117-465: Nicodemus ( / n ɪ k ə ˈ d iː m ə s / ; Ancient Greek : Νικόδημος , romanized : Nikódēmos ; Imperial Aramaic : 𐡍𐡒𐡃𐡉𐡌𐡅𐡍 , romanized: Naqdīmūn ; Hebrew : נַקְדִּימוֹן , romanized : Naqdīmōn ) is a New Testament figure venerated as a saint in a number of Christian traditions. He is depicted as a Pharisee and a member of the Sanhedrin who
234-474: A Davidic Jewish clan from Babylon . But according to archaeological and literary evidence, upper and lower Galilee were 'very much in constant touch with the gentile, Greek-speaking cities that surrounded them.' Many Galileans were bilingual and made daily contacts with Jerusalem and gentiles around the Roman territory. Markus Cromhout states that while Galileans, Judeans and diasporic Judeans were all Jewish,
351-632: A disciple of Jesus on the basis of the narrative in John 19 ; there is no explicit mention of his discipleship in the Gospel of John. Owing to his insistence on a hearing for Jesus according to Jewish law, Nicodemus is sometimes referred to as "defender of Jesus". Some scholars have identified the Nicodemus of the New Testament with a 1st-century historic Nicodemus ben Gurion , while others consider
468-880: A pagan population with close ties to the Phoenician coast. During the expansion of the Hasmonean kingdom of Judea , much of the Galilee region was conquered and annexed by the first Hasmonean king Aristobulus I (104–103 BCE). Following the Hasmonean conquest, there was a significant Jewish influx into the area. Sites including Yodfat , Meiron , Sepphoris , Shikhin , Qana , Bersabe , Zalmon , Mimlah, Migdal , Arbel , Kefar Hittaya, and Beth Ma'on have archeological-chronological evidence for this settlement wave. Josephus , who based his account on Timagenes of Alexandria , claimed that Aristobulus I had forcibly converted
585-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
702-487: A Catholic saint in no way exonerated this "duplicity". Calvin used the word in his 1544 Excuse à messieurs les Nicodemites referring to religious dissemblers in France—outwardly, conforming Catholics; inwardly, adherents of Protestantism. He was apparently not completely comfortable with the term's allusion to Nicodemus, however; subsequent editions of the work reduced the label's use and later French editions replaced
819-487: A Roman client state and Antipas paid tribute to the Roman Empire in exchange for Roman protection. The Romans did not station troops in Galilee, but threatened to retaliate against anyone who attacked it. As long as he continued to pay tribute, Antipas was permitted to govern however he wished and was permitted to mint his own coinage. Antipas was relatively observant of Jewish laws and customs. Although his palace
936-670: A center for kabbalah . In the mid-17th century Galilee and Mount Lebanon became the scene of the Druze power struggle , which came in parallel with much destruction in the region and decline of major cities. In the mid-18th century, Galilee was caught up in a struggle between the Arab leader Zahir al-Umar and the Ottoman authorities who were centred in Damascus . Zahir ruled Galilee for 25 years until Ottoman loyalist Jezzar Pasha conquered
1053-440: A character in medieval Europe. In Henry Vaughan 's "The Night", Nicodemus is significant to the 17th-century poem's theme: He serves as the departure point and illustration of its meditation on night's relationship with experience of God. Persuaded: The Story of Nicodemus by David Harder is a fictionalized account of the life of Nicodemus. According to the author, he used episodes and timetables sourced from all four gospels and
1170-632: A combination of agriculture, fishing, and specialized crafts. Excavations in villages like Nazareth have revealed extensive agricultural infrastructure, including numerous olive presses and granaries. Olive was extensively grown in parts of Upper Galilee. Many towns and villages, particularly those around the Sea of Galilee benefited from both fertile land and a thriving fishing industry. In Tarichaea ( Magdala ), salted, dried, and pickled fish were significant export goods. Galilee also had specialized production centers. Shihin , near Sepphoris, produced most of
1287-597: A commonly quoted verse used to describe God's plan of salvation. The Nicodemus National Historic Site , commemorating the only remaining western town established by African Americans during the Reconstruction Period following the American Civil War , is in Kansas . The National Park Service indicates the town's name came from the 1864 piece, "Wake Nicodemus" by Henry Clay Work . Some point to
SECTION 10
#17327656714371404-521: A decline in population due to raids by nomadic groups and insufficient protection from the central government. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the Galilee formed part of Jund al-Urdunn (the military district of Jordan), itself part of Bilad al-Sham (Islamic Syria). Its major towns were Tiberias the capital of the district, Qadas , Beisan , Acre , Saffuriya , and Kabul . During
1521-525: A fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in the Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as
