144-517: The Kingdom of Bosnia ( Serbo-Croatian : Kraljevina Bosna / Краљевина Босна), or Bosnian Kingdom ( Bosansko kraljevstvo / Босанско краљевство), was a medieval kingdom that lasted for nearly a century, from 1377 to 1463, and evolved out of the Banate of Bosnia , which itself lasted since at least 1154. Although Hungarian kings viewed Bosnia as under their sovereignty during this time, Bosnian sovereignty and independence in conducting its affairs
288-623: A second language . Bosnian is spoken by 2.7 million people worldwide, chiefly Bosniaks , including 2.0 million in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 200,000 in Serbia and 40,000 in Montenegro. Montenegrin is spoken by 300,000 people globally. The notion of Montenegrin as a separate standard from Serbian is relatively recent. In the 2011 census, around 229,251 Montenegrins, of the country's 620,000, declared Montenegrin as their native language. That figure
432-494: A Yugoslav state was established. From the very beginning, there were slightly different literary Serbian and Croatian standards, although both were based on the same dialect of Shtokavian, Eastern Herzegovinian . In the 20th century, Serbo-Croatian served as the lingua franca of the country of Yugoslavia , being the sole official language in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (when it was called "Serbo-Croato-Slovenian"), and afterwards
576-551: A charter issued to Sandalj Hranić in November 1405, where they articulated that the Ragusan merchants would be safe across the "Bosnian rusag", or 1451, during the war with Stjepan Vukčić, as a "Holly Kingdom". Ragusans also paid Saint Demetrius an income of 2000 Ragusan perpera . Ladislaus of Naples acknowledged the territories of the kingdom on 26 August 1406 at the request of Tvrtko II. Bosnia reached its peak under Tvrtko I,
720-458: A core province of the newly established Eyalet of Bosnia . The territory of Bosnia and today's Herzegovina is littered with medieval gravestones called stećak , which first appeared in the middle of the 12th century. They were a tradition among Bosnian , Catholic and Orthodox Church followers alike. While Bosnia had many architecturally impressive stone fortresses, its medieval churches were small, especially compared to Catholic churches along
864-612: A dictionary, and a committee of Serbian and Croatian linguists was asked to prepare a pravopis . During the sixties both books were published simultaneously in Ijekavian Latin in Zagreb and Ekavian Cyrillic in Novi Sad. Yet Croatian linguists claim that it was an act of unitarianism. The evidence supporting this claim is patchy: Croatian linguist Stjepan Babić complained that the television transmission from Belgrade always used
1008-416: A distinction between the two, and again in independent Bosnia and Herzegovina , "Bosnian", "Croatian", and "Serbian" were considered to be three names of a single official language. Croatian linguist Dalibor Brozović advocated the term Serbo-Croatian as late as 1988, claiming that in an analogy with Indo-European, Serbo-Croatian does not only name the two components of the same language, but simply charts
1152-500: A fervent supporter of Ladislaus and enemy of Sigismund. He ordered that men from his islands of Brač , Hvar , and Korčula assist in the siege of Omiš , a city ruled by Horvat. Sigismund, who had been amassing an army since April, took advantage of the discord. The Battle of Dobor saw Horvat's defeat and execution as well as the destruction of the eponymous town on the river Bosna by Sigismund's troops. Soon thereafter Dabiša submitted to Sigismund and resigned Croatia and Dalmatia to
1296-410: A four days siege of Ključ and negotiations, Angelović sent a written assurance to the king, stating that his life will be spared. It turned out to be an empty promise as once the king was lured back to Jajce , he was beheaded just behind the capital's citadel, since then named Carevo polje ( transl. "Emperor's Field" ). The Kingdom fell in 1463 and eventually became the westernmost province of
1440-560: A language law that promulgated Croatian linguistic purism as a policy that tried to implement a complete elimination of Serbisms and internationalisms. On January 15, 1944, the Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia ( AVNOJ ) declared Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, and Macedonian to be equal in the entire territory of Yugoslavia. In 1945 the decision to recognize Croatian and Serbian as separate languages
1584-505: A large part of the nations have lived side by side under foreign overlords. During that period, the language was referred to under a variety of names, such as "Slavic" in general or "Serbian", "Croatian" or "Bosnian" in particular. In a classicizing manner, it was also referred to as " Illyrian ". The process of linguistic standardization of Serbo-Croatian was originally initiated in the mid-19th-century Vienna Literary Agreement by Croatian and Serbian writers and philologists, decades before
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#17327654614401728-563: A member of the Kotromanić dynasty , who came to power in 1353. In 1372, Tvrtko formed an alliance with Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović , one of the regional lords in the territory of the disintegrated Serbian Empire . The next year, Tvrtko and Lazar attacked the domain of Nikola Altomanović , the most powerful Serbian noble at the time. After defeating Altomanović, they divided his lands, except for his littoral districts of Dračevica , Konavle , and Trebinje , which were seized by Đurađ I Balšić ,
1872-586: A month before the Ottoman conquest of the state. Thomas's failure to defend Serbia permanently damaged his reputation in Europe. Wishing to improve his image among Europe's Catholics, Thomas turned against the Bosnian Church, thus becoming the first ruler of Bosnia to engage in religious persecution . Radivoj styled himself as King of Bosnia for the remainder of Tvrtko's reign. He was nominally supported by
2016-523: A number of writing systems: The oldest texts since the 11th century are in Glagolitic , and the oldest preserved text written completely in the Latin alphabet is Red i zakon sestara reda Svetog Dominika , from 1345. The Arabic alphabet had been used by Bosniaks ; Greek writing is out of use there, and Arabic and Glagolitic persisted so far partly in religious liturgies. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet
2160-618: A part of the Glagolitic service as late as the middle of the 19th century. The earliest known Croatian Church Slavonic Glagolitic manuscripts are the Glagolita Clozianus and the Vienna Folia from the 11th century. The beginning of written Serbo-Croatian can be traced from the tenth century and on when Serbo-Croatian medieval texts were written in four scripts: Latin , Glagolitic , Early Cyrillic , and Bosnian Cyrillic ( bosančica/bosanica ). Serbo-Croatian competed with
2304-627: A political tool by high-ranking nobles such as Hrvoje Vukčić of Donji Kraji, who converted to Catholicism to obtain lucrative titles, but when faced with difficult odds in 1413 he openly threatened that he would go back to "pagan religion", as the Catholic Church viewed the Bosnian Church as a dualist religion. Despite the religious hesitancy of the duke, by his death, the Bosnian Church had lost its foothold in Donji Kraji, since his heirs were increasingly referred to as committed Catholics. At
2448-500: A result of interaction between words: Also, there are some exceptions, mostly applied to foreign words and compounds, that favor morphological/etymological over phonetic spelling: One systemic exception is that the consonant clusters ds and dš are not respelled as ts and tš (although d tends to be unvoiced in normal speech in such clusters): Only a few words are intentionally "misspelled", mostly in order to resolve ambiguity: Through history, this language has been written in
2592-424: A separate Montenegrin standard. Like other South Slavic languages, Serbo-Croatian has a simple phonology , with the common five-vowel system and twenty-five consonants. Its grammar evolved from Common Slavic , with complex inflection , preserving seven grammatical cases in nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Verbs exhibit imperfective or perfective aspect , with a moderately complex tense system. Serbo-Croatian
