Misplaced Pages

#820179

98-682: Geopolitically, Phocis was the country of the Phocians, who spoke their own version of Doric Greek , one of the three main dialects of ancient Greek. They were one of several small mountain states of Central Greece , whose dialects are classified as Northwest Doric. It was from their region that the Dorians crossed the Gulf of Corinth at the beginning of the Greek Iron Age to burn Pylos and other southern Greek strongholds and seize control of

196-1350: A ~ Attic e in certain words. Proto-Greek *-ti is retained (assibilated to -si in Attic). Proto-Greek *ts > -ss- between vowels. (Attic shares the same development, but further shortens the geminate to -s- .) Initial *w ( ϝ ) is preserved in earlier Doric (lost in Attic). Literary texts in Doric and inscriptions from the Hellenistic age have no digamma. For information on the peculiarities of Doric accentuation, see Ancient Greek accent § Doric . Numeral te t ores ~ Attic te tt ares , Ionic te ss eres "four". Ordinal pr ā tos ~ Attic–Ionic pr ō tos "first". Demonstrative pronoun t ēnos "this" ~ Attic–Ionic (e) k einos t for h (from Proto-Indo-European s ) in article and demonstrative pronoun. Third person plural, athematic or root aorist -n ~ Attic -san . First person plural active -mes ~ Attic–Ionic -men . Future -se-ō ~ Attic -s-ō . Modal particle ka ~ Attic–Ionic an . Temporal adverbs in -ka ~ Attic–Ionic -te . Locative adverbs in -ei ~ Attic/Koine -ou . The aorist and future of verbs in -izō , -azō has x (versus Attic/Koine s ). Lamian War The Lamian War , or

294-498: A Corinthian epichoric alphabet. (See under Attic Greek .) Corinth contradicts the prejudice that Dorians were rustic militarists, as some consider the speakers of Laconian to be. Positioned on an international trade route, Corinth played a leading part in the re-civilizing of Greece after the centuries of disorder and isolation following the collapse of Mycenaean Greece. The Northwest Doric (or "Northwest Greek", with "Northwest Doric" now considered more accurate so as not to distance

392-639: A Macedonian garrison on its soil, lose its possessions outside Attica , and even trade its democracy for an oligarchic regime. As a symbol of the event, the famous orator Demosthenes committed suicide to avoid his capture by the Macedonians. Athens never played a leading role again in Greece after the Lamian War. While Antipater was turning his forces west to deal with the Aetolian League,

490-462: A decade after Duris. He was a pro-Macedonian writer who wanted to avoid using the name "Hellenic War" that was too much directed against Macedonia. Hieronymus' Macedonian bias can be retrieved from Diodorus' writings, as he mostly based his account from Hieronymus, and as a result has a negative tone towards the Greeks and their attempt to recover their freedom. Moreover, Hieronymus wrote his book after

588-518: A dialect that some consider to be predominantly Laconian. Philoxenus of Alexandria wrote a treatise On the Laconian dialect . Argolic was spoken in the thickly settled northeast Peloponnese at, for example, Argos , Mycenae , Hermione , Troezen , Epidaurus , and as close to Athens as the island of Aegina . As Mycenaean Greek had been spoken in this dialect region in the Bronze Age , it

686-462: A northern Greek dialect" with numerous adherents from the 19th century and on (Fick 1874; Hoffmann 1906; Hatzidakis 1897 etc.; Kalleris 1964 and 1976). Masson himself argues with the largely Greek character of the Macedonian onomastics and sees Macedonian as "a Greek dialect, characterised by its marginal position and by local pronunciations" and probably most closely related to the dialects of

784-436: A number of Greek colonies. Furthermore, there is an abundance of place names used to examine features of the northern Doric dialects. Southern dialects, in addition to numerous inscriptions, coins, and names, have also provided much more literary evidence through authors such as Alcman , Pindar , and Archimedes of Syracuse , among others, all of whom wrote in Doric. There are also ancient dictionaries that have survived; notably

882-638: A number that still outnumbered the available Macedonian fleet in the Aegean Sea. Initially, Antipater could only rely on the 110 ships that had escorted the treasure Alexander sent with Harpalus. However, in 322 BC, the situation was reversed with the decisive arrival of the Macedonian admiral Cleitus the White , at the head of a large navy of 240 ships. These ships came from a navy of 1,000 vessels commissioned by Alexander before he died. Although Alexander's grandiose plans were abandoned after his death, some of

980-557: A very large army of 40,000 soldiers, 3,000 archers and slingers, and 5,000 cavalry, which was much bigger than the 25,000 hoplites and 3,500 horses of Antiphilus. The final battle took place at Crannon on 6 August 322 BC. Although the Thessalian cavalry had the upper hand in the horse battle, the Greek infantry was pushed back and disengaged. Casualties were limited, with 500 dead for the Greeks (including 200 Athenians) and 130 for

