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146-742: Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878, when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet , which officially remained part of the Ottoman Empire . Three decades later, in 1908, Austria-Hungary provoked the Bosnian Crisis by formally annexing the occupied zone, establishing the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the joint control of Austria and Hungary . Following

292-521: A 2007 survey conducted by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 57% of those surveyed primarily identified by an ethnic designation, while 43% opted for "being a citizen of Bosnia-Herzegovina". In addition, 75% of the surveyors answered positively to the question "As well as thinking of yourself as a [Bosniak, Croat, Serb], do you also think of yourself as being a citizen of the whole of Bosnia-Herzegovina?". In

438-684: A Christian emperor. The MNO and the SNO refused to give any official statement about the annexation. In Budapest they held a meeting on 11 October 1908 they issued the Message to the People of Bosnia and Herzegovina , where they stated that the people couldn't reconcile with the Austrian-Hungarian occupation in 30 years and asked for the people to remain calm and wait for the decision of the superpowers. Both parties announced that they would continue

584-533: A complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation. Following Ottoman occupation, there was a steady flow of people out of Bosnia and a large number of abandoned villages in Bosnia are mentioned in the Ottoman registers, while those who stayed eventually became Muslims . Many Catholics in Bosnia fled to neighboring Catholic lands in the early Ottoman occupation. The evidence indicates that

730-485: A concept that was rejected by most Bosnian Muslims. Following the death of Kallay, the policy was abandoned. By the latter half of the 1910s, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections for the Diet of Bosnia . During the period when Yugoslavia was established as a nation, the political establishment in Bosnia and Herzegovina

876-520: A distinct culture and art form, started to organize itself in today's Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia , Kosovo , Montenegro and Albania . From the 8th century BCE, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded kingdom in Illyria was the Enchele in the 8th century BCE. The Autariatae under Pleurias (337 BCE) were considered to have been a kingdom. The Kingdom of

1022-784: A foothold in the Balkans . First defeating the Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo and expanding westward, the Turks eventually conquered all of Bosnia and portions of neighboring Croatia . Territory that partly belonged to the medieval Croatian Kingdom and partly to the Bosnian Kingdom remained under Ottoman rule for centuries, so long that it was referred to as Turkish Croatia (later as Bosanska Krajina ). These developments altered Bosnian history, as many residents adopted Islam, adding to

1168-655: A form of the name " Bosnia " is in De Administrando Imperio , a politico-geographical handbook written by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in the mid-10th century (between 948 and 952) describing the "small land" ( χωρίον in Greek ) of "Bosona" ( Βοσώνα ), where the Serbs dwell. Bosnia was also mentioned in the DAI (χωριον βοσονα, small land of Bosnia), as a region of Baptized Serbia. The section of

1314-521: A large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field , while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals such as Matrakçı Nasuh ; generals such as Isa-Beg Ishaković , Gazi Husrev-beg , Telli Hasan Pasha and Sarı Süleyman Pasha ; administrators such as Ferhad Pasha Sokolović and Osman Gradaščević ; and Grand Viziers such as

1460-535: A meeting of the Bosnian Central Committee, Bosniaks were accepted as a distinct nation, though the leadership decided not to use the Bosniak or Bosnian name. Hence, as a compromise, the option of " Muslims by nationality " was introduced as a category in the 1971 census. This was the official category for use by Bosniaks until the final Yugoslav census in 1991. In the 1990s the name Bosniaks

1606-455: A number of death camps . The regime systematically and brutally massacred Serbs in villages in the countryside, using a variety of tools. The scale of the violence meant that approximately every sixth Serb living in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the victim of a massacre and virtually every Serb had a family member that was killed in the war, mostly by the Ustaše. The experience had a profound impact in

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1752-651: A number of other Serbian-language books were banned. Austro-Hungarian authorities signed a treaty with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople by which the Emperor gained control over the Serbian Orthodox Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina in exchange for annual reimbursement. Serbs largely disapproved of Austro-Hungarian control over their religious institutions and organised a struggle to gain their religious autonomy. The struggle

1898-685: A policy that aimed to inspire in Bosnia's people 'a feeling that they belong to a great and powerful nation'. The policy advocated the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation and viewed Bosnians as "speaking the Bosnian language and divided into three religions with equal rights." The policy tried to isolate Bosnia and Herzegovina from its irredentist neighbors (the Eastern Orthodox in Serbia , Catholics in Croatia , and

2044-880: A rear army in the Kingdom of Dalmatia . The primary commander was Josip Filipović ; the forward XVIII infantry division was under the command Stjepan Jovanović , while the rear army commander in Dalmatia was Gavrilo Rodić . The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina started on 29 July 1878 and was over on 20 October. The Ottoman army in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the time consisted of roughly 40,000 troops with 77 cannons, that, when combined with local militias, totalled around 93,000 men. The Austro-Hungarian troops were occasionally met with ferocious opposition from elements of both Muslim and Orthodox populations there, and significant battles occurred near Čitluk , Stolac , Livno and Klobuk . Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla , Sarajevo

2190-697: A revolt spanned for four years (6–9 AD), after which they were subdued. In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region. Following the split of the Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire . The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between

2336-442: A shared history and locality among Bosnians of Islamic as well as Christian backgrounds." According to Bringa, in Bosnia there is a singular, "trans-ethnic culture" that encompassed each ethnicity and makes different faiths, including Christianity and Islam, " synergistically interdependent ". Still, large numbers of Bosnians are secular , a trend strengthened in the post-World War II in Bosnia and Herzegovina as they were part of

2482-696: A state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms they intended would make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model" colony. Habsburg rule had several key concerns in Bosnia. It tried to dissipate the South Slav nationalism by disputing the earlier Serb and Croat claims to Bosnia and encouraging identification of Bosnian or Bosniak identity. Habsburg rule also tried to provide for modernisation by codifying laws, introducing new political institutions, establishing and expanding industries. Austria–Hungary began to plan