1638-537: A greatly extended range) by Hezbollah on the whole of Galilee, with long-range, ground-launched missiles hitting as far south as the Sharon Plain , Jezreel Valley , and Jordan Valley below the Sea of Galilee. In 2006, there were 1.2 million residents in Galilee, of whom 47% were Jewish. The Jewish Agency has attempted to increase the Jewish population in this area, but the non-Jewish population also has
1755-483: A long weary night – but the morning is near, And the words of our prophet are true. ... Scholar of placenames, researcher Rosamund Rodman, noted in a 2008 article that enslaved people who learnt to read generally did so in secret and at night, due to risks of punishment for this forbidden activity. The gospel's Nicodemus came to Jesus to learn from him, also in secret and at night, for fear of repercussions. Such connections and allusions lead Rodman to conclude that
1872-520: A painting above its altar, attributed to Titian , The Deposition from the Cross , which shows the two saints. Nicodemus figures prominently in medieval depictions of the Deposition or Descent from the Cross in which he and Joseph of Arimathea are shown removing the dead Christ from the cross, often with the aid of a ladder. Like Joseph, Nicodemus became the object of various pious legends during
1989-412: A parallel to, and being inspired by, the story of the biblical figure. In one story, emancipation, and in the other, salvation, is to come "in the morning"; each Nicodemus has faith in their eventual advent. The lyrics say, in part: First verse : Nicodemus, the slave, was of African birth, And was bought for a bagful of gold; [...] But he died years ago, very old. [...] "Wake me up!"
2106-538: A person must be heard before they can be condemned. Their mocking response argues that no prophet comes from Galilee . Nonetheless, it is probable that he wielded a certain influence in the Sanhedrin. Finally, when Jesus is buried, Nicodemus brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes —about 100 Roman pounds (33 kilograms, or 73 lb). Nicodemus must have been a man of means; in his book Jesus of Nazareth: Holy Week , Pope Benedict XVI observes that, "The quantity of
2223-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
2340-547: A rebel named Judah plundered Galilee's largest city, Sepphoris . According to Josephus, the Syrian governor Publius Quinctilius Varus responded by sacking Sepphoris and selling the population into slavery, but the region's archaeology lacks evidence of such destruction. After the death of Herod the Great that same year, his son Herod Antipas was appointed as tetrarch of Galilee by the Roman emperor Augustus . Galilee remained
2457-647: A security force on the Israeli side of the international border recognized by the United Nations . The move brought a collapse to the South Lebanon Army and takeover of Southern Lebanon by Hezbollah. However, despite Israeli withdrawal, clashes between Hezbollah and Israel continued along the border, and UN observers condemned both for their attacks. The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict was characterized by round-the-clock Katyusha rocket attacks (with
SECTION 20
#17327656714372574-542: A strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either
2691-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
2808-541: Is a modern term referring to the western part of the Upper Galilee and its shore, and usually also the northwestern part of the Lower Galilee, mostly overlapping with Acre sub-district. Galilee Panhandle is a common term referring to the "panhandle" in the east that extends to the north, where Lebanon is to the west, and includes Hula Valley and Ramot Naftali mountains of the Upper Galilee. According to
2925-488: Is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon . Galilee traditionally refers to the mountainous part, divided into Upper Galilee ( הגליל העליון , ha-galil ha-elyon ; الجليل الأعلى , al-jalīl al-aʾlā ) and Lower Galilee ( גליל תחתון , galil tahton ; الجليل الأسفل , al-jalīl al-asfal ). Galilee refers to all of the area north of the Mount Carmel - Mount Gilboa ridge and south of
3042-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
3159-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
3276-456: Is drawn to hear Jesus's teachings. As is the case with Lazarus , Nicodemus is not mentioned in the synoptic Gospels , and is mentioned only by John, who devotes more than half of Chapter 3 of his gospel and a few verses of Chapter 7 to Nicodemus, and lastly mentions him in Chapter 19 . Nicodemus is considered by both Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church traditions to have secretly been
3393-577: Is in the construct state , leading to [גְּלִיל הַגּוֹיִם] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |translit= ( help ) "Galilee of the nations", which refers to gentiles who settled there at the time the book was written, either by their own volition or as a result of the resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire . The borders of Galilee, split into Upper Galilee and Lower Galilee , were described by Josephus in his The Jewish War : Now Phoenicia and Syria encompass about
3510-515: Is mentioned, he is identified as a Pharisee who comes to see Jesus at night. According to the scripture, Jesus went to Jerusalem for the Passover feast. While in Jerusalem he chased the moneychangers from the temple and overturned their tables . His disciples remembered then the words of Psalm 69 : "Zeal for your house will consume me." After these events "many believed in his name when they saw