1078-588: Is also a good source thanks to his biographies of Demosthenes and Phocion , two leading politicians in Athens at the time. The initial name of the war was the Hellenic War, mostly labelled as such in epigraphic material of the end of the 4th century and beginning of the 3rd century. It was chosen by the Greeks in order to recall their victorious war against the Persian Empire in the first half of

SECTION 10

#1732765178821

1176-523: Is clear that the Dorians overran it but were unable to take Attica . The Dorians went on from Argos to Crete and Rhodes . Ample inscriptional material of a legal, political and religious content exists from at least the sixth century BC. Corinthian was spoken first in the isthmus region between the Peloponnesus and mainland Greece ; that is, the Isthmus of Corinth . The cities and states of

1274-638: Is dated from 27 October, while that with Sicyon is from 23 December. It showed that Athens' diplomatic effort continued over several months after the beginning of the war. Sparta refused to join, mainly because of their losses during the War of Agis III, but also because the war was led by Athens, which had refused to support Agis. In addition, Sparta did not want to join an alliance that counted its traditional enemies Argos and Messenia. Several leading Spartans were also held hostages by Macedonia in Asia. Kleonai rejected

1372-425: Is last heard of under Trajan . 38°31′31″N 22°22′31″E  /  38.5253°N 22.3753°E  / 38.5253; 22.3753 Doric Greek Doric or Dorian ( Ancient Greek : Δωρισμός , romanized :  Dōrismós ), also known as West Greek , was a group of Ancient Greek dialects ; its varieties are divided into the Doric proper and Northwest Doric subgroups. Doric

1470-515: Is nevertheless useful because his work preserves fragments of lost historians. His books dealing with the Lamian War drew extensively on Hieronymus of Cardia , the main historian of the beginning of the Hellenistic era, who also played a historical role and met many of the generals of Alexander the Great . Plutarch , a Greek moralist who lived at the time of the Flavian emperors and Trajan ,

1568-539: Is not a proper dialectal group but rather merely a case of areal dialectal convergence. Throughout the Northwest Doric area, most internal differences did not hinder mutual understanding, though Filos, citing Bubenik, notes that there were certain cases where a bit of accommodation may have been necessary. The earliest epigraphic texts for Northwest Doric date to the 6th–5th century BC. These are thought to provide evidence for Northwest Doric features, especially

1666-701: The Black Sea , the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea . It was also spoken in the Greek sanctuaries of Dodona , Delphi , and Olympia , as well as at the four Panhellenic festivals; the Isthmian , Nemean , Pythian , and Olympic Games . By Hellenistic times, under the Achaean League , an Achaean Doric koine appeared, exhibiting many peculiarities common to all Doric dialects, which delayed

1764-541: The Chremonidean War (267–261), another unsuccessful revolt of the Greeks against Macedonia, and likewise wished to avoid any reminder of the Persian Wars. This theory was first made by N. G. Ashton in 1984 and has found general acceptance since. However, in 2011, John Walsh has suggested that the name Lamian War was first coined by the poet Choerilus of Iasus , who composed an epic named Lamiaka about

1862-698: The Corinthian colonies of Potidaea , Epidamnos , Apollonia and Ambracia ; there, it further added words to what would become the Albanian language , probably via traders from a now-extinct "Adriatic Illyrian " intermediary. In the north, local epigraphical evidence includes the decrees of the Epirote League , the Pella curse tablet , three additional lesser known Macedonian inscriptions (all of them identifiable as Doric), numerous inscriptions from

1960-585: The Dorians . It expanded to all other regions during the Dorian invasion ( c.  1150 BC ) and the colonisations that followed. The presence of a Doric state ( Doris ) in central Greece, north of the Gulf of Corinth , led to the theory that Doric had originated in northwest Greece or maybe beyond in the Balkans . The dialect's distribution towards the north extends to the Megarian colony of Byzantium and

2058-672: The Greeks ; at the Battle of Plataea they were enrolled on the Persian side. In 457 BC an attempt to extend their influence to the headwaters of the Cephissus in the territory of Doris brought a Spartan army into Phocis in defence of the "metropolis of the Dorians". A similar enterprise against Delphi in 448 BC was again frustrated by Sparta, but not long afterwards the Phocians recaptured

SECTION 20

#1732765178821

2156-540: The Hellenic War , (323–322 BC) was an unsuccessful attempt by Athens and a large coalition of Greek states to end the hegemony of Macedonia over Greece just after the death of Alexander the Great . It was the last time Athens played a significant role as an independent power. War was simmering in Greece after Alexander the Great issued the Exiles' Decree (in 324 BC), which ordered the Greek states to return all

2254-680: The Hellenistic era . The main ancient source on the Lamian War is the Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily , who composed a very large work, the Bibliotheca historica , at the very end of the Roman Republic . The events of the war are detailed in books 17–18. Modern historians have been very critical of Diodorus, for his careless treatment of chronology, inability to deal with conflicting sources, insertions of his own opinions as facts, omission of entire years of events, etc. Diodorus

