Bácum is a small city and the county seat of Bácum Municipality , located in the south of the Mexican state of Sonora at 27°32′N 110°05′W / 27.533°N 110.083°W / 27.533; -110.083 .
136-702: It is one of eight mission villages founded in the early seventeenth century by colonial Spanish Jesuit missionaries for the Indian Reductions of the Yaqui people . The Yaqui developed their own syncretic form of the religion. The town of Bácum is one of the eight historical Spanish mission towns of the Yaqui Indians, founded in 1617 by the Jesuit missionaries Andrés Pérez de Ribas and Tomás Basilio. They called it Santa Rosa de Bácum . In 1930
272-457: A corregidor (also known as an alcalde mayor ) or a cabildo (town council), both of which had judicial and administrative powers. In the late 18th century the Bourbon dynasty began phasing out the corregidores and introduced intendants , whose broad fiscal powers cut into the authority of the viceroys, governors and cabildos . Despite their late creation, these intendancies so affected
408-519: A tropical savanna climate ( Koppen : Aw ). The wet season typically lasts from June to October, when a vast majority of the yearly precipitation falls. Large tropical thunderstorms occur nearly daily in the late afternoon, originating in the moist atmosphere above the Gulf of Mexico. The wet season has slightly hotter temperatures and is more humid than other seasons; the dewpoint can easily exceed 25 °C (77.0 °F). It has fewer foggy days than
544-595: A Spanish city, sixteenth-century Puebla had Indians resident in the central core. Veracruz (city) Veracruz ( Latin American Spanish pronunciation: [beɾaˈkɾus] ), also known as Heroica Veracruz , is a major port city and municipal seat for the surrounding municipality of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico and the most populous city in the Mexican state of Veracruz . The city
680-507: A localized network. Even where infrastructure was improved, transit on the Veracruz-Puebla main road had other obstacles, with wolves attacking mule trains, killing animals, and rendering some sacks of foodstuffs unsellable because they were smeared with blood. The north-south Acapulco route remained a mule track through mountainous terrain. Veracruz was the first Spanish settlement founded in what became New Spain, and it endured as
816-478: A natural break. In the pre-Hispanic era, this island was a sanctuary dedicated to the god Tezcatlipoca. The site where the Spanish first landed has been developed over the centuries and today serves as the container ship terminal of the port. Most of the island is occupied by the fort. This fort was built where the Spanish first landed to conquer Mexico City. They used it for their last defense during and just after
952-519: A population of 537,952 inhabitants, 405,952 in Veracruz municipality and 132,011 in Boca del Río municipality. Developed during Spanish colonization, Veracruz is Mexico's oldest, largest, and historically most significant port. When the Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés arrived in what is now Mexican territory on 22 April 1519, he founded a city, which he named Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz , referring to
1088-476: A reduction of 80% of the port's jobs and labor resistance through strikes. The dockworkers' unions unified, negotiating for members to have a stake in a new company to manage the port's functions, named the Empresa de Servicios Portuarios de Veracruz, S.A. de C.V . The old Compañia Terminal de Veracruz was dissolved in 1988 and the new organization was fully in place by 1991. In September 2010, Hurricane Karl ,
1224-471: A region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations, which do not easily support human settlement. In the 1540s, the discovery of silver in Zacatecas attracted Spanish mining entrepreneurs and workers, to exploit the mines, as well as crown officials to ensure the crown received its share of revenue. Silver mining became integral not only to the development of New Spain, but also to the enrichment of
1360-459: A reputation for being lively, with many people out in the squares listening to music late into the night. In the morning, they frequent sidewalk cafes for their morning coffee. Veracruz has become a popular location for filming. The government has supported the development of filmmaking in the municipality. The song " La Bamba ", made famous by Ritchie Valens , has its roots in the Veracruz "son" style of music, which originated in southern part of
1496-498: A series of dungeons with walls 24-feet thick in some places. Those cells which were darker and hotter were reserved for those charged with more serious crimes. A few of the most dreaded dungeons were nicknamed "Heaven", "Purgatory" and "Hell". Some of prison's more famous prisoners include Fray Servando Teresa de Mier and Benito Juárez, both political prisoners. But the most famous is Jesús Arriaga, better known as " Chucho el Roto ". Most people visit San Juan de Ulúa out of attraction to
SECTION 10
#17327805327091632-437: A small, strong Category 3 hurricane, caused widespread flooding and damage affecting approximately half a million people. Sixteen were confirmed dead with another eleven missing. Sixty-five municipalities in the state were declared disaster areas. Preliminary damage estimates total up to US$ 3.9 billion and $ 50 billion MXN. As the municipal seat, the city of Veracruz is the governing authority for 128 other named localities during
1768-446: A steady stream of tax revenues by supplying the huge Mexican demand, so the crown limited zones of tobacco cultivation. It also established a small number of factories of finished products, and licensed distribution outlets ( estanquillos ). The crown also set up warehouses to store up to a year's worth of supplies, including paper for cigarettes, for the factories. With the establishment of the monopoly, crown revenues increased and there