2736-474: A short tonic e, or leave vs. leaving? for a long tonic i, due to the prosody of final stressed syllables in English. General accent rules in the standard language: There are no other rules for accent placement, thus the accent of every word must be learned individually; furthermore, in inflection, accent shifts are common, both in type and position (the so-called " mobile paradigms "). The second rule
2880-475: A single language with two equal variants that have developed around Zagreb (western) and Belgrade (eastern)". The agreement insisted on the equal status of Cyrillic and Latin scripts, and of Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations. It also specified that Serbo-Croatian should be the name of the language in official contexts, while in unofficial use the traditional Serbian and Croatian were to be retained. Matica hrvatska and Matica srpska were to work together on
3024-704: A stanak in August 1421. Tvrtko's second reign was marked by his quick resolution to restore royal authority and the king's pre-eminence among Bosnia's feudal rulers. With Hrvoje and Pavle gone, and Sandalj preoccupied by conflict with Pavle's sons, Tvrtko was able to significantly expand the royal domain . In December 1422 Tvrtko signed a beneficial trade treaty with the Republic of Venice and discussed plans for joint military action against Sigismund in Dalmatia. Tvrtko's association with Venice bothered not only Ragusa, but also
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#17327654614403168-494: A staunch Krstjanin , as the Bosnian Church adherents were known and as its members called themselves. His conspicuous attitude toward Bosnian Church was highlighted when king Tvrtko II died and Stjepan refused to recognize a chosen heir, the deceased king's cousin and recent convert to Roman Catholicism , Thomas , as the new King of Bosnia, thus creating a political crisis which culminated in civil war. Apparently, one of
3312-405: A stem change. The imperfective aspect typically indicates that the action is unfinished, in progress, or repetitive; while the perfective aspect typically denotes that the action was completed, instantaneous, or of limited duration. Some Štokavian tenses (namely, aorist and imperfect) favor a particular aspect (but they are rarer or absent in Čakavian and Kajkavian). Actually, aspects "compensate" for
3456-417: A testament, and bypassing Vladislav he condemned him by saying that it was him who "brought the great Turk to Bosnia to the death and destruction of us all". The next day duke died. He was succeeded as herceg by his second and younger son Vlatko Hercegović , who struggled to retain as much of the territory he could. However, Blagaj , Kosača capital, fell in 1466, while Ključ fort between Nevesinje and Gacko
3600-537: A vote of the members of the parliament; "Yugoslavian" was opted for by the majority and legislated as the official language of the Triune Kingdom . The Austrian Empire , suppressing Pan-Slavism at the time, did not confirm this decision and legally rejected the legislation, but in 1867 finally settled on "Croatian or Serbian" instead. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina ,
3744-621: A war with the Serbian Despotate over the lucrative mining town of Srebrenica and its surroundings, in addition to (or in conjunction with) multiple conflicts with his father-in-law. Having failed to expand into Croatia proper , Thomas turned again to the east in 1458, arranging a match between his son Stephen Tomašević and the Serbian heiress Helena . His control over the remnants of the Serbian Despotate lasted merely
3888-413: Is a South Slavic language and the primary language of Serbia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Montenegro . It is a pluricentric language with four mutually intelligible standard varieties , namely Serbian , Croatian , Bosnian , and Montenegrin . South Slavic languages historically formed a dialect continuum . The turbulent history of the area, particularly due to the expansion of
4032-560: Is a pro-drop language with flexible word order, subject–verb–object being the default. It can be written in either localized variants of Latin ( Gaj's Latin alphabet , Montenegrin Latin ) or Cyrillic ( Serbian Cyrillic , Montenegrin Cyrillic ), and the orthography is highly phonemic in all standards. Despite many linguistical similarities, the traits that separate all standardized varieties are clearly identifiable, although these differences are considered minimal. Serbo-Croatian
4176-601: Is a subject of debate, particularly around its possible dualist teachings. It was accused by the Catholic and Orthodox authorities of heresy and being linked to the Bogomils (Patarenes). The Catholic church was slightly more dominant in towns and in the west and north of Bosnia. The Bosnian Church was present in Donji Kraji and the Drina river valley to some extent, but the majority of population remained Catholic, although most of
4320-521: Is likely to increase, due to the country's independence and strong institutional backing of the Montenegrin language. Serbo-Croatian is also a second language of many Slovenians and Macedonians , especially those born during the time of Yugoslavia. According to the 2002 census, Serbo-Croatian and its variants have the largest number of speakers of the minority languages in Slovenia. Outside
4464-757: Is nevertheless undeniable. King Tvrtko I (r. 1353–91) acquired portions of western Serbia and most of the Adriatic coast south of the Neretva River. During the late part of his reign, Bosnia became one of the strongest states in the Balkan Peninsula . However, feudal fragmentation remained important in Bosnia and the Bosnian nobility held significant power, exercising it at the Stanak meetings where members deliberated on matters such as election of
Kingdom of Bosnia - Misplaced Pages Continue
4608-555: Is nevertheless undeniable. Bosnian rulers acted completely independently in carrying out state and diplomatic affairs, governing the judicial system, granting towns and estates, minting coins, exploiting natural resources, and making trading agreements with other countries and independent cities. As a main trading partner of the Bosnian state, the Ragusa referred to the Bosnian Kingdom as a separate state ("rusag"), for example in
4752-406: Is normally voiced or voiceless if the last consonant is normally voiceless. This rule does not apply to approximants – a consonant cluster may contain voiced approximants and voiceless consonants; as well as to foreign words ( Washington would be transcribed as VašinGton ), personal names and when consonants are not inside of one syllable. /r/ can be syllabic, playing the role of
4896-483: Is not different from other armies of multilingual states, or in other specific institutions, such as international air traffic control where English is used worldwide. All variants of Serbo-Croatian were used in state administration and republican and federal institutions. Both Serbian and Croatian variants were represented in respectively different grammar books, dictionaries, school textbooks and in books known as pravopis (which detail spelling rules). Serbo-Croatian
5040-525: Is not strictly obeyed, especially in borrowed words. Comparative and historical linguistics offers some clues for memorising the accent position: If one compares many standard Serbo-Croatian words to e.g. cognate Russian words, the accent in the Serbo-Croatian word will be one syllable before the one in the Russian word, with the rising tone. Historically, the rising tone appeared when the place of
5184-562: Is spoken by 10 million people around the world, mostly in Serbia (7.8 million), Bosnia and Herzegovina (1.2 million), and Montenegro (300,000). Besides these, Serbian minorities are found in Kosovo , North Macedonia and in Romania . In Serbia, there are about 760,000 second-language speakers of Serbian, including Hungarians in Vojvodina and the 400,000 estimated Roma. In Kosovo , Serbian