3627-412: Is recorded from at least 1529, in relation to religious concealment or reticence. It is a reference to the clandestine night visit of Nicodemus to Jesus, suggesting an analogy between the undeclared belief of Nicodemus and the reluctance of some dissenters from (at first) Catholicism to risk being open about their true creed. To John Calvin , who opposed all veneration of saints, the fact of Nicodemus being
Nicodemus - Misplaced Pages Continue
3744-634: The Acts of the Apostles to develop his novel's timeline of events. Scripture quoted within the novel is taken from the Passion Translation version of the Bible. In 18th-century Lutheranism , prescribed readings were assigned throughout the year; the gospel text of the meeting of Jesus and Nicodemus at night was assigned to Trinity Sunday . Johann Sebastian Bach composed several cantatas for
3861-872: The Amila tribe. The Islamization process in which began with the settlement of nomadic tribes. Michael Ehrlich suggests that during the Early Islamic period, the majority of people in the Western Galilee and Lower Galilee likely converted to Islam, while in the Eastern Galilee, the Islamization process continued for a more extended period, lasting until the Mamluk period. According to Moshe Gil, Jews in rural Galilean areas frequently succeeded in upholding community life during and for decades after
3978-679: The Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about
4095-600: The Ayyubid period, and in particular during the Mamluk period. These immigrants included Sufi preachers who were crucial in converting the locals to Islam in Safed's rural area. Jewish immigrants did, however, come to the area in waves, during the period of the destruction of Tyre and Acre in 1291 and particularly after the Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492. These immigrants, who included scholars and other urban elites, turned
4212-572: The Bible , Galilee was named by the Israelites and was the tribal region of Naphthali and Dan, at times overlapping the Tribe of Asher 's land. Normally, Galilee is just referred to as "Naphthali". 1 Kings 9 states that Solomon rewarded his Phoenician ally, King Hiram I of Sidon , with twenty cities in the land of Galilee, which would then have been either settled by foreigners during and after
4329-606: The Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as a separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek
4446-602: The Great Jewish Revolt , Josephus was appointed by the Jerusalem provisional government to command Galilee. The region experienced internal conflicts among cities such as Sepphoris and Tiberias, with factions opposing Josephus's authority and warring for control. Sepphoris and other strong cities attempted to remain neutral by maintaining alliances with Rome. Despite opposition, Josephus managed to secure internal peace and fortified nineteen cities in preparation for
4563-735: The Itureans to Judaism while annexing a portion of their territory. Schürer believed this information to be accurate and came to the conclusion that the "Jewish" Galilee of Jesus' day was actually inhabited by the offspring of those same Iturean converts. Other scholars have suggested that the Itureans underwent a voluntary conversion to Judaism in the Upper Galilee, or at the very least in the Eastern Upper Galilee. However, archeological information does not support either proposal, as Iturean material culture has been identified clearly in
4680-578: The Mishnah at this time period represented the peak of intense cultural activity. Archaeological surveys in the Galilee have revealed that the region experienced its height of thriving settlement during this time. According to medieval Hebrew legend, Shimon bar Yochai , one of the most famed of all the tannaim , wrote the Zohar while living in Galilee. After the completion of the Mishnah, which marked
4797-608: The Occupied Enemy Territory Administration . Shortly after, in 1920, the region was included in the British Mandate territory, officially a part of Mandatory Palestine from 1923. After the 1948 Arab–Israeli war , nearly the whole of Galilee came under Israel's control. A large portion of the population fled or was forced to leave, leaving dozens of entire villages empty; however, a large Israeli Arab community remained based in and near
Nicodemus - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-501: The Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
5031-761: The St. Nicodemus and St. Joseph of Arimathea Church , which the Franciscan Order established in Ramla in the 19th century, permission from the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem was obtained to celebrate the feast day of the two saints on the Saturday of the third week of Easter, so that the link between their role in the burial of Jesus and Easter solemnities would be highlighted in the Holy Land. The church has
5148-617: The balm is extraordinary and exceeds all normal proportions. This is a royal burial." Although there is no clear source of information about Nicodemus outside the Gospel of John , Ochser and Kohler , writing in The Jewish Encyclopedia in 1905, identify him with Nicodemus ben Gurion , mentioned in the Talmud as a wealthy and popular holy man reputed to have had miraculous powers. Some 20th- and 21st-century historians make