1904-779: A tourist destination, emphasizing new attractions such as the Veracruz Aquarium and the City Museum, and the renovation of historic ones, such as Fort San Juan de Ulúa and the Naval Academy. The cultural center of the city is its main plaza, officially named Plaza de las Armas but commonly called the Zócalo. This tree-shaded square, in which a number of foreign invading armies have camped, is occupied from morning to night with people playing dominos, selling food, cigars, etc. playing music, dancing and other activities. It
2040-544: A variety of seafood and caldo de mariscos , a seafood soup reputed to cure hangovers . Coffeehouses are a center of social life in the city, and the Gran Café del Portal and the Café de la Parroquia are the two best-known establishments. To request a refill, customers clink the sides of their glasses (not cups) with their spoons. This clinking can be heard from the early morning to late at night. The story behind this custom
2176-554: Is May to August. The mainland has several beaches. Playa Martí is located between the city of Veracruz and Boca del Río. The Playa de Hornos is located next to the Veracruz Aquarium. There are also boats that take tourist to the Isla Canuncito. Villa del Mar is just south of Playa de Hornos. Like the majority of the coastal part of the state of Veracruz and southern parts of Tamaulipas , the city of Veracruz has
2312-536: Is also located on the Zócalo. This cathedral was begun in the 17th century and finished in 1731. It was modified in the 19th century but was not designated as a cathedral until 1963. The building has five naves , with an octagonal cupola covered in Puebla tiles . The tower was begun in the early 20th century and has its own small cupola. The main façade is Neoclassic with two levels and a crest. The lower level contains an arched entrance flanked by two Doric columns and
2448-492: Is evidence that despite high prices and expanding rates of poverty, tobacco consumption rose while at the same time, general consumption fell. In 1787 during the Bourbon Reforms Veracruz became an intendancy , a new administrative unit. Founded in 1531 as a Spanish settlement, Puebla de los Angeles quickly rose to the status of Mexico's second-most important city. Its location on the main route between
2584-701: Is left of these city walls is the Baluarte , a small fortress. The 1635 structure has thick, sturdy walls with cannons directed to cover sea approaches. Inside is a small museum featuring a collection of high-quality pre-Hispanic jewelry discovered in the 1970s by a fisherman. The Veracruz Aquarium was built in 1992 and is the largest and most important in Latin America. The Freshwater Gallery consists of thirteen exhibitions containing 562,177 liters of water. These exhibitions contain aquatic species from Asia, Africa, South America as well as Mexico. The Reef Tank
2720-437: Is located along the coast in the central part of the state, 90 km (56 mi) southeast of the state capital Xalapa . It is the state's most populous city, with a population that is greater than the municipality's population, as part of the city of Veracruz extends into the neighboring municipality of Boca del Río . At the 2020 census, Veracruz Municipality had a population of 607,209 inhabitants. The city of Veracruz had
2856-415: Is more crowded in the evening, when nearly every night the danzón is danced. This dance was brought over to Mexico from Cuba by refugees in the 1870s. It was originally restricted to the lower classes but eventually gained accepted by all levels of society. The danzón is sponsored by several dance schools dedicated to keeping the tradition alive. Around the plaza are numerous shops and restaurants, as well as
SECTION 20
#17327805327092992-481: Is that a trolley driver used to ring his bell when he was a block away from the Gran Café del Portal to let the waiters know he was coming. When the driver died, his casket was borne on the trolley and when it passed the establishment, the customers and waiters tapped their glasses in his honor. Veracruz is not as popular a tourist destination as many other resort areas. But the city has been promoting an identity as
3128-422: Is the largest celebration in the country. Sugar and rum production have been mainstays as commodities; during colonial times they were produced by slave labor and later, immigrants often entered labor and industrial jobs. Together these ethnic groups have created rich cultures. The Naval Academy attracts both Mexican and international sailors and officers, adding to the cosmopolitan mix of the city. The city has
3264-531: The Amsterdam stock market , the first in history and whose origin is owed precisely to the need for funds to finance pirate expeditions, as later by the London market. The above is what some authors call the "historical process of the transfer of wealth from the south to the north." In the colonial period, basic patterns of regional development emerged and strengthened. European settlement and institutional life
3400-943: The Cayman Islands , Trinidad , and the Bay Islands . New Spain also claimed jurisdiction over the overseas territories of the Spanish East Indies in Asia and Oceania: the Philippine Islands, the Mariana Islands , the Caroline Islands , parts of Taiwan , and parts of the Moluccas . Although asserting sovereignty over this vast realm, it did not effectively control large swaths. Other European powers, including England, France, and
3536-587: The Gulf of California in the south. The area of the municipality is 1,409.7 km (544.3 mi); and the population was 21,322 in 2005. Of these, 3,600 resided in the town of Bácum. The town is situated at an elevation of 50 meters (160 ft) above sea level. The municipality's main economic activity is intensive agriculture, with more than 300 square kilometers under irrigation by canal. The main crops are wheat, corn, soybeans, barley, cotton, and garden vegetables, as well as seasonal crops such as alfalfa and some fruits. The municipality's coastline south of