5328-698: Is spoken by the members of the Serbian minority which approximates between 70,000 and 100,000. Familiarity of Kosovar Albanians with Serbian varies depending on age and education, and exact numbers are not available. Croatian is spoken by 6.8 million people in the world, including 4.1 million in Croatia and 600,000 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A small Croatian minority that lives in Italy, known as Molise Croats , have somewhat preserved traces of Croatian. In Croatia, 170,000, mostly Italians and Hungarians , use it as
5472-455: Is still present even in the plural (unlike Russian and, in part, the Čakavian dialect ). They also have two numbers : singular and plural. However, some consider there to be three numbers ( paucal or dual, too), since (still preserved in closely related Slovene ) after two ( dva , dvije / dve ), three ( tri ) and four ( četiri ), and all numbers ending in them (e.g. twenty-two, ninety-three, one hundred four, but not twelve through fourteen)
5616-547: Is the only Slavic language with a pitch accent (simple tone ) system. This feature is present in some other Indo-European languages , such as Norwegian , Ancient Greek , and Punjabi . Neo-Shtokavian Serbo-Croatian, which is used as the basis for standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian, has four "accents", which involve either a rising or falling tone on either long or short vowels, with optional post-tonic lengths: The tone stressed vowels can be approximated in English with set vs. setting? said in isolation for
5760-609: Is today Bosnia and Herzegovina , as well as parts of Dalmatia (in Croatia ), Serbia , and Montenegro . Although nominally belonging to the Kingdom of Hungary crown lands , it was a de facto independent state. After the reign of Ban Kulin , rulers of Bosnia enjoyed virtual independence from Hungary, and although they formally held a vassal position for much of this time, in reality they managed to maintain independent functions and even expand their rule in Serbia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. The Banate of Bosnia existed until 1377, when it
5904-401: Is typically referred to by names of its standardized varieties: Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin; it is rarely referred to by names of its sub-dialects, such as Bunjevac . In the language itself, it is typically known as srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски "Serbo-Croatian", hrvatskosrpski / хрватскoсрпски "Croato-Serbian", or informally naški / нашки "ours". Throughout
Kingdom of Bosnia - Misplaced Pages Continue
6048-587: The Bosnian Sanjak , and established a new, separate sanjak with its seat in Foča , Sanjak of Herzegovina . The very last remnants of Bosnian state territory were these stretches of land held by Vlatko in Hum, while he moved residence to his last capital, Novi . He also gave up his agreement with Ottomans, after just a few years or so, just about the same time when his younger brother, Stjepan, assumed highest office of
6192-582: The House of Kosača to become immediate vassals of the monarch. This may have been the reason for an uprising against Helen. She maintained a great deal of support in April, when Ragusa paid its tribute to her. The last to remain on her side were the Radivojević noble family, including Helen's grandson-in-law Juraj. By 10 May, however, her husband's kinsman Ostoja was enthroned as the new King of Bosnia. Ostoja
6336-545: The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia . In the 9th century , Old Church Slavonic was adopted as the language of the liturgy in churches serving various Slavic nations. This language was gradually adapted to non-liturgical purposes and became known as the Croatian version of Old Slavonic. The two variants of the language, liturgical and non-liturgical, continued to be
6480-600: The Komotin Castle , but he lost it all as soon as they retreated. In fact, he himself appears to have left with the troops on their way back to Hungary, as he is known to have resided at the court in Buda in 1435. Radivoj ceased being a threat when he lost Ottoman support that year, while Sandalj's death presented Tvrtko with a new and more vital rebellious vassal in the form of Sandalj's nephew and successor, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača . Thomas succeeded Tvrtko, but his accession
6624-576: The Kristjani . These developments prompted Stjepan to give followers and members of the Bosnian Church safe haven, and also to join the Ottomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj, Thomas' exiled brother, who was too Bosnian Church faithful and remained so in face of king's crusade against the church adherents. In 1443, the Papacy sent envoys to Thomas and Stjepan about a counter-offensive against
6768-531: The Lord of Zeta . Tvrtko received parts of Zahumlje , the upper reaches of the Drina and Lim rivers, and the districts of Onogošt and Gacko . This acquisition included the important Serbian Orthodox monastery of Mileševa , which held the relics of Saint Sava , the first Serbian Archbishop. In 1377, Tvrtko took the littoral districts from Balšić. That year, on 26 October, he was crowned King of "The Serbs, Bosnia,
6912-469: The Ottoman Empire , resulted in a patchwork of dialectal and religious differences. Due to population migrations, Shtokavian became the most widespread supradialect in the western Balkans, intruding westwards into the area previously occupied by Chakavian and Kajkavian . Bosniaks , Croats , and Serbs differ in religion and were historically often part of different cultural circles, although
7056-567: The Ottoman Empire . After the fall of Bosnia, Catherine, the queen-mother , escaped to Rome on horseback by fooling the Ottomans about which route she wanted to take. She stated that she was leaving the country to see her sons or to visit the Holy See . The rapid conquest of Bosnia, despite its inaccessible mountain fortresses, was unexpected, but many Bosnians were already aware of the impossible situation. If they were to fall, they preferred
7200-434: The Ottomans in support of Bosnian anti-King Radivoj. Serbo-Croatian language Serbo-Croatian ( / ˌ s ɜːr b oʊ k r oʊ ˈ eɪ ʃ ən / SUR -boh-kroh- AY -shən ) – also called Serbo-Croat ( / ˌ s ɜːr b oʊ ˈ k r oʊ æ t / SUR -boh- KROH -at ), Serbo-Croat-Bosnian ( SCB ), Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian ( BCS ), and Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian ( BCMS ) –
7344-602: The Republic of Venice . In the same treaty Stjepan promised to pay regular tribute to Alfonso instead of paying the Ottoman sultan as he had done until then. In 1446 Stjepan Vukčić finally recognized Thomas as king, and the pre-war borders were restored. Peace between two rivals was sealed by the marriage of Stjepan's daughter Catherine (Katarina) and King Thomas in May 1446, with Catherine abandoning Bosnian Church and converting to Roman Catholicism. The Ottomans were displeased with
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#17327654614407488-715: The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet , and Gaj and Daničić standardized the Croatian Latin alphabet , on the basis of vernacular speech phonemes and the principle of phonological spelling. In 1850 Serbian and Croatian writers and linguists signed the Vienna Literary Agreement , declaring their intention to create a unified standard. Thus a complex bi-variant language appeared, which the Serbs officially called "Serbo-Croatian" or "Serbian or Croatian" and
7632-630: The Valun tablet , dated to the 11th century, written in Glagolitic and Latin; and the Inscription of Župa Dubrovačka , a Glagolitic tablet dated to the 11th century. The Baška tablet from the late 11th century was written in Glagolitic. It is a large stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy, Jurandvor on the Croatian island of Krk that contains text written mostly in Chakavian in
7776-576: The vlastela , were also barred, but influenced decision-making in the stanak through the great lords associated with them. The magnates of the country convoked the stanak themselves when the country experienced greater domestic issues, such as succession crisis or deposition of the ruler, domestic conflicts or wars. It normally took place wherever the monarch held court: in Mile , Milodraž , Bobovac , Kraljeva Sutjeska and Jajce . The Stanak enjoyed power and authority on all matters, including election of