5265-603: The epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between
5382-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
5499-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
5616-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
5733-674: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs, Galilee Galilee ( / ˈ ɡ æ l ɪ l iː / ; Hebrew : הַגָּלִיל , romanized : hagGālīl ; Latin : Galilaea ; Arabic : الجليل , romanized : al-jalīl )
5850-545: The Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for
5967-695: The Egyptian troops, though in 1838, the Druze of Galilee led another uprising . In 1834 and 1837 , major earthquakes leveled most of the towns, resulting in great loss of life. Following the 1864 Tanszimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire, the Galilee remained within Acre Sanjak , but was transferred from Sidon Eyalet to the newly formed Syria Vilayet and shortly, from 1888, became administered from Beirut Vilayet . In 1866, Galilee's first hospital,
SECTION 50
#17327656714376084-493: The Galileans had their unique social, political and economic matrix. In terms of ethnicity, Galileans were ethnic Judeans, which generally saw themselves also as Israelites, but could be also identified with localized characteristics, such as Sepphorean. Others argue that Galileans and Judeans were distinct people groups. Outsiders generally conflated them due to Hellenistic-Roman culture, which grouped all diverse groups in Palestine and their related diasporas as "Judean". In 4 BCE,
6201-402: The Galilees, which are two, and called the Upper Galilee and the Lower. They are bounded toward the sun-setting, with the borders of the territory belonging to Ptolemais , and by Carmel ; which mountain had formerly belonged to the Galileans, but now belonged to the Tyrians; to which mountain adjoins Gaba , which is called the City of Horsemen, because those horsemen that were dismissed by Herod
6318-413: The Gospel "God Told Nicodemus", in the African-American Jubilee style. The song "Help Yourself" by The Devil Makes Three , from their 2009 Do Wrong Right album, contains a very informal retelling of the relationship between Nicodemus and Jesus. Nicodemus is portrayed by Diego Matamoros in the 2003 film The Gospel of John . The figure of Nicodemus appears in several television productions: During
6435-415: The Jewish community from a rural community into an urban hub which exerted its influence well beyond the regional boundaries of Upper Galilee. During Early Ottoman era, the Galilee was governed as the Safad Sanjak , initially part of the larger administrative unit of Damascus Eyalet (1549–1660) and later as part of Sidon Eyalet (1660–1864). During the 18th century, the administrative division of Galilee
6552-435: The Middle Ages, particularly in connection with monumental crosses . He was reputed to have carved both the Holy Face of Lucca and the Batlló Crucifix , receiving angelic assistance with the face in particular and thus rendering the works instances of acheiropoieta . Both of these sculptures date from at least a millennium after Nicodemus's life, but the ascriptions attest to the contemporary interest in Nicodemus as
6669-449: The Nazareth Hospital , was founded under the leadership of American-Armenian missionary Dr. Kaloost Vartan , assisted by German missionary John Zeller . In the early 20th century, Galilee remained part of Acre Sanjak of Ottoman Syria. It was administered as the southernmost territory of the Beirut Vilayet . Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I , and the Armistice of Mudros , it came under British rule, as part of
6786-429: The Roman invasion; nearly half of them were uncovered by archaeologists. In 67 CE, the Roman army, led by general Vespasian , arrived in Acre. Josephus's account, The Jewish War , details the Roman campaign in Galilee , starting with the siege and capture of Gabara, followed by Jotapata (where Josephus was captured), and continuing with Tiberias, Taricheae, Gamala, Tabor, and ending in Gischala. While not all of Galilee
6903-519: The Roman period, were now predominantly inhabited by Christians or had a significant Christian population. Safrai and Liebner argue that the decline of the Jewish population and the expansion of the Christian population in the region were separate events that happened at different times. Throughout this period, religious segregation between Christian and Jewish villages endured, with few exceptions like Capernaum and perhaps Nazareth , due to their sanctity in Christian tradition. Leibner has proposed tying
7020-442: The Sunday of the Holy Myrrhbearers , which is celebrated on the Third Sunday of Pascha (i.e., the second Sunday after Easter). Sacred tradition holds that his relics were found on 2 August, along with those of Saint Stephen the Protomartyr ; Gamaliel ; and Gamaliel's second son, Abibon (also, "Abibas"; "Abibo"). This event is commemorated on that date in the Eastern churches, while the Catholic General Roman Calendar marks
7137-425: The Umayyad period. He comes to the conclusion that several Galilean Jewish communities "retained their ancient character". The Shia Fatimids conquered the region in the 10th century; a breakaway sect, venerating the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim , formed the Druze religion, centered in Mount Lebanon and partially in the Galilee. During the Crusades , Galilee was organized into the Principality of Galilee , one of