3672-836: The Kingdom of New Spain , was an integral territorial entity of the Spanish Empire , established by Habsburg Spain . It was one of several domains established during the Spanish conquest of the Americas , and had its capital in Mexico City. Its jurisdiction comprised a large area of the southern and western portions of North America, mainly what became Mexico and the Southwestern United States, but also California , Florida and Louisiana ; Central America,
3808-782: The Manila galleon . In the Philippines Manila near the South China Sea was the main port. The ports were fundamental for overseas trade, stretching a trade route from Asia, through the Manila galleon to the Spanish mainland. These were ships that made voyages from the Philippines to Mexico, whose goods were then transported overland from Acapulco to Veracruz and later reshipped from Veracruz to Cádiz in Spain. So then,
3944-578: The Metropolis (mother country) due to Spanish Roman Catholic Monarchy's frequent preoccupation with European wars (enormous amounts of this wealth were spent hiring mercenaries to fight the Protestant Reformation ), as well as the incessant decrease in overseas transportation caused by assaults from companies of British buccaneers , Dutch corsairs and pirates of various origin. These companies were initially financed by, at first, by
4080-531: The Mexica (Aztec) Empire . Central Mexico became the base of expeditions of exploration and conquest, expanding the territory claimed by the Spanish Empire. With the political and economic importance of the conquest, the crown asserted direct control over the densely populated realm. The crown established New Spain as a viceroyalty in 1535, appointing as viceroy Antonio de Mendoza , an aristocrat loyal to
4216-487: The Mexican–American War , United States forces invaded the city. It was defended by generals Juan Morales and José Juan de Landero. The siege continued with brisk firing until 27 March, by which time a considerable breach had been made in the wall surrounding the city. Upon this General Morales, who was Governor of both the city and of San Juan de Ulúa, commenced a correspondence with General Winfield Scott looking to
Bácum - Misplaced Pages Continue
4352-732: The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521) to the collapse of Spanish rule in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821). Beginning with the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521 by Hernán Cortés , Spanish rule was established, leading to the creation of governing bodies like the Council of the Indies and the Audiencia to maintain control. It involved the forced conversion of indigenous populations to Catholicism and
4488-587: The Treaty of Córdoba with Agustín de Iturbide at Fort San Juan de Ulúa. In 1823, Spanish troops remaining at Fort San Juan de Ulúa fired on the newly independent Mexican city of Veracruz. In 1825 the last Spanish troops left San Juan de Ulúa. The city's defense against the attack earned its first title of "Heroic City". During the Pastry War in 1837, the city mounted a defense against a French attack, and earned its second title of "Heroic City." In 1847 during
4624-572: The Veracruz Reef System , which is protected as a national park. Visitors can kayak to the Isla de Sacrificios to observe seagulls, pelicans and the fish that inhabit the coral reef. In 1983, a study and initial cleanup project was undertaken at the island, which collected fifty tons of trash. Shortly thereafter, the island was closed to the public and since then, there has been a struggle among authorities, tour operators and fisherman as to
4760-523: The port of Veracruz . Alexander von Humboldt called this area, Mesa de Anahuac , which can be defined as the adjacent valleys of Puebla, Mexico, and Toluca, enclosed by high mountains, along with their connections to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz and the Pacific port of Acapulco , where over half the population of New Spain lived. These valleys were linked trunk lines, or main routes, facilitating
4896-457: The 1530s sugar production was underway. New Spain's first viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza established an hacienda on lands taken from Orizaba. Indians resisted cultivating sugarcane themselves, preferring to tend their subsistence crops. As in the Caribbean, black slave labor became crucial to the development of sugar estates. During the period 1580–1640 when Spain and Portugal were ruled by
5032-470: The 18th century Veracruz's defence was improved with the construction of a wall around it (1790), bastions Baluarte de Santiago and gates, and San Juan de Ulua's renovation to today's appearance. The reason was to protect this valuable port after the threat of an invasion such as the siege of Havana (1762) by the British . The Spanish empire's talented military engineers were gathered in Veracruz to work on
5168-493: The 1920s, passenger traffic was such that the station had its own hotel. The Juárez Hemicycle Monument stands in front of the Civil Registry Building, which contains the first birth certificate issued in the country. The malecón (boardwalk) stretches for kilometers along the Gulf of Mexico, leading from the city center into the suburbs. This area is popular at night, when people stroll and exercise, enjoying
5304-490: The 19th and early 20th centuries, Veracruz was invaded on different occasions by France and the United States; in the aftermath of the 1914 Tampico Affair , US troops occupied the city for seven months . For much of the 20th century, the production of petroleum was most important for the state's economy but, in the latter 20th century and into the 21st, the port has re-emerged as the main economic engine. It has become