2352-687: The Hellespont (now called the Dardanelles), as Athens had to bring corn supplies from the Black Sea through these narrow straights, which shores were controlled by Macedonia. At an unknown date, an Athenian army commanded by Phocion repelled an amphibious Macedonian raid led by Mikion on the town of Rhamnous in Attica. This raid had possibly been launched from Chalcis while the Athenian navy

2450-651: The Macedonian king Philip II defeated a coalition of Greek states led by Thebes and Athens at the battle of Chaeronea . He then forced the Greeks into an hegemonic alliance called the League of Corinth in order to secure his back while he started a war of conquest against the Persian empire , but resentment remained high among the Greeks. In 335 Thebes revolted at the news that the new Macedonian king Alexander III had died, but he acted quickly and razed Thebes to

2548-636: The Odrysian king Seuthes III was at war with Macedonia at the same time, but does not connect this revolt to the Lamian War. In the Peloponnese , Argos , Sicyon , the Acte peninsula including Epidaurus and Troezen , Phlius , Elis , and Messenia joined the Hellenic League. These cities followed Athens at a later date than the northern cities, as the treaty between Athens and Phokis

2646-510: The Peloponnesus . The dialects of the two groups of Dorians north and south of the Gulf then began to diverge. One of the states around Phocis was still called Doris in classical times. As there is considerable evidence that the invasion began about 1000 BC, the ancestors of the classical Phocians might be presumed to have been in place there, though not yet speaking Phocian. Ancient Phocis

2744-525: The "northerners" might have spoken one dialect at the time of the Dorian invasion; certainly, Doric could only have further differentiated into its classical dialects when the Dorians were in place in the south. Thus West Greek is the most accurate name for the classical dialects. Tsakonian , a descendant of Laconian Doric (Spartan), is still spoken on the southern Argolid coast of the Peloponnese, in

2842-450: The 5th century, thus placing Macedonia in the role of Persia. The name of their coalition, the Hellenic League, was chosen for the same reason. In his biography of Phocion, Plutarch writes "Hellenic War", because his source was Duris of Samos , who wrote a history book of the period in the 270s, at a time when it was still the common name. The name shift to "Lamian War" happened with Hieronymus of Cardia , who wrote an influential book just

2940-760: The Aetolian League. For an unknown reason, the Acarnanian city of Alyzeia sided alone with the Hellenic League. Macedonia also had garrisons in the acropoleis of Thebes ( Cadmea ) and Corinth ( Acrocorinth ). The occupation of the Acrocorinth ensured the neutrality of Corinth and also prevented the Peloponnesian states from joining their armies with that of northern states, as it blocked the Isthmus. Ioanna Kralli notes that apart Sicyon, "the Peloponnesian participants demonstrated lack of commitment" during

3038-532: The Aetolian League. It would explain why the Aetolians suddenly left the siege of Lamia to return home. Grainger supposes it was to hold their elections, but Bosworth suggests that the Aetolians had to defend their territory attacked by the Acarnanians in late 323 BC. The two victories of Cleitus against Euetion apparently resulted in the evacuation of Oiniadai by the Aetolians, because in the next mention in

Phocis (ancient region) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3136-576: The Cadmea), near Plataea . This early success won the adhesion of most other states of central Greece. With an army of about 30,000 men, Leosthenes moved to the north and defended the Thermopylae pass , while waiting for the Macedonian response. In order to prevent the revolt from spreading to Thessaly , Antipater moved south with the Macedonian army of 13,000 hoplites and 600 cavalry, while his navy of 110 triremes followed him with supplies along

3234-459: The Corinthian dialect region were Corinth , Sicyon , Archaies Kleones , Phlius , the colonies of Corinth in western Greece: Corcyra , Leucas , Anactorium , Ambracia and others, the colonies in and around Italy: Syracuse, Sicily and Ancona , and the colonies of Corcyra : Dyrrachium , and Apollonia . The earliest inscriptions at Corinth date from the early sixth century BC. They use

3332-588: The Euboean city of Styra , which belonged to Eretria . Euboean cities were on the Macedonian side, except Karystos, which northern border was near Styra, and was likely helped by Athens against its neighbour. The goal of the expedition was perhaps to intimidate the Euboean cities, or the price demanded by Karystos for its alliance with Athens. At the start of the war, Athens had a massive navy of more than 410 warships: 360 triremes, 50 quadriremes , and 7 quinqueremes. It could nevertheless only man about 200 ships;

3430-484: The Exiles' Decree, which demanded that citizens forced into exile in any Greek city had to be allowed to return to their home. Read at the Olympic Games on 4 August 324 BC before a crowd of 20,000 exiles, the Exiles' Decree caused a lot of tension in Greece, especially in Athens, which had colonised the island of Samos for several decades and did not want to abandon this valuable possession. The Aetolian League