SECTION 60
#17327656714377254-418: The Upper and Western Galilee from Lebanon . This came in parallel to the general destabilization of Southern Lebanon , which became a scene of fierce sectarian fighting which deteriorated into the Lebanese Civil War . On the course of the war, Israel initiated Operation Litani (1979) and Operation Peace For Galilee (1982) with the stated objectives of destroying the PLO infrastructure in Lebanon, protecting
7371-525: The anniversary of the translation of Nicodemus' remains, rather than their discovery, which by the same tradition occurred the following day, 3 August. In the Roman Martyrology , Nicodemus' feast day is 31 August, celebrated jointly with Saint Joseph of Arimathea , and generally followed in the Roman Rite tradition. This does not preclude local preferences and traditions from being applied, as dioceses, national churches and religious institutes may have their own days of observance approved. For example, at
7488-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
7605-506: The area became deserted following the Assyrian conquest in the 8th century and remained so for several centuries; the local Israelite population was carried off to Assyria after 732 BCE. Yardenna Alexandre discovered minor short-lived Israelite settlements in the Naḥal Ẓippori basin, which were built by survivors of the Assyrian conquest. Elsewhere, Galilee was depopulated. But there is evidence of Assyrian presence, based on artefacts in Cana , and Konrad Schmid and Jens Schroter believe it
7722-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
7839-444: The cities of Nazareth, Acre , Tamra , Sakhnin , and Shefa-'Amr , due to some extent to a successful rapprochement with the Druze. The kibbutzim around the Sea of Galilee were sometimes shelled by the Syrian army 's artillery until Israel seized Western Golan Heights in the 1967 Six-Day War . During the 1970s and the early 1980s, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) launched multiple attacks on towns and villages of
7956-549: The citizens of the Galilee and supporting allied Christian Lebanese militias. Israel took over much of southern Lebanon in support of Christian Lebanese militias until 1985, when it withdrew to a narrow security buffer zone . From 1985 to 2000, Hezbollah , and earlier Amal , engaged the South Lebanon Army supported by the Israel Defense Forces , sometimes shelling Upper Galilee communities with Katyusha rockets. In May 2000, Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak unilaterally withdrew IDF troops from southern Lebanon, maintaining
8073-508: The city of Sepphoris, and in either 18 CE or 19 CE, he founded the new city of Tiberias . These two cities became Galilee's largest cultural centers. They were the main centers of Greco-Roman influence, but were still predominantly Jewish. A massive gap existed between the rich and poor, but lack of uprisings suggest that taxes were not exorbitantly high and that most Galileans did not feel their livelihoods were being threatened. Late in his reign, Antipas married his half-niece Herodias , who
8190-418: The conclusion of the tannaitic era, came the period of the amoraim . The Jerusalem Talmud , the principal work of the amoraim in Palestine, is primarily discussions and interpretations of the Mishnah, and according to academic research, most of it was edited in Tiberias . The vast majority of the amoraim named there, as well as the majority of the settlements or place names referenced, were Galileans. By
8307-410: The dates and the seeming age discrepancy between the two figures make this unlikely. An apocryphal work under his name – the Gospel of Nicodemus – was produced in the mid-4th century, and is mostly a reworking of the earlier Acts of Pilate , which recounts the Harrowing of Hell . Nicodemus is mentioned in three places in the Gospel of John : The first time Nicodemus
8424-563: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
8541-530: The dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under
8658-510: The divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and the historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at
8775-451: The early Islamic period, Galilee underwent a process of Arabization and Islamization , similar to other areas in the region. Under Umayyad rule, Islamic rule was gradually consolidated in newly conquered territories, and some Muslims settled in the villages, establishing residency there. Later, under Abbasid rule, geographer al-Ya'qubi (d. 891), who referred to the region as 'Jabal al-Jalil' , noted that its inhabitants were Arabs from
8892-728: The east–west section of the Litani River . It extends from the Israeli coastal plain and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea with Acre in the west, to the Jordan Rift Valley to the east; and from the Litani in the north plus a piece bordering on the Golan Heights all the way to Dan at the base of Mount Hermon in the northeast, to Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa in the south. This definition includes