2628-575: A third unit, the Brčko District , which is governed by its own local government. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a developing country and ranks 74th in the Human Development Index . Its economy is dominated by industry and agriculture, followed by tourism and the service sector. Tourism has increased significantly in recent years. The country has a social-security and universal-healthcare system, and primary and secondary level education

2774-594: Is also believed to be first mentioned as a land (horion Bosona) in Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus' De Administrando Imperio in the mid 10th century, at the end of a chapter entitled Of the Serbs and the country in which they now dwell . This has been scholarly interpreted in several ways and used especially by the Serb national ideologists to prove Bosnia as originally a "Serb" land. Other scholars have asserted

2920-441: Is difficult to establish the religious connection between this group of people and some of the religions present in that country. According to Tone Bringa, an author and anthropologist, she says of Bosnia and Bosnians: "Neither Bosniak , nor Croat , nor Serb identities can be fully understood with reference only to Islam or Christianity respectively but have to be considered in a specific Bosnian context that has resulted in

3066-1001: Is free. It is a member of the UN , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , the Council of Europe , the Partnership for Peace , and the Central European Free Trade Agreement ; it is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean , established in July 2008. Bosnia and Herzegovina is an EU candidate country and has also been a candidate for NATO membership since April 2010. The first preserved widely acknowledged mention of

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3212-580: Is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and in the northeast it is predominantly flat. Herzegovina , the smaller, southern region, has a Mediterranean climate and is mostly mountainous. Sarajevo is the capital and the largest city. The area has been inhabited since at least the Upper Paleolithic , but evidence suggests that during the Neolithic age, permanent human settlements were established, including those that belonged to

3358-756: Is scarce, but overall it appears the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. In the Neretva Delta in the south, there were important Hellenistic influences of the Illyrian Daors tribe. Their capital was Daorson in Ošanići near Stolac . Daorson, in the 4th century BCE, was surrounded by megalithic , 5 m high stonewalls (as large as those of Mycenae in Greece), composed of large trapezoid stone blocks. Daors made unique bronze coins and sculptures. Conflict between

3504-540: Is subject to scholarly debate, came to predominate over the Slavs in the neighbouring regions. Croats "settled in area roughly corresponding to modern Croatia, and probably also including most of Bosnia proper, apart from the eastern strip of the Drina valley" while Serbs "corresponding to modern south-western Serbia (later known as Raška ), and gradually extended their rule into the territories of Duklja and Hum ". Bosnia

3650-425: Is the most commonly used exonym for the general population of Bosnia. In older English literature, inhabitants of Bosnia were sometimes also referred to as Bosniacs or Bosniaks . All of those terms ( Bosnians , Bosniacs , Bosniaks ) were used interchangeably, as common demonyms for the entire population of Bosnia, including all ethnic and religious groups. When pointing to different religious affiliations within

3796-758: The Alans and the Huns . By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian I had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire . Slavs overwhelmed the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Illyrian cultural traits were adopted by the South Slavs, as evidenced in certain customs and traditions, placenames, etc. The Early Slavs raided the Western Balkans, including Bosnia, in the 6th and early 7th century (amid

3942-729: The Ardiaei (originally a tribe from the Neretva valley region) began at 230 BCE and ended at 167 BCE. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardylis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last and best-known Illyrian kingdom. Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. From the 7th century BCE, bronze was replaced by iron, after which only jewelry and art objects were still made out of bronze. Illyrian tribes, under

4088-532: The Balkan Peninsula . It borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to the north and southwest. In the south it has a 20 kilometres (12 miles) long coast on the Adriatic Sea , with the town of Neum being its only access to the sea. Bosnia has a moderate continental climate with hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In the central and eastern regions, the geography

4234-547: The Bosnia Eyalet until the formation of the short-lived Herzegovina Eyalet in the 1830s, which reemerged in the 1850s, after which the administrative region became commonly known as Bosnia and Herzegovina . On initial proclamation of independence in 1992 , the country's official name was the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , but following the 1995 Dayton Agreement and the new constitution that accompanied it,

4380-593: The Bosnian parliament and growth of new political life. On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip , a Bosnian Serb member of the revolutionary movement Young Bosnia , assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand , in Sarajevo—an event that was the spark that set off World War I . At the end of the war, the Bosniaks had lost more men per capita than any other ethnic group in

4526-588: The Butmir , Kakanj , and Vučedol cultures. After the arrival of the first Indo-Europeans , the area was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. The ancestors of the South Slavic peoples that populate the area today arrived during the 6th through the 9th century. In the 12th century, the Banate of Bosnia was established; by the 14th century, this had evolved into the Kingdom of Bosnia . In

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4672-498: The Communist political system that rejected traditional organized religion. According to the latest official population census made in Bosnia and Herzegovina, most of the population identified with Bosniak , Croat or Serb ethnicity. Some people identified with "Bosnian" nationality, however, these are listed under the category "Others" (along with all the other options such as ethnic Muslims , Jews , Romas etc.). According to

4818-585: The Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later. Taking advantage of turmoil in the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried to obtain provisional Russian approval for changes over the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina and published

4964-498: The Kingdom of Bosnia had formed under the Kotromanić dynasty . It included several territories of medieval Serbia and Croatia. As a consequence, many Eastern Orthodox Christians and Roman Catholics became subjects of Bosnian rulers, along with adherents of a native Bosnian Church whose origins and nature are a subject of continued debate among scholars. Bošnjani became so-called - as political subjects of Bosnian rulers- from

5110-624: The Kingdom of Montenegro doing so on 5 April. The annexation caused unrest among the Muslim and Serb population. The Streifkorps (special counterinsurgency units) were reestablished in the context of demonstrations in Serbia and in Montenegro against the annexation. The Muslims could not believe the sovereignty of the Sultan could be overturned with a proclamation, and that they were now ruled by

5256-766: The Migration Period ), and were composed of small tribal units drawn from a single Slavic confederation known to the Byzantines as the Sclaveni (whilst the related Antes , roughly speaking, colonized the eastern portions of the Balkans). Tribes recorded by the ethnonyms of "Serb" and "Croat" are described as a second, latter, migration of different people during the second quarter of the 7th century who could or could not have been particularly numerous; these early "Serb" and "Croat" tribes, whose exact identity