3528-552: The Greek Antiphilus and Menon first wished to negotiate for the entire alliance, but Antipater only wanted to deal with each city individually. He then conquered Thessalian cities one by one, which made all the Greek states apart from Athens and the Aetolians to surrender individually. Greek states thereafter competed with each other to have the best terms possible from Antipater. Once Antipater reached Boeotia, Athens sought for peace. The Athenian delegation to Antipater

3626-572: The Greek North-West (Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote). Brian D. Joseph acknowledges the closeness of Macedonian to Greek (even contemplating to group them into a "Hellenic branch" of Indo-European), but retains that "[t]he slender evidence is open to different interpretations, so that no definitive answer is really possible". Johannes Engels has pointed to the Pella curse tablet , written in Doric Greek: "This has been judged to be

3724-582: The Ionian Sea, and in the Achaean colonies of Magna Graecia in Southern Italy (including Sybaris and Crotone ). This strict Doric dialect was later subject to the influence of mild Doric spoken in Corinthia . It survived until 350 BC. By Hellenistic times, under the Achaean League , an Achaean Doric koine appeared, exhibiting many peculiarities common to all Doric dialects, which delayed

3822-549: The Ionian Sea, but some islands in the Malian Gulf off the city of Echinus , not far from Lamia where Antipater was still besieged. In 2001, Brian Bosworth rejected Walek's view, and instead considered that Diodorus must be correct, as the Echinades islands are just off the city of Oiniadai, which was the city captured by the Aetolian League c.330 BC and one of the main causes of the war. Bosworth's theory has since shifted

3920-479: The Macedonians, but the outcome was decisive enough to compel the Athenians and their allies to sue for peace. Brian Bosworth suggests that initially, the Macedonian armies commanded by Antipater and Leonnatus were mostly composed of Asian levies and mercenaries. It is only with the arrival of Craterus with his army only made of Macedonians soldiers that the Greeks lost their momentum on land. The generals of

4018-661: The Northwest Greek-speaking Argead Macedonians hailing from Argos Orestikon , who founded the kingdom of Lower Macedonia . However, according to Hatzopoulos, B. Helly expanded and improved his own earlier suggestion and presented the hypothesis of a (North-)' Achaean ' substratum extending as far north as the head of the Thermaic Gulf , which had a continuous relation, in prehistoric times both in Thessaly and Macedonia , with

Phocis (ancient region) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4116-687: The Northwest Greek-speaking populations living on the other side of the Pindus mountain range, and contacts became cohabitation when the Argead Macedonians completed their wandering from Orestis to Lower Macedonia in the 7th c. BC. According to this hypothesis, Hatzopoulos concludes that the Macedonian Greek dialect of the historical period, which is attested in inscriptions, is a sort of koine resulting from

4214-527: The Peloponnese, Demosthenes was recalled to Athens during the winter of 323–322 BC. The Hellenic League had much less success in the Aegean Sea , as only Rhodes and Carystus (on the southern tip of Euboea ) answered favourably. The other islanders probably felt more threatened by the imperialism of Athens than that of Macedonia, and were more sympathetic to the cause of Samos, still occupied by Athens. Although Rhodes expelled its Macedonian garrison at

4312-533: The Spartans to invade Boeotia during the Corinthian War (395–394 BC), the Phocians were placed on the defensive. They received assistance from Sparta in 380 BC, but were afterwards compelled to submit to the growing power of Thebes . The Phocian levy took part in the inroads of Epaminondas into Peloponnesus , except in the final campaign of Mantinea (370–362 BC), from which their contingent

4410-456: The aid of their mercenaries, the Phocians carried the war into Boeotia and Thessaly , fighting two important battles: the Battle of Crocus Field (353 BC or 352 BC); and the Battle of Thermopylae (353 BC). Though driven out of Thessaly by Philip of Macedon , the war maintained itself for ten years, until the exhaustion of the temple treasures and the treachery of its leaders placed Phocia at Philip's mercy. The conditions which he imposed –

4508-585: The alliance with Athens, despite its earlier diplomatic overture during the Nemean Games nearby. Arcadian states remained neutral, likewise because of their losses during the War of Agis. Although the Arcadians were initially pro-Macedonian, it is possible that Demosthenes convinced them to withdraw from their alliance with Macedonia while he was in exile in Troezen. Rewarded for his diplomatic help in

4606-468: The area joined successively in this chronological order: Thessaly except Pelinna , Oetaea except Heraklea , Achaea Phthiotis except Phthiotic Thebes , Malis except Lamia , Doris , Locris , Phokis , Ainis , Alyzeia , Dolopia , Athamania , the island of Leukas in the Ionian Sea , some of the Molossians in Epirus . Alliances were also concluded further north with some Illyrian and Thracian tribes. N. G. L. Hammond also mentions that

4704-469: The city of Oropus and the sanctuary of the Amphiareion on its northern border, which had been given by Philip from Thebes in 338 BC after the battle of Chaeronea . Antipater carefully avoided dealing with Samos, and referred the matter to Perdiccas , who de facto controlled the empire after the death of Alexander. Perdiccas nevertheless upheld Alexander's will and demanded Athens to evacuate Samos. The cleruchs of Samos had to return to Athens, among whom