9009-635: The end of the Palestinian Amoraic period, the impact of historical occurrences like the Christianization of the Roman Empire and of Palestine, the apparent cessation of activities of at least some of the batei midrash and the transformation of the Galilee from a densely populated Jewish area to a collection of communities surrounded by non-Jewish areas to this demographic crisis. He assumed that Christian population in Galilee
9126-512: The king dwelt therein; they are bounded on the south with Samaria and Scythopolis , as far as the river Jordan ; on the east with Hippeae and Gadaris , and also with Ganlonitis, and the borders of the kingdom of Agrippa; its northern parts are bounded by Tyre, and the country of the Tyrians. As for that Galilee which is called the Lower, it extends in length from Tiberias to Zabulon , and of
9243-403: The lyrics' use of the name Nicodemus as a figurative reference to the biblical figure. In the case of the song, Nicodemus is an enslaved African, long deceased, but acknowledged in the lyrics as both prophet and herald of freedom. The contrast in the lyrics between night and morning , and the enslaved Nicodemus' certainty in what the metaphorical "morning" would bring, have been seen as drawing
9360-556: The major cities and villages in Galilee were entirely Jewish. During the Byzantine period, however, Galilee's Jewish population experienced a decline, while Christian settlement grew. Archaeological data indicates that in the third and fourth centuries, several Jewish sites were abandoned, and some Christian villages were established on or near these deserted locations. Certain settlements, such as Rama , Magdala , Kafr Kanna , Daburiyya , and Iksal , which were materially Jewish during
9477-482: The maritime places Ptolemais is its neighbor; its breadth is from the village called Xaloth , which lies in the great plain, as far as Bersabe , from which beginning also is taken the breadth of the Upper Galilee, as far as the village Baca , which divides the land of the Tyrians from it; its length is also from Meloth to Thella , a village near to Jordan. Most of Galilee consists of rocky terrain, at heights of between 500 and 700 m. Several high mountains are in
9594-587: The middle of the fourth century, the Jerusalem Talmud's compilation and editing processes abruptly came to a halt, as Talmudic scholar Yaacov Sussmann put it: "The development of the Jerusalem Talmud seems to have abruptly ceased, as if severed by a sharp and sudden blade". Demographically, during the fourth century the entire region witnessed a significant population decrease, resulting in the abandonment of several notable settlements. In approximately 320 CE, Christian bishop Epiphanius reported that all
9711-595: The most important Crusader seigneuries. According to Moshe Gil, during the periods of Fatimid and Crusader rule, the rural Jewish population of Galilee experienced a gradual decline and flight. He supports his argument by referring to 11th-century Cairo Geniza documents related to transactions in Ramla and other areas in central Palestine, where Jews claimed to have ancestral ties to places like Gush Halav , Dalton , or 'Amuqa , suggesting that Jewish flight from Galilee occurred during that time. Sunni Muslims began to immigrate to Safed and its surroundings starting in
9828-422: The northern Golan Heights and Mount Hermon, and not in the Galilee, and it is clear that this area remained outside Hasmonean borders. In the early Roman period, Galilee was predominantly Jewish. Archaeological evidence from multiple sites reveals Jewish customs, including the use of limestone vessels , ritual baths for purity , and secondary burial practices. A significant wave of Jewish settlement arrived in
9945-399: The notion of being literally born again from one's mother's womb , but most theologians recognise that Nicodemus knew Jesus was not speaking of literal rebirth. Theologian Charles Ellicott wrote that "after the method of Rabbinic dialogue, [Nicodemus] presses the impossible meaning of the words in order to exclude it, and to draw forth the true meaning. 'You cannot mean that a man is to enter
10062-562: The occasion, of which O heilges Geist- und Wasserbad , BWV 165 , composed in 1715, stays close to the gospel based on a libretto by the court poet in Weimar , Salomo Franck . In popular music, Nicodemus' name was used figuratively in Henry Clay Work 's 1864 American Civil War -era piece "Wake Nicodemus", an abolitionist song hailing the end of slavery, which at that time was popular in minstrel shows . In 1978 Tim Curry covered
10179-508: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
10296-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
10413-847: The plains of the Jezreel Valley north of Jenin and the Beth Shean Valley, the valley containing the Sea of Galilee , and the Hula Valley . It usually does not include Haifa 's immediate northern suburbs. By this definition it overlaps with much of the administrative Northern District of Israel and with Southern Lebanon . The region's Hebrew name is [גָּלִיל] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |translit= ( help ) , meaning 'district' or 'circle'. The Hebrew form used in Book of Isaiah 9:1 (or 8:23 in different Biblical versions)