5402-497: The Muslims of the Ottoman Empire ). The empire tried to discourage the concept of Croat or Serb nationhood, which had spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina's Catholic and Orthodox communities from neighboring Croatia and Serbia in the mid-19th century. Croats and Serbs who opposed the imperial policy and identified with nationalist ideas, ignored claims of Bosnian nationhood and instead counted Bosnian Muslims as part of their own nations,

5548-638: The Reichsland was a Landeschef , heads of the Kreise were Kreisleiters and heads of the Bezirke were Bezirksleiters . The region, which had been Islamised in the 15th and 16th centuries, largely retained its minority-Muslim population (which dropped from 38.7% in 1879 to 32.2% in 1910), as Austria-Hungary's December Constitution guaranteed freedom of religion and the authorities made no active attempts at conversion. The emperor of Austria-Hungary had

5694-544: The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) , in June and July 1878 the Congress of Berlin was organized by the Great Powers . The resulting Treaty of Berlin caused Bosnia and Herzegovina to nominally remain under sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire , but was de facto ceded to Austria-Hungary , which also obtained the right to garrison the Sanjak of Novi Pazar . According to article 25: The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring to undertake

5840-479: The Shaykh al-Islām of the Ottoman Empire. With Kállay's death in 1903, the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina was liberalized. The national movements in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transformed into political parties. Muslims founded the Muslim National Organization (MNO) in 1906, Serbs formed the Serbian National Organization (SNO) in 1907, and Croats formed the Croat National Union (HNZ) in 1908. Another significant Croatian party, though less represented than

5986-453: The 11th century, although it retained its own nobility and institutions. In the High Middle Ages , political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as the Banate of Bosnia (under the rule of local bans ). The first Bosnian ban known by name

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6132-437: The 4th century BCE, the first invasion of Celts is recorded. They brought the technique of the pottery wheel , new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina is negligible. Celtic migrations displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period

6278-439: The Austrian-Hungarian authorities. The group gathered around Dimitrijević also advocated a radical change in agrarian relations and criticised the Serbian civic leadership for neglecting the peasantry, but they advocated cooperation with the Austro-Hungarian authorities in changing agrarian relations. The main goal of Serbian politics in Bosnia and Herzegovina was the removal of Austro-Hungarian authority in Bosnia and Herzegovina and

6424-437: The Bosnian Church heretical and launched vigorous proselytizing campaigns to stem its influence. As a result of these divisions, no coherent religious identity developed in medieval Bosnia, in contrast to the situations in Croatia and Serbia. As the centuries passed, the Bosnian kingdom slowly began to decline. It had become fractured by increased political and religious disunity. By then, the Ottoman Turks had already gained

6570-412: The Bosnian heartland. Following his death in 1391, however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire. There

6716-522: The Bosnian state or territory as opposed to their religious affiliation, particularly in the case of Bosniaks. The number of people who identified as Bosnians under the latest (2013) population census is not exactly known, however it is not above 2.73%, as this is the number of people who identified as "Others" and "Bosnians" are listed under this "Others" category. According to the latest population census (2013) of Bosnia and Herzegovina, there were relatively few people who identified as "Bosnians", thereby it

6862-676: The Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decrees and in accordance and the full extent of Ottoman laws; however, in effect, these often merely affected arbitrary rule and behavior of powerful local elite. As the Ottoman Empire continued its rule in the Balkans ( Rumelia ), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar , were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed

7008-428: The Empire's westernmost province. The 18th century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbreaks of plague. The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed Tanzimat reforms. This, combined with frustrations over territorial, political concessions in

7154-432: The HNZ advocated the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary and its unification with the rest of the Croatian lands. In relations with the Serbs, the HNZ stood for strict reciprocity, rejecting the idea of Bosnia and Herzegovina's unification with any other country or its autonomy. The HNZ did not demand any changes in social relations or changes in agrarian relations. They tried to maintain good relations with

7300-484: The HNZ, was the Croatian Catholic Association (HKU). The MNO considered Bosnia and Herzegovina to be part of the Ottoman Empire until the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918. They considered Austria-Hungary a European country assigned to control Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their main goal was to achieve Muslim religious autonomy and to maintain the agrarian relations that were in force at the time. In 1909 they achieved their religious autonomy. Textbooks printed in Serbia and

7446-437: The Habsburg Empire whilst serving in the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry (known as Bosniaken ) of the Austro-Hungarian Army . Nonetheless, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed. The Austro-Hungarian authorities established an auxiliary militia known as the Schutzkorps with a moot role in the empire's policy of anti-Serb repression. Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited among

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7592-464: The Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BCE, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9. It was precisely in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars , as described by the Roman historian Suetonius . This was the Roman campaign against Illyricum , known as Bellum Batonianum . The conflict arose after an attempt to recruit Illyrians, and

7738-701: The Muslim (Bosniak) population, were tasked with hunting down rebel Serbs (the Chetniks and Komitadji ) and became known for their persecution of Serbs particularly in Serb populated areas of eastern Bosnia, where they partly retaliated against Serbian Chetniks who in fall 1914 had carried out attacks against the Muslim population in the area. The proceedings of the Austro-Hungarian authorities led to around 5,500 citizens of Serb ethnicity in Bosnia and Herzegovina being arrested, and between 700 and 2,200 died in prison while 460 were executed. Around 5,200 Serb families were forcibly expelled from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined

7884-413: The Muslim People's Organisation, the Serbs were represented by the Serbian People's Organisation, and the Croats were represented by the two political parties, the Croatian People's Union and the Croatian Catholic Association. The Diet of Bosnia was established in 1910. Bosnia and Herzegovina was governed jointly by Cisleithania (Austria) and the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen (Hungary) through