5440-413: The 2010 census, forming a municipality with a territory of 241 km (93 sq mi). The population of the municipality is 552,156 inhabitants, of whom 428,323 or approximately 77.6% live in municipality's portion of the city proper. The municipality is bordered by the municipalities of La Antigua , Boca del Río, Manlio Fabio Altamirano , Medellín, and Paso de Ovejas, with the Gulf of Mexico to
5576-685: The American continent. The city was the first on mainland America to receive a European coat of arms, which was authorized by Carlos V in Valladolid , Spain, on 4 July 1523. The original settlement was moved in 1525 to what is now known as Antigua, at the mouth of the Huitzilapan (or Antigua River) shortly thereafter. This separated the city from the port, as ships could not enter the shallow river. Ships continued to dock at San Juan de Ulúa, with small boats being used to ferry goods on and off
Bácum - Misplaced Pages Continue
5712-531: The Americas, following Brazil. Veracruz was the most important port in New Spain , with a large wealthy merchant class that was more prosperous than that of Mexico City. Each of the two yearly voyages of the Spanish treasure fleet to and from Spain were to gather at Veracruz stevedores, muleteers, navigators, sailors, contractors, merchants and civil servants. In 1568 the Armada admiral Francisco Luján defeated
5848-472: The British pirates John Hawkins and Francis Drake on their attempt to take hold of Veracruz. By the end of the 16th century, the Spanish had constructed roads to link Veracruz with other cities such as Córdoba , Orizaba , Puebla , Xalapa and Perote . Their gold and silver were the principal exports. This caused the city problems with pirates, prompting the construction of Fort San Juan de Ulúa on
5984-471: The Captaincies General of the Philippines (established 1574) and Guatemala (established in 1609), which were joint military and political commands with a certain level of autonomy. The viceroy was captain-general of those provinces that remained directly under his command. At the local level there were over two hundred districts, in both indigenous and Spanish areas, which were headed by either
6120-469: The Caribbean, and northern parts of South America; several Pacific archipelagos, including the Philippines and Guam . Additional Asian colonies included " Spanish Formosa ," on the island of Taiwan . After the 1521 Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , conqueror Hernán Cortés named the territory New Spain, and established the new capital, Mexico City, on the site of Tenochtitlan , the capital of
6256-640: The Holy Office of the Inquisition , the merchants' guild ( consulado ), and home of the most elite families in the Kingdom of New Spain. Mexico City was the single most populous city, not just in New Spain, but for many years the entire Western Hemisphere, with a high concentration of mixed-race castas . Significant regional development grew along the main transportation route from the capital east to
6392-601: The Mexican War of Independence. Between these periods, the fort helped defend the city against piracy and later was used for prisoners and interrogations of the Mexican Inquisition . The fort was begun here in 1582 to protect the city from pirates and was enlarged in 1635 during the period of frequent pirate raids. It was finished in 1707. After the War of Independence ended in 1821, the Spanish kept control of
6528-580: The Netherlands established colonies in territories Spain claimed. Much of what was called in the United States the "Spanish borderlands", is territory that attracted few Spanish settlers, with less dense indigenous populations and apparently lacking in mineral wealth. Huge deposits of gold in California were discovered immediately after it was incorporated into the U.S. following the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). The northern region of New Spain in
6664-642: The New Spanish Gulf of Mexico's defence against the attack of Spain's enemies in a time when the Spanish Empire stretched from current Venezuela to Florida . Many of the buildings and institutions which form Veracruz's Historic Centre date from that time such as the cathedral (1731), the Military Hospital of San Carlos (1731) or modern water supply and sewerage systems. In 1804 the Balmis Expedition arrived at Veracruz with
6800-530: The Provincias Internas (1776) (analogous to a dependent captaincy general). Two governorates , third-level administrative divisions, were established, the Governorate of Spanish Florida (Spanish: La Florida ) and the Governorate of Spanish Louisiana (Spanish: Luisiana ). The high courts, or audiencias , were established in major areas of Spanish settlement. In New Spain the high court
6936-479: The Revolution, most port workers became unionized. Through most of the 20th century, federal and state legal and political initiatives intended to better workers' lives had effects on the operations of the port. Eventually, unions came to have great power over the operations and tariffs charged. By the latter part of the 20th century, competing unions made the operations of the port difficult. Some blocked access to
SECTION 50
#17327805327097072-527: The Spanish crown claimed on the mainland of the Americas much of North America south of Canada, that is: all of modern Mexico and Central America except Panama ; most of the United States west of the Mississippi River, plus the Floridas . The Spanish West Indies , settled prior to the conquest of the Aztec Empire, also came under New Spain's jurisdiction: Cuba, Hispaniola , Puerto Rico, Jamaica,
7208-489: The Spanish crown, which marked a transformation in the global economy . New Spain's port of Acapulco became the New World terminus of the transpacific trade with the Philippines via the Manila galleon . New Spain became a vital link between Spain's New World empire and its East Indies empire . From the beginning of the 19th century, the kingdom fell into crisis, aggravated by the 1808 Napoleonic invasion of Iberia and