10530-562: The region a popular tourist destination . Due to its high rainfall 900–1,200 millimetres (35–47 in), mild temperatures and high mountains (Mount Meron's elevation is 1,000–1,208 m), the upper Galilee region contains some distinctive flora and fauna: prickly juniper ( Juniperus oxycedrus ), Lebanese cedar ( Cedrus libani ), which grows in a small grove on Mount Meron, cyclamens , paeonias , and Rhododendron ponticum which sometimes appears on Meron. Western Galilee ( Hebrew : גליל מערבי , romanized : Galil Ma'aravi )
10647-467: The region following the Roman conquest of 63 BCE. Large towns such as Kefar Hananya , Parod , Ravid , Mashkaneh, Sabban, and Tiberias were established by the end of the first century BCE or the start of the first century CE. By the end of the first century CE, the Galilee was dotted with small towns and villages. While Josephus writes there were 204 small towns, modern scholars consider this an exaggeration. Galilee's economy under Roman rule thrived on
10764-434: The region in 1775. In 1831, the Galilee, a part of Ottoman Syria , switched hands from Ottomans to Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt until 1840. During this period, aggressive social and politic policies were introduced, which led to a violent 1834 Arab revolt . In the process of this revolt the Jewish community of Safed was greatly reduced, in the event of Safed Plunder by the rebels. The Arab rebels were subsequently defeated by
10881-742: The region's storage jars. Kefar Hananya in Upper Galilee manufactured various tableware forms, supplying markets across Galilee, the Golan Heights, the Decapolis, coastal areas, and the Beth Shean Valley. Josephus describes the Jewish population of Galilee as being nationalist and hostile to Jewish city-dwellers, making them the first target for the Romans during the Jewish-Roman wars . Bargil Pixner believes they descended from
10998-538: The region, including Mount Tabor and Mount Meron , which have relatively low temperatures and high rainfall. As a result of this climate, flora and fauna thrive in the region. At the same time, many birds annually migrate from colder climates to Africa and back through the Hula –Jordan corridor. The streams and waterfalls, the latter mainly in Upper Galilee, along with vast fields of greenery and colourful wildflowers, as well as numerous towns of biblical importance, make
11115-763: The reign of Hiram or by those who had been forcibly deported there by later conquerors such as the Neo-Assyrian Empire . Hiram, to reciprocate previous gifts given to David , accepted the upland plain among the Naftali Mountains and renamed it "the land of Cabul " for a time. In the Iron Age II, Galilee was part of the Kingdom of Israel , which fell to the Assyrians . Archaeological survey conducted by Zvi Gal in Lower Galilee indicates that
11232-631: The same connection. Other scholars reject this identification, arguing that the biblical Nicodemus is likely an older man at the time of his conversation with Jesus, while Nicodemus ben Gurion was on the scene forty years later, at the time of the First Jewish-Roman War . Nicodemus is venerated as a saint in Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy and in Catholicism. The Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches commemorate him on
11349-428: The second time into his mother's womb, and be born. What is it, then, that you do mean? ' " In this instance, Nicodemus chooses the literal (rather than the figurative) meaning of anōthen and assumes that that meaning exhausts the significance of the word. Jesus expresses surprise, perhaps ironically, that "a teacher of Israel " does not understand the concept of spiritual rebirth: Jesus answered him, "Are you
11466-455: The signs that he was doing". When Nicodemus visits Jesus he makes reference to these events: "Rabbi, we know that you are a teacher who has come from God. For no one could perform the signs you are doing if God were not with him". Jesus replies: "Unless one is born again he cannot see the kingdom of God." Then follows a conversation with Nicodemus about the meaning of being " born again " or "born from above" ( Greek : ἄνωθεν ): Nicodemus explores
11583-433: The song on his debut album Read My Lips . The song's layered connotations, its anti-slavery sentiment—gave it a connection with "rebirths", and to John's "born again" Nicodemus. By extension, it became associated with the civil rights movement in the § United States . Ernst Pepping composed an Evangelienmotette ( motet on gospel text) Jesus und Nikodemus in 1937. In 1941, The Golden Gate Quartet , sang
11700-471: The struggle between Protestants and Catholics in Europe, from the 16th century to the 18th, a person professing a creed different from the locally approved one often risked severe penalties—in many cases, capital punishment. There developed the use of " Nicodemite ", usually a term of disparagement , referring to a person who is suspected of public misrepresentation of their actual religious beliefs. The term
11817-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
11934-459: The teacher of Israel and yet you do not understand these things? Truly, truly, I say to you, we speak of what we know, and bear witness to what we have seen, but you do not receive our testimony." In Chapter 7, Nicodemus advises his colleagues among "the chief priests and the Pharisees", to hear and investigate before making a judgment concerning Jesus, reminding them that Jewish law requires that
12051-467: The time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with