8030-413: The Muslim population, which was the only way to gain political strength. Because of this, they were harshly criticized by the Štadler's Croatian Catholic Association (HKU) which advocated an end to the serf system. Pilar believed that the HNZ's goals could only be achieved if Croats gained support from the Muslim population, and at the same time, he criticised Štadler for his Catholic propaganda. Štadler, who

8176-402: The Muslims. In 1882, an uprising broke out against the Austro-Hungarian military and administrative occupation authorities. It was a joint uprising of Serbs and Muslims against the new Austro-Hungarian government in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The main reason for the uprising in 1882 was the unresolved agrarian issue, taxes and the imposed military obligation on the local population. In social terms,

8322-427: The Ottoman Empire during 1908, with the intention to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution. The Austrian-Hungarian authorities were afraid that the revolution could spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina, as it had support from the Bosnian Muslims and the Serbs, who supported the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina within the Ottoman Empire. On 7 September 1908, the SNO and the MNO demanded that Bosnia and Herzegovina accept

8468-432: The Ottomans. Quite a few Vlachs also became Islamized in Bosnia, and some (mainly in Croatia) became Catholics. The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became

8614-486: The Paris Exposition of 1900 . The idea of a unified South Slavic state (typically expected to be spearheaded by independent Kingdom of Serbia ) became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. Certain Muslim circles in Bosnia and Herzegovina published the newspaper Bošnjak ("Bosniak"). This newspaper caused fierce discussions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia. The newspaper supported Kállay's policy, whose goal

8760-399: The Proto-Indo-European root bʰegʷ- , meaning "the running water". According to the English medievalist William Miller , the Slavic settlers in Bosnia "adapted the Latin designation ... Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna and themselves Bosniaks ". The name Herzegovina means "herzog's [land]", and "herzog" derives from the German word for "duke". It originates from

8906-406: The Serbs, who were also demanding religious and educational autonomy. But unsolved agrarian relations between the Muslim leadership and the Serbs were an obstacle to any far-reaching alliance. The alliance that did form was only tactical. Later, the Muslim leadership emphasized Ottoman sovereignty over Bosnia and Herzegovina and demanded the right to organize their religious activity under the aegis of

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9052-401: The South Slav Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia and Herzegovina at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution and the formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of

9198-446: The Turkish conquest. Whatever the case, a native and distinct Muslim community developed among the Bosnians under Ottoman rule, quickly becoming dominant. By the early 1600s, approximately two-thirds of the Bosnian population was Muslim. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1878 to 1918, Benjamin Kallay , Joint Imperial Minister of Finance and Vienna-based administrator of Bosnia, promoted Bošnjaštvo ,

9344-560: The Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia and Herzegovina's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosnian Muslims; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austria-Hungary, Muslims owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbs owned 6.0%, Croat Catholics owned 2.6% and others, 0.3% of

9490-405: The ability to appoint and dismiss religious leaders and to control religious establishments financially through agreements created with the Pope , the Ecumenical Patriarchate, and the Sheikh-ul-Islam . The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina led to great reforms of the Catholic Church in that country, after centuries in the Ottoman Empire. In 1881, Vrhbosna was elevated to an archdiocese, and

9636-467: The administration of the Sanjak of Novi-Pazar, which extends between Serbia and Montenegro in a South-Easterly direction to the other side of Mitrovitza, the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the maintenance of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial roads in

9782-420: The annexation having received material compensation and on the Austrian-Hungarian garrisons leaving the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. By this, Bosnia and Herzegovina was formally under the Austrian-Hungarian sovereignty. On 21 March 1909, the German Empire sent an ultimatum to the Russian Empire to recognise the annexation, which Russia did immediately. Soon, the Kingdom of Serbia recognised the annexation on 31 March,

9928-456: The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Kingdom of Serbia. Their goals, however, were no obstacle to economic cooperation with the Austrian-Hungarian authorities. In order to suppress national aspirations, the Austrian-Hungarian authorities tried to limit the activity of the Franciscans in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Emperor and the Holy See discussed the reestablishment of the Catholic Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Emperor's goal

10074-412: The annexation of Bosnia, but due to international disputes the issue was not resolved until the annexation crisis of 1908. Several external matters affected the status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria–Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade . Then in 1908, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire raised concerns that

10220-411: The annexation proclamation on 6 October 1908. Despite international objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1909. In 1910, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph proclaimed the first constitution in Bosnia, which led to relaxation of earlier laws, elections and formation of

10366-453: The authorities tried to isolate Bosnia and Herzegovina from the influence of neighbouring Slavic countries, Croatian people in Bosnia were nevertheless influenced by all three major political movements from Croatia, first the Illyrian movement , later Yugoslavism and Croatian nationalism . In Croatian politics, there were two factions and their formal political organising ran slowly. The fundamental reason for this Croatian political division

10512-468: The collective memory of Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. An estimated 209,000 Serbs or 16.9% of its Bosnia population were killed on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war. The Ustaše recognized both Catholicism and Islam as the national religions, but held the position Eastern Orthodox Church , as a symbol of Serb identity, was their greatest foe. Although Croats were by far

10658-538: The complex Bosnian ethno-religious identity. The Bosnian Church disappeared, although the circumstances of its decline has been debated as much as defining its nature and origins. Some historians contend that the Bosnian Krstjani converted en masse to Islam, seeking refuge from Catholic and Orthodox persecution. Others argue that the Bosnian Church had already ceased to operate many decades before

10804-481: The concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The Cvetković-Maček Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Croatia and Serbia. However the rising threat of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Germany forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement,

10950-605: The constitution as part of the Ottoman Empire. On 5 October the Emperor Franz Joseph announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and ordered the Minister of Finance to compose a constitution for Bosnia and Herzegovina. The annexation was announced in Sarajevo two days later, on 7 October. This annexation led to an international crisis, which was solved on 26 February 1909 when the Ottoman Empire recognised