4802-436: The coast. In Thessaly, he recruited about 2,000 cavalry, then advanced towards the Greek army at the Thermopylae. However, the Thessalian cavalry betrayed Antipater and destroyed his Macedonian cavalry in the process. Antipater managed to turn back with his phalanx still intact and entered in Lamia (15km north of the Thermopylae), the only city of the area that had remained faithful to Macedonia. He barricaded there and waited for

4900-460: The ground . Four years later, the Spartan king Agis III led another war of liberation against Macedonia, which was defeated by Antipater at the battle of Megalopolis . At the same time, a new federal state in central Greece called the Aetolian League took advantage of Agis' revolt to capture the city of Oiniadai , which was repopulated with Aetolians. In 324, Alexander completed his conquests in Asia and moved to Mesopotamia , where he proclaimed

4998-497: The group from Doric proper) group is closely related to Doric proper. Whether it is to be considered a part of the southern Doric Group or the latter a part of it or the two considered subgroups of West Greek, the dialects and their grouping remain the same. West Thessalian and Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Doric influence. While Northwest Doric is generally seen as a dialectal group, dissenting views exist, such as that of Méndez-Dosuna, who argues that Northwest Doric

SECTION 50

#1732765178821

5096-400: The interaction and the influences of various elements, the most important of which are the North- Achaean substratum, the Northwest Greek idiom of the Argead Macedonians , and the Thracian and Phrygian adstrata. Achaean Doric most probably belonged to the Northwest Doric group. It was spoken in Achaea in the northwestern Peloponnese, on the islands of Cephalonia and Zakynthos in

5194-433: The landed aristocracy. The latter lost his political rights because of his support of Macedonia, and especially for having sponsored the bill that gave Alexander the Great the status of a god. A friend of Antipater, Aristotle was also condemned on a spurious charge of impiety, and left Athens for Chalcis in Euboea . Before his death, Alexander had wanted to settle his Greek mercenaries in Persis , but many of them (in

5292-414: The last member of the Greek alliance still fighting, he was called back to Asia by the beginning of the Wars of the Diadochi between Alexander's generals . The Aetolian League therefore escaped unscathed and appear to be the real winner of the war, because Athens bore most of the fight, and the league remained mostly in place. The Aetolian League then became one of the most important states in Greece during

5390-439: The majority view towards his explanation of the events. The Macedonian fleet commanded by Cleitus must have passed through the Diolkos to sail that fast to Acarnania. Corinth and the Diolkos had remained firmly under Macedonian control thanks to the very strong fortress of the Acrocorinth nearby. The Macedonian navy was likely supporting a land offensive of the Acarnanians towards Oiniadai in an operation to retake this city from

5488-399: The modern prefectures of Arcadia and Laconia . Today it is a source of considerable interest to linguists, and an endangered dialect. Laconian was spoken by the population of Laconia in the southern Peloponnese and also by its colonies, Taras and Herakleia in Magna Graecia . Sparta was the seat of ancient Laconia. Laconian is attested in inscriptions on pottery and stone from

5586-426: The most important ancient testimony to substantiate that Macedonian was a north-western Greek and mainly a Doric dialect". Miltiades Hatzopoulos has suggested that the Macedonian dialect of the 4th century BC, as attested in the Pella curse tablet , was a sort of Macedonian 'koine' resulting from the encounter of the idiom of the ' Aeolic '-speaking populations around Mount Olympus and the Pierian Mountains with

5684-413: The obligation to restore the temple funds, and the dispersion of the population into open villages – were soon disregarded. In 339 BC, the Phocians began to rebuild their cities. Again in 323 BC, they took part in the Lamian War against Antipater , and in 279 BC helped to defend Thermopylae against the Gauls . Henceforth little more is heard of Phocis. During the 3rd century BC, Phocis passed into

5782-410: The one by Hesychius of Alexandria , whose work preserved many dialectal words from throughout the Greek-speaking world. Where the Doric dialect group fits in the overall classification of ancient Greek dialects depends to some extent on the classification. Several views are stated under Greek dialects . The prevalent theme of most views listed there is that Doric is a subgroup of West Greek . Some use

5880-440: The people they had forced into exile. This decree meant that Athens had to surrender the island of Samos , colonised by Athenian clerurchs since 365 BC, while the Aetolian League had to leave Oiniadai , taken c.330 BC. Once the death of Alexander became known in June 323 BC, most states in mainland Greece revolted and founded the Hellenic League, recalling the alliance forged during the Persian Wars ; this time with Macedonia in

5978-450: The phonology and morphophonology, but most of the features thus attributed to Northwest Doric are not exclusive to it. The Northwest Doric dialects differ from the main Doric Group dialects in the below features: Four or five dialects of Northwestern Doric are recognised. This dialect was spoken in Phocis and in its main settlement, Delphi . Because of that it is also cited as Delphian. Plutarch says that Delphians pronounce b in