12168-634: The town's name has its ultimate origin with the biblical figure. Religious affairs journalist Daniel Burke notes that, "To blacks after the Civil War , he was a model of rebirth as they sought to cast off their old identity as slaves". On 16 August 1967, Martin Luther King Jr. invoked Nicodemus as a metaphor concerning the need for the United States to be "born again" in order to effectively address social and economic inequality. The speech
12285-698: The urging of Herodias , Antipas went to Rome to request that he be elevated from the status of tetrarch to the status of king. The Romans found him guilty of storing arms, so he was removed from power and exiled, ending his forty-three-year reign. During the Great Revolt (66–73 CE), a Jewish mob destroyed Herod Antipas's palace. Overall, Galilee under Antipas's rule was marked by significant demographic instability. Diseases like malaria were rampant, internal migration between urban and rural areas were frequent and women generally gave birth at young ages while married to older men. Birth control, including infanticide ,
12402-507: The word with " faux ('false') Nicodemus" instead. While the epithet initially applied to crypto-protestants , it later came to be used broadly for anyone suspected of exhibiting a false appearance of their religious adherence and concealing their genuine beliefs. The discussion with Jesus is the source of several common expressions of contemporary American Christianity , specifically, the descriptive phrase " born again " used to describe salvation or baptism by some groups, and John 3:16 ,
12519-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
12636-452: Was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in
12753-461: Was already married to one of her other uncles. His wife, whom he divorced, fled to her father Aretas , an Arab king, who invaded Galilee and defeated Antipas's troops before withdrawing. Both Josephus and the Gospel of Mark record that the itinerant preacher John the Baptist criticized Antipas over his marriage, and Antipas consequently had him imprisoned and then beheaded . In around 39 CE, at
12870-545: Was called "Where Do We Go From Here?", and delivered at the 11th Annual SCLC Convention in Atlanta , Georgia. Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ),
12987-443: Was decorated with animal carvings, which many Jews regarded as a transgression against the law prohibiting idols, his coins bore only agricultural designs, which his subjects deemed acceptable. In general, Antipas was a capable ruler. Josephus does not record any instance of his use of force to put down an uprising and he had a long, prosperous reign. However, many Jews probably resented him as not sufficiently devout. Antipas rebuilt
13104-631: Was devastated, the conquered cities were razed, and many inhabitants were sold into slavery. Judaism reached its political and cultural zenith in the Galilee during the late second and early third century CE. According to rabbinic sources, Judah ha-Nasi 's political leadership was at its strongest in relation to the Jewish community in Syria Palaestina , the Diaspora, and the Roman Authorities during this time. Judah's redaction of
13221-425: Was his charge, at the first break of day– Wake me up for the great Jubilee! Chorus : The "Good Coming" is almost here! It was long, long, long on the way! Now run and tell Elijah to hurry up, Pomp And meet up at the gum tree down in the swamp, To wake Nicodemus today. Fourth verse : 'Twas a long weary night – we were almost in fear That the future was more than he knew; 'Twas
13338-409: Was likely that Assyrians settled in the region. Up until the end of the Hellenistic period and before the Hasmonean conquest, the Galilee was sparsely populated, with the majority of its inhabitants concentrated in large fortified centers on the edges of the western and central valleys. Based on archeological evidence from Tel Anafa , Kedesh , and ash-Shuhara , the Upper Galilee was then home to
13455-492: Was not composed of Jews who converted to Christianity. This is supported by the fact that trustworthy historical records, which mention Jewish conversion to Christianity in Byzantine Palestine, refer to individual cases rather than entire villages, unlike the records from the western part of the empire. Eastern Galilee retained a Jewish majority until at least the seventh century. Over time, this area experienced
13572-458: Was not practiced. Many young men, especially marginal villagers, migrated to urban areas to find wives or alternatively, employment. Finding wives was presumed to be competitive since widows often refused to marry past the age of 30 compared to widowers. According to Jonathan L. Reed, this can provide insight on the tropes of New Testament literature, such as miraculous healings and the itinerant lifestyle of Jesus and his disciples. In 66 CE, during
13689-697: Was renamed to Acre Sanjak , and the Eyalet itself became centered in Acre, factually becoming the Acre Eyalet between 1775 and 1841. The Jewish population of Galilee increased significantly following their expulsion from Spain and welcome from the Ottoman Empire . The community for a time made Safed an international center of cloth weaving and manufacturing, as well as a key site for Jewish learning. Today it remains one of Judaism's four holy cities and
#436563