11096-593: The constitution, the position of Bosnia and Herzegovina did not change. It remained a corpus separatum administered by Austria and Hungary. The constitution implemented three new constitutions, the Diet of Bosnia, the National Council and the municipal councils. The Diet of Bosnia had very limited legislative powers. The main legislative power was in the hands of the emperor, parliaments in Vienna and Budapest and

11242-625: The construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country's first library in Sarajevo, madrassas , a school of Sufi philosophy , and a clock tower ( Sahat Kula ), bridges such as the Stari Most , the Emperor's Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque . Furthermore, several Bosnian Muslims played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian recruits formed

11388-407: The counting of populations was critical to power of each group. In the constitutional amendments of 1947, Bosnian Muslims requested the option of 'Bosnian.' But, in the 1948 census, they were given only the choices to identify as 'ethnically undeclared Muslim', 'Serb-Muslim' or 'Croat-Muslim' (the vast majority chose the first option). In the 1953 census, the category "Yugoslav, ethnically undeclared"

11534-639: The country (particularly Herzegovina) and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony ". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism , Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernization. The Austro-Hungarian administration advocated

11680-477: The country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans incorporated Bosnia as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity. Within Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and

11826-501: The death of Kallay, the policy was abandoned. By 1905, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections. Soon after Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the government took the area's religious activities and institutions under its sovereignty. Austro-Hungarian authorities issued regulations which made Muslim clergy Austro-Hungarian state officials, answer exclusively to them. This

11972-632: The dioceses of Banja Luka and Mostar-Duvno were formed. Work began on the Sacred Heart Cathedral in Sarajevo in 1884 and was completed by 1889. Bosnia and Herzegovina in Europe  (dark grey) Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Serbo-Croatian : Bosna i Hercegovina , Босна и Херцеговина ), sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia , is a country in Southeast Europe , situated on

12118-596: The early Muslim conversions in Ottoman Bosnia in the 15th–16th century were among the locals who stayed rather than mass Muslim settlements from outside Bosnia. In Herzegovina, many Orthodox people had also embraced Islam. By the late 16th and early 17th century, Muslims are considered to have become an absolute majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Albanian Catholic priest Pjetër Mazreku reported in 1624 that there were 450,000 Muslims, 150,000 Catholics and 75,000 Eastern Orthodox in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There

12264-473: The existing ideas of nationhood (especially Bosnian folklore and symbolism) in order to promote their own version of Bošnjak patriotism that aligned with loyalty to the Habsburg state. Habsburg policies are thus best described not as anti-national, but as cultivating their own style of pro-imperial nationalism. This policy had mixed results. Overall, most Serb and Croat politicians ultimately ignored or opposed

12410-475: The general population of Bosnia, English authors were using common terms like Christian Bosniacs , or Mohammedan Bosniacs , and also Christian Bosniaks , or Mohammedan Bosniaks . Since the end of the 20th century, when the majority of ethnic Muslims in former Yugoslavia re-affirmed Bosniak as their ethnic designation, consequent use of that particular term in English language has gradually adapted to

12556-409: The government had only three departments, administrative, financial and legislative. Later, other departments, including construction, economics, education, religion, and technical, were founded as well. In the 1910 Constitution, the Emperor proclaimed Bosnia and Herzegovina to be a unique administrative territory under the responsible leadership of the joint finance minister. With the implementation of

12702-467: The handbook is devoted to the Serbian prince 's lands, and Bosnia is treated as a separate territory, though one that is particularly dependent on Serbs. The name of the land is believed to derive from the name of the river Bosna that courses through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer, the name Bosna could derive from Illyrian *"Bass-an-as", which in turn could derive from

12848-539: The ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation . Joint Imperial Minister of Finance and Vienna-based administrator of Bosnia Béni Kállay thus endorsed Bosnian nationalism in the form of Bošnjaštvo ("Bosniakhood") with the aim to inspire in Bosnia's people a feeling that they belong to a great and powerful nation' and viewed Bosnians as " speaking the Bosnian language and divided into three religions with equal rights. ". Between 1861 and 1869, Topal Osman Pasha , an Ottoman Grand vizier had striven to do

12994-519: The inclusion of Bosnia in the chapter to merely be the result of Serbian Grand Duke Časlav 's temporary rule over Bosnia at the time, while also pointing out Porphyrogenitus does not say anywhere explicitly that Bosnia is a "Serb land". In fact, the very translation of the critical sentence where the word Bosona (Bosnia) appears is subject to varying interpretation. In time, Bosnia formed a unit under its own ruler, who called himself Bosnian. Bosnia, along with other territories, became part of Duklja in

13140-638: The influence of Hallstatt cultures to the north, formed regional centers that were slightly different. Parts of Central Bosnia were inhabited by the Daesitiates tribe, most commonly associated with the Central Bosnian cultural group . The Iron Age Glasinac-Mati culture is associated with the Autariatae tribe. A very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, which is seen in their careful burials and burial ceremonies, as well as

13286-561: The influential Sokollu Mehmed Pasha and Damat Ibrahim Pasha . Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi Bosnevi , Ali Džabić ; and poets in the Turkish , Albanian , Arabic , and Persian languages . However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the end of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 again made Bosnia

13432-587: The joint Ministry of Finance . In the Ministry of Finance, there was the Bosnian Office which controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina over the Government based in Sarajevo. The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina was headed by a governor, who was also a commander of military forces based in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The government was also composed of the governor's deputy and chiefs of departments. At first,

13578-547: The joint minister of finance. The Diet of Bosnia only proposed decisions which needed to be approved by the parliaments in both Vienna and Budapest. The Diet also had no impact on the administrative-political institutions, the National Council and the municipal councils and it didn't have the right to participate in every decision-making; the Diet could participate only in decisions that mattered Bosnia and Herzegovina exclusively, while decisions on armed forces, commercial and traffic connections, customs and similar matters, were made by