SECTION 60

#1732765178821

6076-495: The place of p ( βικρὸν for πικρὸν ) Locrian Greek is attested in two locations: The dialect of Elis (earliest c.  600 BC ) is considered, after Aeolic Greek , one of the most difficult for the modern reader of epigraphic texts. Spoken at the Dodona oracle, (earliest c.  550 –500 BC) firstly under control of the Thesprotians ; later organized in the Epirote League (since c.  370 BC ). Most scholars maintain that ancient Macedonian

6174-517: The power of Macedonia and of the Aetolian League , to which in 196 BC it was definitely annexed. Under the dominion of the Roman republic the Aetolian League was dissolved, but was revived by Augustus , who also restored to Phocis the votes in the Delphic Amphictyony , which Phocis had lost in 346 BC. Augustus instituted an Achaean synod (σύνοδος) comprising the dependent cities of Peloponnese and central Greece ; this body sat at Argos and acted as guardian of Hellenic sentiment. This Achaean synod

6272-454: The reinforcements to come from Asia. N. G. L. Hammond called Antipater's decision "brilliant": it forced the Greeks to lay a difficult siege on Lamia as they could not invade Macedonia while letting such a large Macedonian force in their back. Antipater nonetheless suffered the first Macedonian defeat on Greek soil in 30 years, ever since the Third Sacred War . At the same time, the Athenian strategos Phaidros led an expedition that destroyed

6370-425: The right moment to go to war against Macedonia. The life of Leosthenes before the Lamian War has long been debated by scholars, who describe him as having served either Alexander or Darius , then acting as either a private mercenary leader or a strategos (an elected magistrate at Athens). John Walsh also suggests that Leosthenes' achievements were exaggerated by the ancient historian Diodorus of Sicily . Athens

6468-522: The role of the foreign invader. The Greeks were initially successful under their Athenian commander in chief Leosthenes , who managed to besiege Antipater , the Macedonian general in Europe, in the city of Lamia , which gave its name to the war. At this point however, the arrival of a large Macedonian fleet commanded by Cleitus the White from the Levant turned the tide in favour of Macedonia. Even though Athens had more ships than Macedonia, it did not have enough crews to man them all and its overextended navy

6566-494: The same time as the war, it might not have joined the Hellenic League. Nevertheless, very few states in Greece remained loyal to Macedonia, apart from the Euboean League , still resentful at Athens for its recent interventions in the island, and Boeotia. After the destruction of Thebes in 335 BC, its territory was shared between the other Boeotian cities, which now feared that Athens would restore it. Acarnania still supported Macedonia, because of Oiniadai, which had been taken by

6664-418: The sanctuary with the help of the Athenians , with whom they had entered into alliance in 454 BC. The subsequent decline of Athenian land power had the effect of weakening this new connection; at the time of the Peloponnesian War Phocis was nominally an ally and dependent of Sparta, and had lost control of Delphi. In the 4th century BC Phocis was constantly endangered by its Boeotian neighbours. After helping

6762-450: The seventh century BC. A dedication to Helen dates from the second quarter of the seventh century. Taras was founded in 706 and its founders must already have spoken Laconic. Many documents from the state of Sparta survive, whose citizens called themselves Lacedaemonians after the name of the valley in which they lived. Homer calls it "hollow Lacedaemon", though he refers to a pre-Dorian period. The seventh century Spartan poet Alcman used

6860-453: The ships had already been built in the Levant. In a short passage, Diodorus Siculus , the main source of the Lamian War, tells that Cleitus the White defeated the Athenian admiral Euetion in two battles off some islands called the Echinades . This passage has been widely discussed among modern scholars. In 1924, T. Walek set the standard view for the rest of the 20th century, that the Echinades islands cannot be those located off Acarnania in

6958-498: The sources, this city was in Acarnanian hands. This side of the conflict prevented the Aetolians from helping the other Greeks against Antipater, as they were missing from the remaining battles of the war. The defeats off the Echinades island had not been decisive, and the Athenians still had several hundreds of ships. However, in the attempt to match the number of Macedonian ships, they overextended their limited amount of rowers, and their ships were undermanned. The Athenian war effort

7056-568: The spread of the Attic -based Koine Greek to the Peloponnese until the 2nd century BC. The Northwest Doric koine refers to a supraregional North-West common variety that emerged in the third and second centuries BC, and was used in the official texts of the Aetolian League . Such texts have been found in W. Locris, Phocis, and Phtiotis, among other sites. It contained a mix of native Northwest Doric dialectal elements and Attic forms. It

7154-523: The spread of the Attic -based Koine Greek to the Peloponnese until the 2nd century BC. The only living descendant of Doric is the Tsakonian language which is still spoken in Greece today; though critically endangered, with only a few hundred – mostly elderly – fluent speakers left. It is widely accepted that Doric originated in the mountains of Epirus in northwestern Greece , the original seat of