7920-613: The " Vinodol Codex " of 1288, both written in the Chakavian dialect. The Shtokavian dialect literature, based almost exclusively on Chakavian original texts of religious provenance ( missals , breviaries , prayer books ) appeared almost a century later. The most important purely Shtokavian vernacular text is the Vatican Croatian Prayer Book ( c. 1400 ). Both the language used in legal texts and that used in Glagolitic literature gradually came under
8064-664: The "Banate of Jajce" along with the Banate of Srebrenik and the Banate of Bihać. In Hungarian hands Jajce withstood Ottoman attacks until 1527, when it finally surrendered after a decisive Ottoman victory in the Battle of Mohács . Much of modern northern and western Bosnia and Herzegovina was then incorporated into the Ottoman Sanjak of Bosnia , initially belonging to the Rumelia Eyalet , when in 1580 Bosnian Sanjak became
8208-459: The 1921 constitution. In 1929, the constitution was suspended, and the country was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , while the official language of Serbo-Croato-Slovene was reinstated in the 1931 constitution. In June 1941, the Nazi puppet Independent State of Croatia began to rid the language of "Eastern" (Serbian) words, and shut down Serbian schools. The totalitarian dictatorship introduced
8352-593: The Balkans, there are over two million native speakers of the language(s), especially in countries which are frequent targets of immigration, such as Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Sweden, and the United States. Serbo-Croatian is a highly inflected language . Traditional grammars list seven cases for nouns and adjectives : nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , vocative , locative , and instrumental , reflecting
8496-443: The Bosnian nobility held significant power, exercising it at the Stanak meetings. The Stanak is the most common name used to refer to the assembly of nobility in medieval Bosnia , and it is first attested in the charter of Tvrtko I in 1354. Its influence peaked between the 1390s and the 1420s. The existence of the stanak proved a unity and feeling of belonging to a Bosnian identity and integrity, but also it illustrated weakness of
8640-563: The Constitution and law." In 2017, the " Declaration on the Common Language " ( Deklaracija o zajedničkom jeziku ) was signed by a group of NGOs and linguists from former Yugoslavia . It states that all standardized variants belong to a common polycentric language with equal status. About 18 million people declare their native language as either 'Bosnian', 'Croatian', 'Serbian', 'Montenegrin', or 'Serbo-Croatian'. Serbian
8784-468: The Croatian angular Glagolitic script. The Charter of Ban Kulin of 1189, written by Ban Kulin of Bosnia, was an early Shtokavian text, written in Bosnian Cyrillic. The luxurious and ornate representative texts of Serbo-Croatian Church Slavonic belong to the later era, when they coexisted with the Serbo-Croatian vernacular literature. The most notable are the " Missal of Duke Novak" from
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#17327654614408928-440: The Croatian variant because their languages are also Ekavian. This is a common situation in other pluricentric languages, e.g. the variants of German differ according to their prestige, the variants of Portuguese too. Moreover, all languages differ in terms of prestige: "the fact is that languages (in terms of prestige, learnability etc.) are not equal, and the law cannot make them equal". The 1946, 1953, and 1974 constitutions of
9072-622: The Croatian weekly journal Forum published the Declaration again in 2012, accompanied by a critical analysis. West European scientists judge the Yugoslav language policy as an exemplary one: although three-quarters of the population spoke one language, no single language was official on a federal level. Official languages were declared only at the level of constituent republics and provinces, and very generously: Vojvodina had five (among them Slovak and Romanian, spoken by 0.5 per cent of
9216-544: The Croats "Croato-Serbian", or "Croatian or Serbian". Yet, in practice, the variants of the conceived common literary language served as different literary variants, chiefly differing in lexical inventory and stylistic devices. The common phrase describing this situation was that Serbo-Croatian or "Croatian or Serbian" was a single language. In 1861, after a long debate, the Croatian Sabor put up several proposed names to
9360-808: The Dictionary for being unitaristic that were written by Croatian linguists. And finally, Croatian linguists ignored the fact that the material for the Pravopisni rječnik came from the Croatian Philological Society. Regardless of these facts, Croatian intellectuals brought the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language in 1967. On occasion of the publication's 45th anniversary,
9504-443: The Hungarian king and, with the agreement of his vassals, recognized him as his feudal overlord as well as heir designate to the Bosnian throne. It is not clear what prompted Dabiša to agree to such harsh terms. In return, as evident from a treaty issued in July 1394, Sigismund included Dabiša among the highest ranking Hungarian officials and named him ispán (count) of Somogy . Despite an auspicious start, Dabiša's reign ended with
9648-565: The King of Hungary. He appears to have evaded capture by Hungarian troops by fleeing to the mountains of northern Zachlumia . Ostoja ended the decade-long dispute with the Hungarians by recognizing the suzerainty of the Hungarian crown and, in 1412, visiting the Hungarian throne in Buda with the rest of the Bosnian and Serbian nobility including Serbian Despot Stefan Lazarević . After that Tvrtko faded into obscurity and had no part in Bosnian affairs for several years. The first Ottoman troops attacked Bosnia in May 1414; in August they also brought
9792-410: The Latin alphabet — which was true, but was not proof of unequal rights, but of frequency of use and prestige. Babić further complained that the Novi Sad Dictionary (1967) listed side by side words from both the Croatian and Serbian variants wherever they differed, which one can view as proof of careful respect for both variants, and not of unitarism. Moreover, Croatian linguists criticized those parts of
9936-433: The Lika region in northwestern Croatia (1368), "Evangel from Reims" (1395, named after the town of its final destination), Hrvoje's Missal from Bosnia and Split in Dalmatia (1404), and the first printed book in Serbo-Croatian, the Glagolitic Missale Romanum Glagolitice (1483). During the 13th century Serbo-Croatian vernacular texts began to appear, the most important among them being the "Istrian land survey" of 1275 and
10080-406: The Ottoman Turks; the former resented losing their monopoly on trade, while the latter's poor relationship with Venice was the result of territorial disputes over Albania and Zeta . Ottomans proceeded to raid Bosnia in the spring of 1424 to make it clear to Tvrtko that close relations with Venice would not be tolerated. Tvrtko understood that Venice would not be able to provide him with help against
10224-566: The Ottoman navy as Ahmed Pasha Hercegović (around 1473) in Istanbul . After his marriage in 1474, he reconciled with his older brother Vladislav. Just before death of Sultan Mehmed II , Vlatko tried one more push to the heart of Bosnia, but abandoned by his allies his venture ended in disaster, after which he completely and finitely withdraws to his fortress in Novi. Meanwhile, all this, along with death of Mehmed II, prompted new sultan, Bayezid II , to overtake Novi and its harbor, along with whatever territory remained. In November 1481, Ajaz-Bey of
