city; Philip also sent a deputation, but Demosthenes succeeded in securing Thebes' allegiance. Demosthenes' oration before the Theban people is not extant and, therefore, the arguments he used to convince the Thebans remain unknown. In any case, the alliance came at a price: Thebes' control of Boeotia was recognised, Thebes
14835-500: Was almost exclusively limited to white Protestant men for much of its history. While Yale had exclusionary policies directed at particular ethnic and religious groups, the senior societies were even more exclusionary. While some Catholics were able to join such groups, Jews were more often not. Some of these excluded groups eventually entered Skull and Bones using sports, through the society's practice of tapping standout athletes. Star football players tapped for Skull and Bones included
14964-487: Was also the uncle of the Athenian Orator Demochares. Demosthenes was orphaned at the age of seven. Although his father provided for him well, his legal guardians, Aphobus, Demophon and Therippides, mishandled his inheritance. Demosthenes started to learn rhetoric because he wished to take his guardians to court and because he was of "delicate physique" and could not receive gymnastic education, which
15093-481: Was among those who favoured compromise. In 347 BC, an Athenian delegation, comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officially sent to Pella to negotiate a peace treaty. In his first encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have collapsed from fright. The ekklesia officially accepted Philip's harsh terms, including the renouncement of their claim to Amphipolis . However, when an Athenian delegation arrived at Pella to put Philip under oath, which
15222-399: Was an adolescent, his curiosity was noticed by the orator Callistratus , who was then at the height of his reputation, having just won a case of considerable importance. According to Friedrich Nietzsche , a German philologist and philosopher, and Constantine Paparrigopoulos , a major modern Greek historian, Demosthenes was a student of Isocrates ; according to Cicero , Quintillian and
15351-407: Was becoming increasingly interested in public affairs. During this period, he wrote Against Androtion and Against Leptines , two fierce attacks on individuals who attempted to repeal certain tax exemptions. In Against Timocrates and Against Aristocrates , he advocated eliminating corruption. All these speeches, which offer early glimpses of his general principles on foreign policy, such as
15480-458: Was born in 384 BC, during the last year of the 98th Olympiad or the first year of the 99th Olympiad. His father—also named Demosthenes—who belonged to the local tribe, Pandionis, and lived in the deme of Paeania in the Athenian countryside, was a wealthy sword-maker. Aeschines , Demosthenes' greatest political rival, maintained that his mother Kleoboule was a Scythian by blood —an allegation disputed by some modern scholars. He
15609-430: Was customary. In Parallel Lives , Plutarch states that Demosthenes built an underground study where he practised speaking and shaving one half of his head so that he could not go out in public. Plutarch also states that he had "an inarticulate and stammering pronunciation " that he overcame by speaking with pebbles in his mouth and by repeating verses when running or out of breath. He also practised speaking in front of
15738-523: Was debated for decades. The class of 1991 tapped seven female members for membership in the next year's class, causing conflict with the alumni association. The trust changed the locks on the Tomb and the Bonesmen instead met in the Manuscript Society building. A mail-in vote by members decided 368–320 to permit women in the society, but a group of alumni led by William F. Buckley obtained
15867-433: Was imprisoned after a proposal of Demosthenes and Phocion, despite the dissent of Hypereides , an anti-Macedonian statesman and former ally of Demosthenes. Additionally, the ekklesia decided to take control of Harpalus' money, which was entrusted to a committee presided over by Demosthenes. When the committee counted the treasure, they found they only had half the money Harpalus had declared he possessed. When Harpalus escaped,
15996-473: Was little cross-examination during the trial, there were no instructions to the jury from a judge, no conferencing between jurists before voting, the juries were huge (typically between 201 and 501 members), cases depended largely on questions of probable motive, and notions of natural justice were felt to take precedence over written law—conditions that favoured artfully constructed speeches. Since Athenian politicians were often indicted by their opponents, there
16125-501: Was not always a clear distinction between "private" and "public" cases, and thus a career as a logographer opened the way for Demosthenes to embark on his political career. An Athenian logographer could remain anonymous, which enabled him to serve personal interests, even if it prejudiced the client. It also left him open to allegations of malpractice. Thus for example Aeschines accused Demosthenes of unethically disclosing his clients' arguments to their opponents; in particular, that he wrote
16254-619: Was required to conclude the treaty, he was campaigning abroad. He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian possessions that he might seize before the ratification. Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should travel to the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay. Despite his suggestions, the Athenian envoys, including himself and Aeschines, remained in Pella, until Philip successfully concluded his campaign in Thrace . Philip swore to
16383-547: Was sent to Byzantium , where he sought to renew its alliance with Athens. Thanks to Demosthenes' diplomatic manoeuvres, Abydos also entered into an alliance with Athens. These developments worried Philip and increased his anger at Demosthenes. The Assembly, however, laid aside Philip's grievances against Demosthenes' conduct and denounced the peace treaty; so doing, in effect, amounted to an official declaration of war. In 339 BC Philip made his last and most effective bid to conquer southern Greece, assisted by Aeschines' stance in
16512-440: Was to command solely on land and jointly at sea, and Athens was to pay two thirds of the campaign's cost. While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to appease his enemies, proposing in vain a new peace treaty. After a few trivial encounters between the two sides, which resulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the phalanx of the Athenian and Theban confederates into
16641-713: Was unrepentant about his past actions and policies and insisted that, when in power, the constant aim of his policies was the honour and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he preserved his loyalty to Athens. He finally defeated Aeschines, although his enemy's objections, though politically-motivated, to the crowning were arguably valid from a legal point of view. In 324 BC Harpalus, to whom Alexander had entrusted huge treasures, absconded and sought refuge in Athens. The Assembly had initially refused to accept him, following Demosthenes' and Phocion 's advice, but finally Harpalus entered Athens. He
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