13724-764: The largest ethnic group to constitute the Ustaše, the Vice President of the NDH and leader of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization Džafer Kulenović was a Muslim, and Muslims in total constituted nearly 12% of the Ustaše military and civil service authority. Bosnian nationalism As a common demonym , the term Bosnians should not be confused with the ethnonym Bosniaks , designating ethnic Bosniaks . The native ethnic groups of Bosnia and Herzegovina include Bosniaks , Bosnian Croats and Bosnian Serbs . In modern English , term Bosnians

13870-498: The largest of the ethno-religious groups due to a lack of strong Christian church organizations and continuous rivalry between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, while the indigenous Bosnian Church disappeared altogether (ostensibly by conversion of its members to Islam). The Ottomans referred to them as kristianlar while the Orthodox and Catholics were called gebir or kafir , meaning "unbeliever". The Bosnian Franciscans (and

14016-586: The latest population census (2013), there were around 2.7% "Others". The CIA World Factbook , used in this article as a source for numbers, does not mention a sole "Bosnian" nationality. Instead, it mentions "Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s)", thereby emphasizing the regional significance and equity between the terms. Ethnic minorities in this territory, such as Jews , Roma , Albanians , Montenegrins and others, may consider "Bosnian" as an adjective modifying their ethnicity (e.g. "Bosnian Roma") to indicate place of residence. Other times, they use (with equal rights)

14162-429: The mid-15th century, it was annexed into the Ottoman Empire , under whose rule it remained until the late 19th century; the Ottomans brought Islam to the region. From the late 19th century until World War I , the country was annexed into the Austro-Hungarian monarchy . In the interwar period , Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . After World War II , it was granted full republic status in

14308-522: The name Bosnia as a polity dates from the middle of the 10th century CE, in the Greek form Βόσονα , designating the region. By that time, the Migration Period of the Early Middle Ages was already over. During that turbulent period, from the beginning of the 6th and up to middle of the 7th century, Early Slavs invaded the Byzantine Empire and settled throughout Southeastern Europe . In many regions, they encountered various groups of

14454-529: The name of the Bosna river, which flows through the heart of the land. From that root, the local demonym derived in the endonym form of Bošnjani , designating the inhabitants of Bosnia. During the 13th and 14th century, the Banate of Bosnia gradually expanded, incorporating regions of Soli , Usora , Donji Kraji and Zahumlje . Inhabitants of all those regions also kept their regional individuality. By 1377,

14600-700: The national aspirations of the nations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The authorities did not only suppress the Croatian and Serbian names but also any flags, coats of arms and folk songs. Any activity that would emphasise a common interest of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina and those in the Triune Kingdom was suppressed from the start. As they were unable to form a political party, especially under Kállay's administration, Croats formed various musical societies, reading rooms, schools, economic institutions and newspapers. The authorities forbade these societies from using

14746-487: The new situation. Today, term Bosniaks (including the spelling variant Bosniacs ) is primarily used in English language as a designation for ethnic Muslims , while the term Bosnians has kept its general meaning, designating all inhabitants of Bosnia. There was a case to have the right for people to identify themselves as Bosnians in the European Court of Human Rights that won. The earliest known record of

14892-523: The newly formed Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In 1992, following the breakup of Yugoslavia , the republic proclaimed independence . This was followed by the Bosnian War , which lasted until late 1995 and ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement . The country is home to three main ethnic groups : Bosniaks are the largest group, Serbs the second-largest, and Croats

15038-787: The north-east, and the plight of Slavic Muslim refugees arriving from the Sanjak of Smederevo into Bosnia Eyalet , culminated in a partially unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradaščević , who endorsed a Bosnia Eyalet autonomous from the authoritarian rule of the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II , who persecuted, executed and abolished the Janissaries and reduced the role of autonomous Pashas in Rumelia. Mahmud II sent his Grand vizier to subdue Bosnia Eyalet and succeeded only with

15184-531: The occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , which would remain under Ottoman administration until 1908, when the Austro-Hungarian troops withdrew from the Sanjak. Although Austro-Hungarian officials quickly came to an agreement with the Bosnians, tensions remained and a mass emigration of Bosnians occurred. However,

15330-626: The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croatian Sabor asked the Emperor to alter the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina so it could be unified with the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and the Kingdom of Dalmatia. The Emperor refused to accept this demand and dismissed the Sabor. This was done as the Austrian-Hungarian authorities had a plan to isolate Bosnia and Herzegovina from its neighbouring Slavic countries, Croatia and Serbia, and to halt

15476-576: The official name was changed to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia has been inhabited by humans since at least the Paleolithic , as one of the oldest cave paintings was found in Badanj cave . Major Neolithic cultures such as the Butmir and Kakanj were present along the river Bosna dated from c.  6230 BCE – c.  4900 BCE . The bronze culture of the Illyrians , an ethnic group with

15622-416: The parliaments in Vienna and Budapest. The Austrian-Hungarian authorities left the Ottoman division of Bosnia and Herzegovina untouched, they only changed the names of divisional units. Thus the Bosnia Vilayet was renamed to Reichsland , sanjaks were renamed to Kreise , kazas were renamed to Bezirke , while nahiyahs were renamed to Exposituren . There were six Kreise and 54 Bezirke . Head of

15768-409: The policy, but Serb and Croat politicians also tried and failed to secure the allegiance of Bosnian Muslim constituencies. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian officials actively promoted Bosnia and Herzegovina as new and flourishing crownlands. Habsburg officials publicized numerous exhibits on Bosnian history, folklore, and archaeology, with artists like Alphonse Mucha presenting the Bosnian pavilion at

15914-428: The population was called Dobri Bošnjani ("Good Bosnians"). The names Serb and Croat, though occasionally appearing in peripheral areas, were not used in Bosnia proper. Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromanić became Ban . By the time of his death in 1353, he

16060-459: The previously romanized population of the former Roman provinces of Dalmatia , Praevalitana , Pannonia Secunda , Pannonia Savia and others. The remaining romanized population retreated -mainly to mountainous regions - while South Slavic tribes settled in plains and valleys, gradually coalescing into early principalities. As these expanded, they came to include other surrounding territories, and later evolved into more centralized states. During