10368-469: The Ottomans and by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. This alliance could have easily deposed Tvrtko II in Radivoj's favor if they wished, but it appears that their only goal was to weaken and divide Bosnia for their own future benefit. Notwithstanding, King Tvrtko II maintained himself on the Bosnian throne longer than any of the monarchs who followed Tvrtko I. He also did more to restore royal dignity and centralize
10512-489: The Ottomans in December 1481, and incorporated into the empire as re-organized territory of already formed and renamed province, Sanjak of Herzegovina . The fortified Jajce , the capital of, at that point, all but completely annihilated kingdom, was captured by Hungarians under Matthias on 26 December 1463. Hungarians established a defensive territory between advancing Ottomans and their kingdom further north by constituting
10656-613: The Ottomans invaded Bosnia in early 1420, Tvrtko once again accompanied them and installed himself as anti-king. Sandalj immediately declared for him. Fearing the Ottomans, Sandalj's example was soon followed by other noblemen. In June Tvrtko convoked a stanak, and Ragusa recognized him as king. He had the support of almost all of the nobility in Visoko , including duke Vukmir , mayor Dragiša, knez Juraj Vojsalić, knez Pribić, knez Radič Radojević, knez Batić Mirković, knez Juraj Dragičević, knez Petar Klešić, duke Ivko, and duke Pavao Jurjević. By
10800-644: The Ottomans to the Hungarians, who they saw as an age-long enemies. They offered their kingdom to Venice in return for aid, but when Venice refused, they preferred to remain under the Ottomans than the Hungarians. After the fall in 1463, herceg Stjepan Vukčić , lord of the Hum province in the south of the kingdom, lived for another three years, enough to see kingdom's complete demise, for which he blamed his eldest son Vladislav Hercegović . On 21 May 1466, old and terminally ill duke dictated his last words, recorded in
10944-404: The Ottomans, and thus slowly dismantled their alliance. In 1425, Tvrtko realized that he needed a strong ally in the event of further Ottoman attacks. The Ottomans responded with severe attacks that forced Tvrtko to accept their suzerainty and to agree to pay an annual tribute. In 1432, Stefan Lazarević's successor Đurađ , Sandalj, and the Ottomans helped Radivoj , the elder illegitimate son of
11088-682: The Ottomans, but the two were in the middle of the civil war. Ivaniš Pavlović , sent by King Thomas, attacked Stjepan Vukčić. Thomas had at the same time been recognized by the Hungarian regent John Hunyadi . Stjepan turned to King Alfonso V of Aragon , who made him "Knight of the Virgin", but did not give him troops. On 15 February 1444, Stjepan signed a treaty with the King of Aragon and Naples, becoming his vassal in exchange for Alfonso's help against his enemies, namely King Thomas, Duke Ivaniš Pavlović and
11232-547: The Primorje (Seaside), and the western lands". The acquisition of Serbian territory, including the important Monastery of Mileševa, combined with the fact that Tvrtko's grandmother had been a member of the Nemanjić dynasty , prompted Tvrtko into having himself crowned King of Serbia, thus asserting his pretensions to the Serbian throne. This was made possible by the royal Nemanjić line having died out with Uroš in 1371. The crown
11376-541: The Queen. The emancipation of Bosnian nobility reached a peak during Helen's reign. Having become virtually autonomous, her vassals engaged in internal warfare, which weakened Bosnia and precluded its participation in regional politics. By March 1398, Bosnia was beset by internal strife. It seems that Helen's family, the Nikolić , attempted to take further advantage of their royal relations and free themselves from subordinacy to
11520-478: The Sanjak of Herzegovina besieged Novi, however, just before 14 December 1481 Vlatko gave up resisting, and agreed with the Ottomans to move with his family to Istanbul. This signified the ultimate disappearance of what was the last remaining independent point of the Bosnian state. So, the province endured for another fifteen years after Stjepan Vukčić's death, shrinking with time, before it was eventually swallowed by
11664-710: The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not name specific official languages at the federal level. The 1992 constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , in 2003 renamed Serbia and Montenegro , stated in Article 15: "In the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Serbian language in its ekavian and ijekavian dialects and the Cyrillic script shall be official, while the Latin script shall be in official use as provided for by
11808-469: The accent shifted to the preceding syllable (the so-called "Neo-Shtokavian retraction"), but the quality of this new accent was different – its melody still "gravitated" towards the original syllable. Most Shtokavian (Neo-Shtokavian) dialects underwent this shift, but Chakavian, Kajkavian and the Old-Shtokavian dialects did not. Accent diacritics are not used in the ordinary orthography, but only in
11952-569: The beginning of Tvrtko's reign as more tumultuous than anything "since the Flood ", but he soon succeeded in uniting the country by bringing together his feuding vassals. Hungarian attacks on Bosnia took place annually, making Tvrtko's life "a constant hassle". In 1408, Sigismund defeated the Bosnian nobility and Tvrtko and in 1409 he restored Ostoja to the throne. One hundred and seventy minor noblemen were captured and killed in Dobor by being tossed over
12096-519: The beginning of the 15th century, the withdrawal of representatives of the Bosnian Church from political activities in the service of Hrvoje Vukčić allowed members of the Catholic Church to take up those seats, as recorded in a document of Juraj Vojsalić dated 12 August 1434. It was common for the Holy See to have Bosnian rulers renounce any relation to the Bosnian Church, or even perform conversions, in return for support. After Stephen Thomas started persecuting Bosnian Church followers, they responded in
12240-684: The city walls. Tvrtko is said to have been captured as well, but this does not appear to be true, as he demanded the customary tribute from the Ragusans in February 1409. The hostilities continued until the end of November, with Tvrtko retreating southwards with his noblemen and resisting Hungarian attacks, which enabled Ostoja to reestablish control over Central Bosnia . Tvrtko remained on the throne until mid-1409, when Ostoja prevailed. Sigismund's claim became untenable, but Bosnians acknowledged his overlordship over Ostoja; only Tvrtko refused to submit to
12384-415: The coast and Orthodox monasteries in neighboring Serbia, possibly because of the indifference of Bosnian nobles towards formal religion. Medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina had three Christian faiths : Catholic and Orthodox Christians, and some who simply called themselves Bosnians, belonging to the so-called Bosnian Church . Most information about this church comes from outside sources and its exact nature
12528-455: The crown, which Tvrtko was not able to reach. Following a few minor disputes with the maritime republics of Venice and Ragusa over Konavli and Pomorje , Tvrtko gained recognition as the legitimate king from both states. By 1406, Ostoja was losing what little support he had left in Bosnia, with the nobility now unanimously favouring Tvrtko, but the former king's decision to remain in the country continued to trouble Tvrtko. Ragusans described
12672-437: The deed. The threat seems to have worked, as Stjepan abandoned the siege. After King Thomas and Despot Đurađ reconciled sometime prior to late fall 1451, Ragusa proposed a league against Stjepan. Thomas' charter from 18 December 1451, apart from ceding of some of Stjepan's territories to Ragusa, who nevertheless firmly held those, also included the obligation that he would attack Vukčić. Stjepan Tomašević succeeded his father on
12816-525: The deposed monarch, Tvrtko, and set him up as anti-king . His alliance with the Ottomans may have been due to their mutual hostility towards Sigismund. Pavle Radenović immediately declared for Tvrtko, but no other major nobleman appears to have followed his example – not even Hrvoje. While Tvrtko hoped for an Ottoman victory, Ostoja expected that a Hungarian triumph would rid him of Ottoman raiders and secure his position against both his rival and his ambitious magnates. The Battle of Doboj in August 1415 saw