7344-523: The United States in the nineteenth century. Regional characteristics of colonial Mexico have been the focus of considerable study. For those based in the vice-regal capital of Mexico City, everywhere else were the "provinces." Even in the modern era, "Mexico" for many refers solely to Mexico City, with the pejorative view that anywhere outside the capital is a hopeless backwater. "Fuera de México, todo es Cuauhtitlán" ["outside of Mexico City, it's all Podunk"], that is, poor, marginal, and backward, in short,
7480-502: The Viceroyalty); Panama (1st one, 1538–1543); Guatemala (1543); Guadalajara (1548); Manila (1583). Audiencia districts further incorporated the older, smaller divisions known as governorates ( gobernaciones , roughly equivalent to provinces ), which had been originally established by conquistador -governors known as adelantados . Provinces which were under military threat were grouped into captaincies general , such as
7616-449: The ample tithe income indicates, plus manufacturing woolen cloth for the domestic market. Merchants, manufacturers, and artisans were important to the city's economic fortunes, but its early prosperity was followed by stagnation and decline in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The foundation of the town of Puebla was a pragmatic social experiment to settle Spanish immigrants without encomiendas to pursue farming and industry. Puebla
7752-618: The area's gold and dedicated to the " True Cross ", because he landed on the Christian holy day of Good Friday , the day of the Crucifixion . It was the first Spanish settlement on the mainland of the Americas to receive a coat-of-arms. During the colonial period, this city had the largest mercantile class and was at times wealthier than the capital, Mexico City. Its wealth attracted the raids of 17th-century pirates, against which fortifications such as Fort San Juan de Ulúa were built. In
7888-573: The beginning of the 17th century: the municipal palace, the monastery of Nuestra Señora de la Merced , and the Hospital de Nuestra Señora de Loreto . In 1618, a fire nearly reduced much of the city to ashes. In 1640, the Barlovento Armada was stationed here for additional defense against pirates. The pirates, led by Spain's rival nations, Nicholas van Hoorn , Laurens de Graaf and Michel de Grammont attacked Vera Cruz in 1683 . During
8024-445: The blending of Spanish and indigenous cultures. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spanish settlers founded major cities such as Mexico City, Puebla , and Guadalajara , turning New Spain into a vital part of the Spanish Empire. The discovery of silver in Zacatecas and Guanajuato significantly boosted the economy, leading to conflicts like the Chichimeca War . Missions and presidios were established in northern frontiers, aiding in
8160-404: The capital and the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz , size and complexity of indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. Central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations, each with complex social, political, and economic organization, but no large-scale deposits of silver to draw Spanish settlers. By contrast, the northern area of Mexico was arid and mountainous,
8296-514: The captain. De Ulúa is derived from the local name for the Aztecs, coluha or acolhua. The word for Aztec evolved into Ulúa. While Veracruz itself was founded by Hernán Cortés who arrived in 1519, the area at the time was within the jurisdiction of Moctezuma II and his Aztec Empire . Cortés and his men landed at the shore opposite the island where Grijalva had moored, which has the pre-Hispanic name of Chalchihuecan. Cortés, Francisco de Montejo and Alonso Hernández Puertocarrero founded
SECTION 60
#17327805327098432-410: The city such as the main theater. While the events were officially held at these locations, many residents took advantage of the celebration on the streets near these sites. Eventually, the event became based in the historic center of the city and focused on the Carnaval Parade of Veracruz. Today, the event begins with the "Burning of Bad Humor" and ends with the "Burial of Juan Carnaval". Carnaval here
8568-425: The city there are a number of industrial sites producing paints and solvents, food products, plastics, petrochemicals and metals. Veracruz has many beaches and off coast islands. Controversy has accompanied the clean-up of the island called Isla de Sacrificios , which lies just off the coast of the city and measures 450 meters long and 198 meters wide. The island is part of a system of twenty-three coral reefs called
8704-465: The colonial era was considered marginal to Spanish interests compared to the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America in the eighteenth century as other powers encroached on its claims, the crown sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest , which explored and claimed the coast of British Columbia and Alaska. Religious missions and fortified presidios were established to shore up Spanish control on
8840-437: The colonial period, African slaves were imported to work in the fields and shipyards. Following Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821, immigrants from Italy and Cuba settled in the city. The Veracruz Carnaval has been celebrated every year since 1866, during the empire of Maximilian I . At that time, a request was made to sponsor a "Festival of Masks", which would consist of dances at the principal social gathering sites of
8976-415: The crown to oversee the Church in all aspects save doctrine. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was created by royal decree on October 12, 1535, in the Kingdom of New Spain with a viceroy appointed as the king's "deputy" or substitute. This was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two that the Spanish Rmpire administered in the continent until the 18th-century Bourbon Reforms . At its greatest extent,