16206-406: The property. Following the reforms, Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land. Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians, such as Mehmed Spaho , ensured the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to

16352-464: The reluctant assistance of Ali Pasha Rizvanbegović . Related rebellions were extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. New nationalist movements appeared in Bosnia by the middle of the 19th century. Shortly after Serbia's breakaway from the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, Serbian and Croatian nationalism rose up in Bosnia, and such nationalists made irredentist claims to Bosnia's territory. This trend continued to grow in

16498-524: The representatives of the HNZ, Pilar, Nikola Mandić and Antonije Sunarić expressed the gratitude of the Croat people to the Emperor for the annexation at the end of October 1908. However, Croat enthusiasm did not endure, as Bosnia and Herzegovina failed to be joined with Croatia as expected. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, every major ethnic group was represented by its political party. The Muslims were represented by

16644-706: The rest of the 19th and 20th centuries. Agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion , a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation that led to the Congress of Berlin and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained

16790-592: The richness of their burial sites. In northern parts, there was a long tradition of cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the south the dead were buried in large stone or earth tumuli (natively called gromile ) that in Herzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 m wide and 5 m high. Japodian tribes had an affinity to decoration (heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronze fibulas , as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze foil). In

16936-517: The same survey, 43% said that they identify as a citizen of Bosnia-Herzegovina as the primary identity, 14% identified with a specific ethnic or religious group, and 41% chose the dual identity. According to a study conducted by the University of Montenegro , Faculty for Sport and Physical Education in Nikšić , Montenegro and the University of Novi Sad in Serbia , Bosnian people are the tallest in

17082-490: The same. On the one hand, these policies attempted to insulate Bosnia and Herzegovina from its irredentist neighbours ( Eastern Orthodox Serbia , Catholic Croatia , and the Muslim Ottoman Empire) and to marginalize the already circulating ideas of Serbian and Croatian nationhood among Bosnia's Orthodox and Catholic communities, respectively. On the other hand, the Habsburg administrators precisely used

17228-795: The signing of the Tripartite Treaty , and a coup d'état , Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941. Once the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by German forces in World War II , all of Bosnia and Herzegovina was ceded to the Nazi puppet regime, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) led by the Ustaše . The NDH leaders embarked on a campaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews, Romani as well as dissident Croats, and, later, Josip Broz Tito 's Partisans by setting up

17374-481: The six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or banovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with

17520-741: The struggle for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, since all European countries had already recognised the annexation, the SNO and the MNO, who wanted to continue their activity as legitimate organisations, thus recognised the annexation; the SNO doing so in May 1909 and the MNO in February 1910. Unlike the Serbs and the Muslims, the Catholic Croats enthusiastically accepted the Austrian-Hungarian annexation. In an audience to Emperor Franz Joseph,

17666-421: The term "Herzegovinians". In addition, a sizable population in Bosnia and Herzegovina believe that the term "Bosnians" defines a people who constitute a distinct collective cultural identity or ethnic group. According to the latest (2013) census, however, this population does not rise above 1.05%. Of them, 56.65% are Islamic/Muslim, 30.93% are irreligious, 5.15% are Eastern Orthodox and 5.09% are Catholic. In

17812-518: The third-largest. Minorities include Jews , Roma , Albanians, Montenegrins, Ukrainians and Turks . Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member presidency made up of one member from each of the three major ethnic groups. However, the central government's power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized. It comprises two autonomous entities—the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska —and

17958-454: The time of Stephen II ( r.  1322-1353–  ). Those belonging to the so-called Bosnian Church simply called themselves Krstjani ("Christians"). Many scholars classify these Bosnian Krstjani as Manichaean dualists related to the Bogomils of Bulgaria, while others question this theory, citing lack of historical evidence. Both Catholic and Orthodox church authorities considered

18104-531: The title of a 15th-century Bosnian magnate, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača , who was "Herceg [Herzog] of Hum and the Coast" (1448). Hum (formerly called Zachlumia ) was an early medieval principality that had been conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. When the Ottomans took over administration of the region, they called it the Sanjak of Herzegovina ( Hersek ). It was included within

18250-444: The twelfth century, local rulers developed the Banate of Bosnia , centered in the valley of the river Bosna . There are several theories among linguists and other scholars regarding the origins of the names "Bosnia" and "Bosna" (for the region and the river respectively), and also regarding the relation between those two terms. It is speculated that the name "Bosnia" could come from an older regional term, itself originally derived from

18396-596: The vast majority of the rebels were poor peasants. On the night of January 11, 1882, a group of armed peasants attacked the gendarmerie barracks in Ulog . The uprising soon spread to northeastern Herzegovina and southeastern Bosnia. The center of the 1882 uprising was in Ulog, where the rebel government was created. In the period January-February, the rebels led by Stojan Kovačević and Salih-Salko Forto tried to attack Foča and Trnovo (south and southeast of Sarajevo). Their main goal

18542-502: The whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia. To this end the governments of Austria-Hungary and Turkey reserve to themselves to come to an understanding on the details. The Austro-Hungarian Army engaged in a major mobilization effort to prepare for the assault on Bosnia and Herzegovina, commanding by the end of June 1878 a force of 82,113 troops, 13,313 horses and 112 cannons in the VI, VII, XX, and XVIII infantry divisions as well as

18688-552: The word "Croatian", even though they allowed the use of the word "Serbian" for Serbian societies. Only later was the use of the word "Croatian" allowed. This official policy was pushed by Hungarian circles, especially under Kállay and his successor Stephan Burián von Rajecz . The goal of their policy was to weaken the Croatian position in Bosnia and Herzegovina by strengthening the Serbian position, in order to make unification of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia less likely. Even though

18834-692: Was Ban Borić . The second was Ban Kulin , whose rule marked the start of a controversy involving the Bosnian Church – considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church . In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. During this time,

18980-461: Was Pilar's main opponent, believed that Catholic Croats should not be educated in any way other than as Catholics, thus advocating segregation between Catholics and Muslims. The HKU, like the HNZ, advocated the unification of Bosnia and Herzegovina with other Croatian lands. It also promoted Christian morals, and unlike the HNZ, the HKU advocated the abolition of the serf system as they had no relations with