12960-531: The disastrous defeat of Sigismund's army. Contrary to expectations, however, the Ottomans recognized Ostoja as the legitimate king. Tvrtko lost his ground, while the united Bosnians for the first time shifted their allegiance from the Hungarian crown to the Ottoman Sultanate. Ostoja died in September 1418. Despite expectations that Tvrtko would take over, Ostoja's son Stephen was elected king. When
13104-419: The end of the year, Tvrtko had completely ousted Stephen, who continued to advance his claim until the summer of 1421. He appears to have died soon after. Internal troubles forced the Ottomans to withdraw their troops from Bosnia, which enabled Tvrtko to strengthen his hold on the kingdom and for its economy to recover. Tvrtko's second accession had to be legitimized with a new coronation, which took place during
13248-573: The fall of 1377 (probably 26 October, the feast day of Saint Demetrius ), and marked a significant event of Bosnian medieval history, although contemporary sources about the coronation are very rare. The Royal Charter issued to the Ragusan commune on 10 April 1378 stands as one of the key sources for understanding the position of medieval Bosnian banate and its transformation to the kingdom, as well as information about economic activity between Bosnia and Ragusa, and proof of Bosnian independence. Feudal fragmentation remained important feature in Bosnia and
13392-484: The first King of Bosnia, claiming full legitimacy as the crown he took was sent from Pope Honorius III to Stefan the First-Crowned in 1217. A Serbian logothete named Blagoje, having found refuge at Tvrtko's court, attributed to Tvrtko the right to a "double crown": one for Bosnia, and the other for the Serbian lands of his Nemanjić ancestors. He was also King of Serbia, and in that way, legal basis for crowning
13536-544: The first time acted independently of the king, starting with the Zachlumian Sanković noble family . Dabiša curbed the Sanković power, but the trend was irreversible and eventually led to the weakening of the royal authority. Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić , the kingdom's leading magnate, came into agreement with Sigismund and Mary but remained loyal to Dabiša. By June 1394, Dabiša was in open conflict with John Horvat ,
13680-516: The following decades, and accepted by Croatian Zagreb grammarians in 1854 and 1859. At that time, Serb and Croat lands were still part of the Ottoman and Austrian Empires . Officially, the language was called variously Serbo-Croat, Croato-Serbian, Serbian and Croatian, Croatian and Serbian, Serbian or Croatian, Croatian or Serbian. Unofficially, Serbs and Croats typically called the language "Serbian" or "Croatian", respectively, without implying
13824-457: The following year, however, the leading noblemen – Grand Duke Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić , Prince Pavao Radinović , Duke Sandalj Hranić , and Juraj of Radivojević 's – refused to honor the agreement Dabiša had made with Sigismund. Sigismund raised an army and marched to nearby Syrmia to claim the Bosnian throne, but the noblemen convoked a stanak , an assembly of noblemen, and elected Helen as Dabiša's successor. Not willing to engage
13968-463: The genitive singular is used, and after all other numbers five ( pet ) and up, the genitive plural is used. (The number one [ jedan ] is treated as an adjective.) Adjectives are placed in front of the noun they modify and must agree in both case and number with it. There are seven tenses for verbs: past , present , future , exact future, aorist , imperfect , and pluperfect ; and three moods : indicative , imperative , and conditional . However,
14112-459: The history of the South Slavs, the vernacular, literary, and written languages (e.g. Chakavian, Kajkavian, Shtokavian) of the various regions and ethnicities developed and diverged independently. Prior to the 19th century, they were collectively called "Illyria", "Slavic", "Slavonian", "Bosnian", "Dalmatian", "Serbian" or "Croatian". Since the nineteenth century, the term Illyrian or Illyric
14256-513: The immediate aftermath of Tvrtko's death, during Dabiša 's reign conditions within the state started deteriorating. He successfully resisted his sovereigns from Hungary , Naples , and even Ottoman Turks . In the first years of his reign, Dabiša successfully maintained the integrity of the Kingdom. The latter part of his reign, however, saw the ascent of magnates and considerable loss of territories and influence. The nobility grew stronger and for
14400-410: The influence of the vernacular, which considerably affected its phonological , morphological , and lexical systems. From the 14th and the 15th centuries, both secular and religious songs at church festivals were composed in the vernacular. Writers of early Serbo-Croatian religious poetry ( začinjavci ) gradually introduced the vernacular into their works. These začinjavci were the forerunners of
14544-416: The kingdom displaying the first signs of decay. Much of Tvrtko's extraordinary legacy was lost in the summer of 1394, and the state resumed its previous boundaries. Dabiša left the state more dependent on Hungarian kings than ever before, and the kingdom's influence in the Balkans waned. In 1394, Dabiša's wife Helen agreed to Dabiša's decision to designate Sigismund as his heir. When Dabiša died on 8 September
14688-481: The language of all three nations in this territory was declared "Bosnian" until the death of administrator von Kállay in 1907, at which point the name was changed to "Serbo-Croatian". With unification of the first the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes – the approach of Karadžić and the Illyrians became dominant. The official language was called "Serbo-Croato-Slovenian" ( srpsko-hrvatsko-slovenački ) in
14832-423: The last months of his reign, Tvrtko devoted himself to solidifying his position in Dalmatia and to plans for taking Zadar, the only Dalmatian city that had evaded his rule. He offered an extensive alliance to Venice, but it did not suit the republic's interests. Meanwhile, Tvrtko was also fostering relations with Albert III, Duke of Austria . By the late summer of 1390, a marriage was expected to be contracted between
14976-478: The latter three tenses are typically used only in Shtokavian writing, and the time sequence of the exact future is more commonly formed through an alternative construction. In addition, like most Slavic languages, the Shtokavian verb also has one of two aspects : perfective or imperfective . Most verbs come in pairs, with the perfective verb being created out of the imperfective by adding a prefix or making
15120-425: The limits of the region in which it is spoken and includes everything between the limits ('Bosnian' and 'Montenegrin'). Today, use of the term "Serbo-Croatian" is controversial due to the prejudice that nation and language must match. It is still used for lack of a succinct alternative, though alternative names have emerged, such as Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian (BCS), which is often seen in political contexts such as
15264-401: The linguistic or language-learning literature (e.g. dictionaries, orthography and grammar books). However, there are very few minimal pairs where an error in accent can lead to misunderstanding. Serbo-Croatian orthography is almost entirely phonetic. Thus, most words should be spelled as they are pronounced. In practice, the writing system does not take into account allophones which occur as
15408-510: The long-deceased Ostoja, to lay claim to the throne and take control of much of the country. Tvrtko's only noteworthy support came from Hrvoje's nephew and successor, Juraj Vojsalić , and he managed to retain only central and northwestern Bosnia. Tvrtko retreated to Visoko , but soon found that Sandalj had become too ill to support Radivoj's cause. After years of pleading for their help, Tvrtko finally saw Hungarians march into Bosnia in mid-1434. They recovered for him Jajce , Hodidjed , Bočac and