7252-665: The state of Epirus. The Northwest Doric koine was thus both a linguistic and a political rival of the Attic-Ionic koine. Proto-Greek long *ā is retained as ā , in contrast to Attic developing a long open ē ( eta ) in at least some positions. In certain Doric dialects (Severe Doric), *e and *o lengthen by compensatory lengthening or contraction to eta or omega , in contrast to Attic ei and ou ( spurious diphthongs ). Contraction: Proto-Greek *ae > Doric ē ( eta ) ~ Attic ā . Proto-Greek *eo, *ea > some Doric dialects' io, ia . Proto-Greek short *a > Doric short

7350-541: The support of Alexander's mother, Olympias , who disliked Antipater. With such strong and symbolic supports, Leonnatus coveted the Macedonian throne. Leonnatus had an army of 20,000 foot soldiers and 1,500 cavalry. He arrived in Thessaly in early Spring 322 BC, but did not coordinate with Antipater. The new commander of the Greeks Antiphilus lifted the siege of Lamia to fight Leonnatus. The following battle

7448-466: The tens of thousands) returned to Greece before that could happen. They escaped through a fleet raised by an Athenian mercenary named Leosthenes , who brought them to the Greek mainland. Secretly in touch with his native city, Leosthenes kept about 8,000 of these mercenaries with him in Cape Taenarum (a mercenary market on Spartan territory) and carved an alliance with the Aetolians, waiting for

7546-413: The terms Northern Greek or Northwest Greek instead. The geographic distinction is only verbal and ostensibly is misnamed: all of Doric was spoken south of "Southern Greek" or "Southeastern Greek." Be that as it may, "Northern Greek" is based on a presumption that Dorians came from the north and on the fact that Doric is closely related to Northwest Greek . When the distinction began is not known. All

7644-548: The war against Macedonia. Demades carried the subsequent motion in the ecclesia sentencing to death these leaders, of whom the most prominent included Demosthenes, Hypereides , and Eucrates, who were hunted by Macedonian henchmen throughout Greece. Hypereides was murdered in Kleonai on 6 October 322 BC, while Demosthenes committed suicide one week later. Anti-Macedonian leaders suffered from the same fate in other Greek cities, such as Euphron of Sicyon. The constitution of Athens

7742-475: The war as a result. Once the war became official, Athens sent 50 talents to Leosthenes to pay his mercenaries and the allied Greeks made him "General of the Greeks". From Taenarum, he moved to Aetolia, where he received the command of 7,000 Aetolians, then to Boeotia in order to join his troops with that of Athens, which had sent 5,000 hoplites, 2,000 mercenaries, and 500 cavalry. Leosthenes defeated an army of Boeotians, Euboeans, and Macedonians (the garrison from

7840-474: The war soon after the events. It means that Choerilus had identified the siege of Lamia as the turning point of the war. Walsh notes that such epics became fashionable during the Hellenistic era and that Choerilus might have been a member of the court of Antipater , the Macedonian regent in Europe, also a man of letters. Therefore, Hieronumus would have only popularised a term that already existed. In 338 BC,

7938-531: Was "perhaps in the south of the Pelasgiotid plain". This Greek victory nevertheless allowed Antipater to escape from Lamia while the Greek army had left to fight Leonnatus (whose death suited Antipater as he lost a dangerous rival). Antipater merged his army with that of Leonnatus and that of Craterus, who had just arrived from Cilicia with 10,000 hoplites (including 6,000 veterans), 1,500 cavalry, and 1,000 Persian archers and slingers. Antipater thus commanded

8036-567: Was a Greek dialect, probably of the Northwestern Doric group in particular. Olivier Masson , in his article for The Oxford Classical Dictionary , talks of "two schools of thought": one rejecting "the Greek affiliation of Macedonian" and preferring "to treat it as an Indo-European language of the Balkans" of contested affiliation (examples are Bonfante 1987, and Russu 1938); the other favouring "a purely Greek nature of Macedonian as

8134-495: Was able to receive the support of many Greek states, principally in northern and central Greece. These states had likely been approached during the Nemean Games that took place in summer 323, where representatives of most city-states gathered. The Aetolian League was the most natural ally, as its members were equally concerned by the Exiles' Decree. The alliance was possibly concluded in mid-September 323 BC. Other allies from

8232-449: Was about 1,619 km (625 sq mi) in area, bounded on the west by Ozolian Locris and Doris , on the north by Opuntian Locris , on the east by Boeotia , and on the south by the Gulf of Corinth . The massive ridge of Parnassus 2,459 m (8,068 ft), which traverses the heart of the country, divides it into two distinct portions. Being neither rich in material resources nor well placed for commercial enterprise, Phocis

8330-457: Was also ordered to withdraw from Oiniadai; Alexander threatened to come in person to punish the Aetolians. Athens was already preparing for war when the news of Alexander's death in June 323 BC became known; war started shortly after, probably in the beginning of September. Two Athenian politicians are known to have advised against the war: Phocion and Demades , who represented the interests of