9112-414: The discovery of silver in the north, the Spanish sought to conquer or pacify those peoples in order to exploit the mines and develop enterprises to supply them. Nonetheless, much of northern New Spain had sparse indigenous population and attracted few Europeans. The Spanish crown and later the Republic of Mexico did not effectively exert sovereignty over the region, leaving it vulnerable to the expansionism of
9248-400: The dry season (averaging around 4-7 foggy days). The dry season of the year spans from November to May, with slightly cooler temperatures and less humid days; making it the much more desirable part of the year for visiting tourists as opposed to the stormy, humid wet season. Despite the dryness, winters are foggy and cloudy, averaging 10-17 overcast days and 11-17 foggy days per month during
9384-455: The dry season. Many tourists visit Veracruz during Christmas and March break, in the midst of the winter's comfortably warm dry season. Veracruz receives an average of 1,564 mm (61.6 in) of precipitation annually. The wettest month of the year is July with an average monthly total of 385 mm (15.2 in) of rainfall, while the driest month of the year is March with an only 13 mm (0.51 in) of rainfall. Temperature-wise,
9520-470: The establishment of economic societies, were part of the efforts to enhance efficiency and revenue for the crown. The decline of New Spain culminated in the early 19th century with the Mexican War of Independence. Following Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 's 1810 Cry of Dolores , the insurgent army waged an eleven-year war against Spanish rule. The eventual alliance between royalist military officer Agustín de Iturbide and insurgent leader Vicente Guerrero led to
9656-455: The even worse treatment given to the black slaves. In colonial Mexico, Encomenderos de Negros were specialized middlemen during the first half of the seventeenth century. While encomendero (alternatively, encomenderos de indios) generally refers to men granted the labor and tribute of a particular indigenous group in the immediate post-conquest era, encomenderos de negros were Portuguese slave dealers who were permitted to operate in Mexico for
9792-525: The expansion and control of territories that later became part of the southwestern United States. The 18th century saw the implementation of the Bourbon Reforms , which aimed to modernize and strengthen the colonial administration and economy. These reforms included the creation of intendancies , increased military presence, and the centralization of royal authority. The expulsion of the Jesuits and
9928-651: The fate and uses of the island. However, access to the island has been restricted to research, teaching and the occasional sporting event. Other small islands and shoals off the coast include: Isla de Enmedio , Isla Verde , Anegada de Adentro , Santiaguillo and Anegada de Afuera , the last two next to Antón Lizardo beach. All of them are included within the Sistema Arrecifal Veracruzano national park and make fine sites for SCUBA diving. Several operators in Veracruz and in Boca del Rio offer scuba equipment and tours. The best season for scuba diving
10064-532: The forced abdication of the Bourbon monarch, Charles IV . This resulted in a political crisis in New Spain and much of the Spanish Empire in 1808, which ended with the government of Viceroy José de Iturrigaray . Conspiracies of American-born Spaniards sought to take power, leading to the Mexican War of Independence , 1810–1821. At its conclusion in 1821, the viceroyalty was dissolved and the Mexican Empire
10200-417: The formation of regional identity that they became the basis for the nations of Central America and the first Mexican states after independence . As part of the sweeping eighteenth-century administrative and economic changes known as the Bourbon Reforms , the Spanish crown created new administrative units called intendancies , to strengthen central control over the viceroyalty. Some measures aimed to break
10336-708: The ground. On the mainland, the administrative units included Las Californias , that is, the Baja California peninsula, still part of Mexico and divided into Baja California and Baja California Sur ; Alta California (modern Arizona , California , Nevada , Utah , western Colorado , and southern Wyoming ); (from the 1760s) Louisiana (including the western Mississippi River basin and the Missouri River basin); Nueva Extremadura (the modern states of Coahuila and Texas ); and Santa Fe de Nuevo México (parts of Texas and New Mexico ). The Viceroyalty
10472-435: The hottest months of the year are June and August, both sharing mean temperatures of 28 °C (82.4 °F), while the coolest month of the year is January with a mean temperature of 21.2 °C (70.2 °F). Because of its importance as Mexico's principal Caribbean and Atlantic sea port, Veracruz has always been a locus for the mixture of different cultures, particularly Spanish , Native Mexican , and African . During
10608-609: The island and fort, and occasionally bombarded Mexican forces on land. They finally transferred this area to Mexico in 1825. The fort was used in 1838 during the Pastry War with the French. In 1847, it was used for an unsuccessful defense of the port when United States forces invaded during the Mexican–American War. In the 19th century, the fort was converted into a military prison. The fort's narrow stone passageways lead to
10744-471: The island where Grijalva had landed in the mid-16th century. In 1600, when large-scale smuggling of goods took place to avoid customs officials, the Spanish Crown ordered the settlement returned to its original site to cut down on that traffic. Docks and an observation tower were constructed on the island to ensure that goods went through customs officials. Major public buildings were constructed at