15552-493: The monarch and decentralization of the state. The right to take part in the sessions of the s tanak was enjoyed by every Bosnian knez , from magnates to petty lords, collectively known as vlastela , but the ultimate authority belonged to the highest nobility. The stanak was convoked when required, usually by the ruler , who presided over it and led its sessions. If male, his wife was allowed to attend, but his children were not. The Bosnian Church clergy, not belonging to
15696-515: The more established literary languages of Latin and Old Slavonic. Old Slavonic developed into the Serbo-Croatian variant of Church Slavonic between the 12th and 16th centuries. Among the earliest attestations of Serbo-Croatian are: the Humac tablet , dating from the 10th or 11th century, written in Bosnian Cyrillic and Glagolitic; the Plomin tablet , dating from the same era, written in Glagolitic;
15840-444: The new king or queen and coronation , foreign policy, sale or cession of territory, contracting and signing treaties with neighboring countries, and military issues. Charters issued by monarchs reflected the decisions made by the stanak ; as the royal power weakened, that of s tanak increased. Hungarian rulers perceived Bosnia as a country under their sovereignty during medieval time, however, Bosnian sovereignty and independence
15984-418: The new king or queen and coronations , foreign policy, sale or cession of territory, contracting and signing treaties with neighboring countries, and military issues. The Ottoman Empire annexed portions of eastern Bosnia in the 1440s and 1450s and went on to conquer Hum, by then renamed to Herzegovina , with the last fortress, Novi , falling in December 1481. Stephen Tomašević , the last king of Bosnia,
16128-492: The official language of four out of six republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . The breakup of Yugoslavia affected language attitudes, so that social conceptions of the language separated along ethnic and political lines. Since the breakup of Yugoslavia, Bosnian has likewise been established as an official standard in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and there is an ongoing movement to codify
16272-402: The original seven cases of Proto-Slavic , and indeed older forms of Serbo-Croatian itself. However, in modern Shtokavian the locative has almost merged into dative (the only difference is based on accent in some cases), and the other cases can be shown declining; namely: Like most Slavic languages, there are mostly three genders for nouns: masculine, feminine, and neuter, a distinction which
16416-513: The other. In the first half of 1448, Stjepan Vukčić, in an attempt to "bolster his case with the Ottomans", added the title of herzog and styled himself Herzog of Hum and the Coast, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and the rest , first documented in the spring of 1449. Later, toward the end of 1449 and the beginning of 1450, in a public relations stunt, he changed it to Herzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum, Grand Duke of Bosnia, Knyaz of Drina, and
16560-520: The peace as their interest lay primarily in weakening and dividing Bosnia. Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković was also displeased due to the Srebrenica issue, as the principal mining center of Bosnia returned to Bosnia. In 1448, the Ottomans sent an expedition to plunder King Tomaš's lands, but they also plundered Stjepan Vukčić's lands. Stjepan sent envoys to Despot Đurađ to try to improve the relations between himself on one side and Đurađ and Ottomans on
16704-469: The points of contention was Thomas recent conversion Catholicism, move that was deem potentially harmful to the Bosnian Church. And while Thomas' decision to convert was forced political maneuvering, albeit founded in sound reasoning with the saving of the realm on his mind, he also committed himself to demonstrate his devotion by engaging in religious prosecution against his recent fellow co-religionist, thus eventually proving his conversion to be detrimental to
16848-406: The population was without priests. When Vukosav Hrvatinić of Donji Kraji pledged allegiance to Stephen II and gained župa Banica and Vrbanja as a result, Bosnian Church officials were present as a guarantee of charter that confirmed those župas. The bans and kings of Bosnia were proclaimed Catholics during their reign, except for Ostoja , who showed some interest in the Bosnian Church while he
16992-464: The population), and Kosovo four (Albanian, Turkish, Romany and Serbo-Croatian). Newspapers, radio and television studios used sixteen languages, fourteen were used as languages of tuition in schools, and nine at universities. Only the Yugoslav People's Army used Serbo-Croatian as the sole language of command, with all other languages represented in the army's other activities—however, this
17136-753: The recently widowed King and a member of the Austrian ruling family, the Habsburgs . The Hungarian kingdom remained the focus of Tvrtko's foreign policy, however. Although they did not recognize each other as kings, Tvrtko and Hungarian King Sigismund started negotiating a peace in September. Sigismund was in the weaker position and likely ready to make concessions to Tvrtko when his ambassadors arrived at Tvrtko's court in January 1391. The negotiations were probably never concluded, as Tvrtko died on 10 March. While Bosnia retained its standing among neighboring states in
17280-408: The relative lack of tenses, because verbal aspect determines whether the act is completed or in progress in the referred time. The Serbo-Croatian vowel system is simple, with only five vowels in Shtokavian. All vowels are monophthongs . The oral vowels are as follows: The vowels can be short or long, but the phonetic quality does not change depending on the length. In a word, vowels can be long in
17424-515: The rest . In 1451 Stjepan Vukčić attacked the Republic of Ragusa , and laid siege to the city . As he had earlier been made a Ragusan nobleman, the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor. A reward of 15,000 ducats , a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2,000 ducats, and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him. along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan noble status which also helped hold this promise to whoever did
17568-578: The rich literary production of the 16th-century literature, which, depending on the area, was Chakavian-, Kajkavian-, or Shtokavian-based. The language of religious poems, translations, miracle and morality plays contributed to the popular character of medieval Serbo-Croatian literature. One of the earliest dictionaries, also in the Slavic languages as a whole, was the Bosnian–Turkish Dictionary of 1631 authored by Muhamed Hevaji Uskufi and
17712-487: The state than any other, leaving a strong mark on Bosnia's politics, economy, and culture. King Tvrtko II died in September 1443. childless, having expressed a wish to be succeeded by his politically inactive and until then rather obscure cousin Stephen Thomas , Radivoj's younger brother and likewise an illegitimate son of Ostoja. Meanwhile, like most Bosnian nobleman of the era, Stjepan Vukčić too considered himself
17856-403: The stressed syllable and the syllables following it, never in the ones preceding it. The consonant system is more complicated, and its characteristic features are series of affricate and palatal consonants. As in English, voice is phonemic , but aspiration is not. In consonant clusters all consonants are either voiced or voiceless. All the consonants are voiced if the last consonant
18000-498: The syllable nucleus in certain words (occasionally, it can even have a long accent). For example, the tongue-twister navrh brda vrba mrda involves four words with syllabic /r/ . A similar feature exists in Czech , Slovak , and Macedonian . Very rarely other sonorants can be syllabic, like /l/ (in bicikl ), /ʎ/ (surname Štarklj ), /n/ (unit njutn ), as well as /m/ and /ɲ/ in slang . Apart from Slovene , Serbo-Croatian