8428-430: Was altered so that only citizens with properties worth more than 2,000 drachmas retained their political rights. The citizen body therefore decreased from 21,000 to 9,000. This amendment was likely suggested by Demades and Phocion themselves, but opposed by Xenocrates. Upon his return, the latter refused to be granted the Athenian citizenship as he did not want to become part of a regime he rejected. Finally, Athens lost

8526-413: Was apparently based on the most general features of Northwest Doric, eschewing less common local traits. Its rise was driven by both linguistic and non-linguistic factors, with non-linguistic motivating factors including the spread of the rival Attic-Ionic koine after it was recruited by the Macedonian state for administration, and the political unification of a vast territories by the Aetolian League and

8624-579: Was away. Antipater remained besieged in Lamia for most of the winter 323–322 BC, but he did not stay inactive. The Macedonian army made sorties, during one of which Leosthenes was killed, perhaps by a slinger. Antipater waited for reinforcement from Lysimachus , the Macedonian commander in Thrace, but he was too facing a revolt from Seuthes, king of the Odrysians. He also requested help from Leonnatus , who

8722-434: Was composed of Demades and Phocion, the two leading politician who had spoken against the war with Macedonia, as well as Xenocrates of Chalcedon , the head of Plato's Academy . Antipater demanded the installation of a Macedonian garrison in the fortress of Munychia in the harbour of Piraeus , which was thus taken on 18 September 322 BC. Antipater also requested the extradition of the Athenian leaders who had pushed for

8820-518: Was defeated off the Echinades island and Amorgos . On land, the Greeks lifted the siege of Lamia with the arrival of Macedonian reinforcements from Asia. At the head of a large merged army, Antipater defeated the Greeks in Thessaly at the battle of Krannon , after which he received the surrender of every city state in central Greece. Faced with the prospect of a naval blockade and a land invasion, Athens capitulated. It had to give up its navy, host

8918-596: Was in Phrygia , and Craterus in Cilicia , whom Antipater also promised the hand of two of his available daughters; likely Eurydice for Leonnatus and Phila for Craterus. Leonnatus was the first to arrive; he could cross the Hellespont after the Athenian navy was defeated there. His help was not disinterested, as he intended to marry Cleopatra , the sister of Alexander, who had offered herself in marriage to him with

9016-432: Was irrational for Athens to attack the many times more powerful empire of Alexander. He also criticised the Athenians for their arrogance even after their defeat at Crannon. The 19th-century radical politician and historian George Grote considered the outcome of the Lamian War a calamitous tragedy, marking the extinction of an "autonomous Hellenic world". On his account, it extinguished free speech in Greece and dispersed

9114-482: Was mainly pastoral. No large cities grew up within its territory, and its chief places, such as Delphi and Elatea , were mainly of strategic or cultural importance. The early history of Phocis remains quite obscure. During the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC the Phocians at first joined in the national defence, but, by their irresolute conduct at the Battle of Thermopylae lost that position for

9212-433: Was notably the young Epicurus . The war was a catastrophe for the economy of Athens. Most building programs were stopped and the marble and metal industries died out in the city, which also suffered from famine at the beginning of the 3rd century. Ancient authors often severely judged the southern Greeks for having started the Lamian War. Although born in Athens, the 3rd century AD historian Dexippus considered that it

9310-512: Was only fought between the respective cavalries, of whom the very strong Thessalian cavalry commanded by Menon of Pharsalus (also appointed commander of the Greeks) had the upper hand and even killed Leonnatus, but the Macedonian hoplites could retreat on higher grounds. The location of the battle is not known; Yardley places it was at Melitaea , in the north of Lamia, while Hammond just mentions "the open plain of Thessaly", and Westlake suggests it

9408-490: Was spoken in a vast area, including northern Greece ( Acarnania , Aetolia , Epirus , western and eastern Locris , Phocis , Doris , and possibly ancient Macedonia ), most of the Peloponnese (Achaea, Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolid, Aegina, Corinth, and Megara), the southern Aegean ( Kythira , Milos , Thera , Crete , Karpathos , and Rhodes ), as well as the colonies of some of those regions in Cyrene , Magna Graecia ,

9506-582: Was still considerable as the sailors must been about 30,000, a number not seen since the invasion of Greece by Xerxes in 480. In the late summer 322 BC, the largest battle of the Lamian war took place off the island of Amorgos in the Cyclades, located not far from Samos, as Cleitus was by now challenging the Athenian hold of this island. Undermanned and outnumbered, the Athenian navy was soundly defeated. Another Athenian defeat might have taken place near

9604-593: Was withheld. In return for this negligence the Thebans fastened a religious quarrel upon their neighbours, and secured a penal decree against them from the Amphictyonic synod (356 BC). This led to the Third Sacred War (356–346 BC). The Phocians, led by two capable generals, Philomelus and Onomarchus , replied to the penal decree by seizing Delphi and using its riches to hire a mercenary army. With

#820179