10880-457: The lack of state involvement in the development of physical infrastructure was to have lasting effects, constraining development until the late nineteenth century. Despite the road improvements, transit was still difficult, particularly for heavy military equipment. Although the crown had ambitious plans for both the Toluca and Veracruz portions of the king's highway, improvements were limited to
11016-454: The legend of this 19th-century bandit. Jesús Arriaga, better known as Chucho el Roto , was held at Fort San Juan de Ulúa where he died. It is not known whether he died of natural causes, as a result of a fight with other prisoners or by other means. Chucho was a Robin Hood figure who lived during the 19th century. He stole from the rich and gave to the poor, inspiring songs and poetry such as
11152-421: The lengthy colonial period and international port, these ingredients are used more widely here than in other parts of the country. A signature dish of the area, Huachinango a la Veracruzana ( red snapper Veracruz-style), uses local fruits and vegetables (tomatoes, chili peppers) and Spanish ingredients (olive oil, garlic and capers). Other popular dishes include arroz a la tumbada , a rice dish baked with
11288-572: The main plaza (Zócalo) Veracruz recipes use corn, beans and squash as staples, a practice dating to the indigenous peoples. Local diets also include indigenous tropical foods such as chili peppers , tomatoes, avocados , pineapples , papaya , mamey , sweet potatoes , peanuts and sapote fruit, all of which have been cultivated since pre-Columbian times. The Spanish introduced the use of herbs such as parsley , thyme , marjoram , bay laurel and coriander , as well as saffron , wheat, rice, almonds, olives/olive oil, garlic and capers . Because of
11424-412: The mines in the north of Mexico had a workforce of black slave labor and indigenous wage labor, not draft labor. Indigenous who were drawn to the mining areas were from different regions of the center of Mexico, with a few from the north itself. With such diversity they did not have a common ethnic identity or language and rapidly assimilated to Hispanic culture. Although mining was difficult and dangerous,
11560-554: The monarch rather than the conqueror Cortés. New Spain was the first of the viceroyalties that Spain created, the second being Peru in 1542, following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire . Both New Spain and Peru had dense indigenous populations at conquest as a source of labor and material wealth in the form of vast silver deposits, discovered and exploited beginning in the mid-1500s. New Spain developed strong regional divisions based on local climate, topography, distance from
11696-530: The most dangerous on the American coast. President Porfirio Díaz contracted with foreign enterprises to modernize the port's infrastructure. Between April and November 1914, during the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), the US attacked and occupied the port in an effort to try to preserve trade in the dispute with President Victoriano Huerta . The city gained its fourth title of "Heroic City". After
11832-418: The movement of vital goods and people to get to key areas. Even in the relatively richly endowed region of Mexico, the difficulty of transit of people and goods in the absence of rivers and level terrain remained a major challenge to the economy of New Spain. This challenge persisted during the post-independence years until the late nineteenth-century construction of railroads. In the colonial era and up until
11968-410: The multiethnic Indian populations in the Veracruz area and for that reason Spaniards imported black slaves as either an alternative to indigenous labor or its complete replacement in the event of a repetition of the Caribbean die-off. A few Spaniards acquired prime agricultural lands left vacant by the indigenous demographic disaster. Portions of the province could support sugar cultivation and as early as
12104-564: The municipal palace and the cathedral. The Municipal Palace was built for the city council in 1608. The building was extensively remodeled in the 18th century. Its architectural style is a sober Baroque with a tower at one of the corners. Lookouts used this tower to keep watch on the ships entering and leaving the port. It has a large courtyard surrounded by wide arches and is the oldest city government building in Mexico. The Cathedral of Veracruz , named Catedral de la Virgen de la Asunción ,
12240-524: The northeast, and has an average altitude of ten meters above sea level. The area is flat with little in the way of elevations and is crossed by the Medio, Grande and Tonayán Rivers. There are also beaches here such as the Sacrificios and Verde. Its climate is tropical with an average temperature of 25.3 °C (77.5 °F). Vegetation is mostly of the rainforest type, with many trees losing leaves during
12376-494: The ocean breezes. Near the city center, the malecón is crowded with merchants selling knick-knacks, souvenirs, jewelry made with seashells, and T-shirts. Fort San Juan de Ulúa is located on an island, now connected to land of the same name. The island is part of the La Gallega coral reef and has about 2,500 meters of beach. The full reef covers about 100 hectares and varies in depth between sixty and ninety centimeters, forming
12512-501: The only viable Gulf Coast port, the gateway for Spain to New Spain. The difficult topography around the port affected local development and New Spain as a whole. Going from the port to the central plateau entailed a daunting 2000 meter climb from the narrow tropical coastal plain in just over a hundred kilometers. The narrow, slippery road in the mountain mists was treacherous for mule trains, and in some cases mules were hoisted by ropes. Many tumbled with their cargo to their deaths. Given