18144-539: The throne following the latter's death in July 1461 and became the first Bosnian king to receive a crown from the Holy See . Under Tomašević, Bosnia was left to fend for itself by his senior, Matthias Corvinus , who held nominal rule of Bosnia, and by other European powers. After the Ottomans laid siege on Jajce , Tomašević escaped to Ključ , fortress in the western territories of his realm, but Ottomans led by Mahmud Pasha Angelović pursued and caught up with him there. After
18288-556: The throne with Hungarian support, but, in June 1404, Tvrtko's supporters defeated a Hungarian army and thus prevented Ostoja from reclaiming the crown, although the chief royal residence of Bobovac and the Usoran town of Srebrenik were captured and restored to Ostoja. All major noble families remained loyal to Tvrtko, while Ostoja functioned as Sigismund's puppet whose territory included little more than Bobovac. The fortress, however, housed
18432-592: The time, did not support Tvrtko's aspirations in this regard. By 1390, Tvrtko had expanded his realm to include a part of Croatia and Dalmatia , and expanded his title to "King of The Serbs, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia and the Littoral". Tvrtko's full title listed subject peoples and geographical dependencies, following the Byzantine norm. At the peak of his power, he was "King of Bosnia , Serbia , Croatia , Hum , Usora , Soli , Dalmatia , and Donji Kraji ". In
18576-534: The traditional stronghold in Visoko and in 1450 demolished the Franciscan monastery in Mile . However, it was quickly rebuilt. Thomas earned the nickname "damned king" for his actions against adherents of the Bosnian Church. Especially detrimental to the Kristjani were these developments, which in turn prompted Stjepan Vukčić Kosača to give followers and members of the Bosnian Church safe haven, and also to join
18720-403: The united nobility in war, Sigismund withdrew; the death of his wife Mary , heir of Hungary and cousin of Dabiša, made his position too precarious to attack in Bosnia, as did the defeat by the Ottomans at the Battle of Nicopolis . By mid-December 1395, Helen had consolidated her grasp on the throne, and the pretender was killed by Sigismund's supporters in 1396, never having seriously threatened
18864-416: Was a kind of soft standardisation. However, legal equality could not dampen the prestige Serbo-Croatian had: since it was the language of three quarters of the population, it functioned as an unofficial lingua franca. And within Serbo-Croatian, the Serbian variant, with twice as many speakers as the Croatian, enjoyed greater prestige, reinforced by the fact that Slovene and Macedonian speakers preferred it to
19008-409: Was achieved, which was promoted even by his formal sovereign Louis I . Tvrtko's title as a king was also approved by Louis's successor, and Tvrtko's cousin, Mary, Queen of Hungary . Venice and Ragusa consistently referred to Tvrtko as King of Rascia , Ragusa even complaining, in 1378, about Tvrtko's preoccupation with his new kingdom. Tvrtko's coronation as King of Bosnia and Serbia was held in
19152-436: Was brought to power by the forces of Hrvoje Vukčić , who deposed Helen in 1398. In 1403 he sided with King Ladislaus of Naples against Sigismund. Ostoja led a war against the Republic of Dubrovnik , a Hungarian vassalage. In 1404, the Bosnian nobles under Hrvoje Vukčić replaced him with his brother Tvrtko II because of his pro-Hungarian views. He had to flee to Hungary after a stanak in Mile , Visoko . Ostoja tried to reclaim
19296-412: Was captured by the Ottomans and killed in 1463. The overwhelming majority of the population was rural, with few significant urban centers. Among the more notable towns were Doboj , Jajce , Srebrenik , Srebrenica , Tešanj , and Podvisoki . Mining, especially for silver , was a major source of income for Bosnian kings. The Banate of Bosnia was a medieval state comprising, at its peak, most of what
19440-661: Was crowned in the Orthodox Monastery of Mileševa by the Metropolitan of Mileševa. After the defeat of Altomanović, Lazar was the most powerful lord on the territory of the former Serbian Empire. He wanted to reunite the Serbian state, and the Serbian Orthodox Church saw him as the best suited to succeed the Nemanjić dynasty. The Church, which was the strongest cohesive force among the Serbs at
19584-404: Was cut off from the main part of his territory, although Vlatko's actions against Ottomans were mostly concentrated around this fort with limited success. Počitelj fell in 1471, however, herceg Vlatko already in 1470 realized that only radical change in his politics could bring him some release, so he pursued and achieved a peace with the Ottomans. In the same year, the Ottomans excluded Hum from
19728-423: Was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko I following the death of the last Serbian Emperor from the Nemanjić dynasty , which had no heir to the throne in 1371. Tvrtko had the strongest claim to the royal title at that time, and even if he had no practical means to rule Serbia, it allowed him to elevate Bosnia to a kingdom, as this would imply more formal independence. Tvrtko thus proclaimed himself
19872-447: Was not recognized by the leading magnate of Bosnia, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. The two engaged in a civil war which ended when Thomas repudiated his wife Vojača and married the insubordinate nobleman's daughter Catherine . Thomas and his second wife, both raised in the Bosnian Church tradition, converted to Roman Catholicism and sponsored the construction of churches and monasteries throughout Bosnia. Throughout his reign, Thomas waged
20016-479: Was on the throne, and Radivoj the exiled anti-King, who was openly Bosnian Church faithful and remained so in face of king's crusade against the church adherents. There were, however, several important noblemen who were members of the Bosnian Church, called " Krstjani ", such as Hrvoje Vukčić , the Radinović-Pavlović family, Sandalj Hranić , Stjepan Vukčić , and Paul Klešić. Conversions were sometimes used as
20160-583: Was reversed in favor of a single Serbo-Croatian or Croato-Serbian language. In the Communist -dominated second Yugoslavia , ethnic issues eased to an extent, but the matter of language remained blurred and unresolved. In 1954, major Serbian and Croatian writers, linguists and literary critics, backed by Matica srpska and Matica hrvatska signed the Novi Sad Agreement , which in its first conclusion stated: "Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins share
20304-408: Was revised by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić in the 19th century. King of Bosnia This is a list of monarchs of Bosnia , containing bans and kings of Medieval Bosnia ; Bosnia (early medieval) , Banate of Bosnia , Kingdom of Bosnia . was Lord of Bosnia from 1312 to 1322. In 1314, Mladen II appoints Stephen II Kotromanić, his former enemy, as vassal in Bosnia. All Bosnian kings added
20448-442: Was sent to him by Hungarian king Louis of Anjou . According to a plurality of recent works from scholars like Čošković, Anđelić, Lovrenović, and Filipović, the ceremony itself was conducted in Mile near Visoko in the church that was built during Stephen II Kotromanić 's reign, where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II. In contrast, some earlier historiographers, mostly represented by western scholars, consider that he
20592-538: Was used quite often (thus creating confusion with the Illyrian language ). Although the word Illyrian was used on a few occasions before , its widespread usage began after Ljudevit Gaj and several other prominent linguists met at Ljudevit Vukotinović 's house to discuss the issue in 1832. The term Serbo-Croatian was first used by Jacob Grimm in 1824, popularized by the Viennese philologist Jernej Kopitar in
20736-456: Was written in the Arebica script. In the mid-19th century, Serbian (led by self-taught writer and folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić ) and most Croatian writers and linguists (represented by the Illyrian movement and led by Ljudevit Gaj and Đuro Daničić ), proposed the use of the most widespread dialect, Shtokavian , as the base for their common standard language. Karadžić standardised
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