19126-400: Was a general awareness in medieval Bosnia, at least amongst the nobles, that they shared a joint state with Serbia and that they belonged to the same ethnic group. That awareness diminished over time, due to differences in political and social development, but it was kept in Herzegovina and parts of Bosnia which were a part of Serbian state. The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in

19272-514: Was a lack of Orthodox Church activity in Bosnia proper in the pre-Ottoman period. An Orthodox Christian population in Bosnia was introduced as a direct result of Ottoman policy. From the 15th century and onwards, Orthodox Christians (Orthodox Vlachs and non-Vlach Orthodox Serbs) from Serbia and other regions settled in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Favored by the Ottomans over the Catholics, many Orthodox churches were allowed to be built in Bosnia by

19418-469: Was approved by them, so they founded the Serbian People's Organisation. As a relative majority, the Serbs were a dominant political factor, and as such they demanded Bosnia and Herzegovina's autonomy from the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. Serbian politics in Bosnia and Herzegovina was dominated by the three factions gathered around the three newspapers. The main problem of Serbian civic politics

19564-688: Was disagreement between the Franciscan Bosnian Province and the Archbishop's Chancery on the organisation of parishes within the archdiocese. The first initiative for the creation of a Croatian political party came from the Croatian intelligentsia which gained support from the Franciscans. In 1908, after some preparations, it founded the Croatian People's Union with Ivo Pilar as its main ideologist. In its program,

19710-535: Was dominated by Serb and Croat policies; neither of the two terms, Bosnian or Bosniak, was recognized to identify the people as a constituent nation. Consequently, Bosnian Muslims, or anyone who claimed a Bosnian/Bosniak ethnicity, were classified in Yugoslav population statistics as under the category 'regional affiliation.' This classification was used in the last Yugoslav census taken in 1991 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The census classifications in former Yugoslavia were often subject to political manipulation because

19856-647: Was ended in their favour in 1905. After gaining religious autonomy, the Serbs gathered around four political groups, out of which three became notable. The notable groups became known by the names of their official newspapers, the Srpska riječ (Serbian Word), the Petar Kočić 's Narod i Otadžbina (the People and Fatherland) and the Lazar Dimitrijević 's Dan (the Day). Later they demanded unity under one party, which

20002-489: Was introduced to replace the term "Muslim by nationality". This resulted in Bosniak and Muslim sometimes being used interchangeably in political contexts. In the centuries of the Ottoman Empire, distinctions among citizens (for taxation purposes, military service etc.) was made based primarily on the individual's religious identity, which was closely tied to ethnicity. The decision of a citizen to identify as Bosnian seems to depend on whether they relate their identity more with

20148-619: Was introduced; the overwhelming majority of those who identified by this category were Bosnian Muslim. In the 1961 census, the Bosniaks or Bosnian Muslims were categorized as an ethnic group defined as one of 'Muslim-Ethnic affiliation,' but not as a Yugoslav "constitutive nation" alongside Serbs and Croats. In 1964, the Fourth Congress of the Bosnian Party assured the Bosniaks' of the right to self-determination . In 1968 at

20294-461: Was occupied in October 1878. Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. Fierce resistance from Muslims was expected as Austro-Hungarians realized their occupation meant that Bosnian Muslims would lose their privileged status based on their religion. Tensions remained in certain parts of

20440-525: Was still part of the Ottoman Empire, at least formally, the Austrian-Hungarian authorities had factual control over the country. Austria-Hungary waited for a chance to incorporate Bosnia and Herzegovina formally as well. Any action concerning Bosnia and Herzegovina depended on international opinion, which Austrian-Hungarian authorities were aware of. They used the Young Turk Revolution in the Ottoman Empire to finally annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Young Turk movement had gained support in mass protests throughout

20586-409: Was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his ambitious nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. By the year 1377, Bosnia was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko as the first Bosnian King in Mile near Visoko in

20732-457: Was the agrarian reaction. Serb peasants demanded to be liberated from feudal relations, while on the other hand, they wanted to maintain cooperation with the Muslim People's Organisation in achieving national aspirations. The group gathered around Kočić's Narod i Otadžbina newspaper completely stood for the Serbian peasantry against the Muslims in order to change the agrarian position of the peasantry. Kočić's group also banned any cooperation with

20878-449: Was the liberation of Sarajevo , which still has not recovered from the great fire of 1879. However, their units, poorly armed and operating separately, were unable to achieve success in the fight against superior enemy forces. In April 1882, Austro-Hungarian troops suppressed the uprising. They were about 10,000 infantry and four batteries. Sporadic sabotage and guerrilla actions lasted until November 1882. Even though Bosnia and Herzegovina

21024-439: Was to have the Church in Bosnia subordinated to his secular power within the Church. In the end, in 1881, the Holy See yielded, on condition that the Emperor did not explicitly mention his authority in a bulla which he, however, did. After establishing secular power over the Catholic Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Emperor established the cathedral in Sarajevo and named Archbishop Dr. Josip Štadler as its head. Just before

21170-421: Was to isolate Bosnian Muslims from the Ottoman Empire, and its clergy who were subordinate to the Sultan. The Muslims were largely unhappy with their new status and formed Muslim political opposition. This Muslim opposition demanded, at first, Muslim religious autonomy from Austria-Hungary, but later, as it grew stronger, they demanded autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. The Muslim opposition tried to align itself with

21316-574: Was to strengthen Austro-Hungarian rule in occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although Kállay's policy was not widely accepted even amongst Muslims, Bošnjak nevertheless represented the national aspirations of some Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Kállay's policy was finally defeated in 1896 and 1899, when Bosnian Serbs and Muslims called for religious and educational autonomy. Kállay's policy had some potential to resist Croatian and Serbian national aspirations, but after 1899 and 1900 his policy of promoting Bosnian identity had no significant effect. After

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