12648-417: The periphery. The picture is far more complex, however; while the capital is enormously important as the center of institutional, economic, and social power, the provinces played a significant role in colonial Mexico. Regions (provinces) developed and thrived to the extent that they became sites of economic production and tied into networks of trade. "Spanish society in the Indies was import-export oriented at
12784-477: The population there, a far greater proportion than any other area of New Spain, and greater than even nearby Jalapa. In 1765 the crown created a monopoly on tobacco, which directly affected agriculture and manufacturing in the Veracruz region. Tobacco was a valuable, high-demand product. Men, women, and even children smoked, something commented on by foreign travelers and depicted in eighteenth-century casta paintings. The crown calculated that tobacco could produce
12920-408: The port from federal roads and financial corruption was a problem. In the 1970s, a federal commission was established to design a new administrative system for the ports of Mexico. The legislature passed laws authorizing the federal government to take control over important ports such as Veracruz. The federal government modernized the port, adopting automation of loading and unloading. This resulted in
13056-410: The port in an effort to secure payment of debts, which Juárez had suspended. French military forces accompanied them to prepare for Maximiliano I and occupied the city when the emperor and his wife Carlota of Belgium arrived in 1864. The conflicts and damaged trade relations with Europe took its toll on the port of Veracruz. By 1902, the port facilities had deteriorated, and it was considered one of
13192-566: The port of Acapulco and European goods via the flota (convoy) from the Spanish port of Cádiz . Spaniards also settled in the temperate area of Orizaba , east of the Citlaltepetl volcano. Orizaba varied considerably in elevation from 800 metres (2,600 ft) to 5,700 metres (18,700 ft) (the summit of the Citlaltepetl volcano), but "most of the inhabited part is temperate." Some Spaniards lived in semitropical Córdoba , which
13328-452: The port of Veracruz and the capital had some short sections paved and bridges constructed. The construction was done despite protests from some indigenous settlements when the infrastructure improvements, which sometimes included rerouting the road through communal lands. The Spanish crown finally decided that road improvement was in the interests of the state for military purposes, as well as for fostering commerce, agriculture, and industry, but
13464-474: The power of local elites in order to improve the economy of the empire. Reforms included the improvement of public participation in communal affairs, distribution of undeveloped lands to the indigenous and Spaniards, ending the corrupt practices of local crown officials, encouraging trade and mining, and establishing a system of territorial division similar to the model created by the government of France, already adopted in Spain. The establishment of intendancies
13600-516: The principal port for most of Mexico's imports and exports, especially for the automotive industry. Veracruz has a blend of cultures, mostly indigenous , Spanish and Afro-Caribbean . The influence of these three is best seen in the food and music of the area, which has strong Spanish, Caribbean and African influences. The name Veracruz (originally Vera Cruz ), derives from the Latin Vera Crux ( True Cross ). Having established
13736-412: The railroads were built in key areas in post-independence in the late nineteenth century, mule trains were the main mode of transporting goods. Pack mules were used because unpaved roads, mountainous terrain, and seasonal flooding could not generally accommodate carts. In the late eighteenth century, the crown devoted some resources to study and remedy the poor roads. The Camino Real (royal road) between
13872-633: The regions or provinces that had developed earlier in the center, South, and North. Many of the intendancy boundaries became Mexican state boundaries after independence. The intendancies were created between 1764 and 1789, with the greatest number in the mainland in 1786: 1764 La Habana (later subdivided); 1766 Nueva Orleans; 1784 Puerto Rico; 1786 México, Veracruz, Puebla de Los Ángeles, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Sonora, Durango, Oaxaca, Guatemala, San Salvador, Comayagua, León, Santiago de Cuba, Puerto Príncipe; 1789 Mérida. The history of mainland New Spain spans three hundred years from
14008-463: The same monarch and Portuguese slave traders had access to Spanish markets, African slaves were imported in large numbers to New Spain and many of them remained in the region of Veracruz. But even when that connection was broken and prices rose, black slaves remained an important component of Córdoba's labor sector even after 1700. Rural estates in Córdoba depended on African slave labor, who were 20% of
14144-499: The same name. It became the seat of the richest diocese in New Spain in its first century, with the seat of the first diocese, formerly in Tlaxcala, moved there in 1543. Bishop Juan de Palafox asserted that the income from the diocese of Puebla was twice that of the archbishopic of Mexico, due to the tithe income derived from agriculture. In its first hundred years, Puebla was prosperous from wheat farming and other agriculture, as
14280-580: The settlement of Villa Rica (Rich Village) on Good Friday , 22 April 1519, Cortés dedicated the place to the True Cross as an offering . The Spanish captain Juan de Grijalva , along with Bernal Díaz del Castillo , first arrived in 1518 at the island later known as San Juan de Ulúa . The Spanish gave it that name because they landed on the Christian feast of John the Baptist (24 June), and in honor of
14416-509: The settlement, naming it Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The name Villa Rica (rich village) referred to the gold that was found here and Vera Cruz (True Cross) was added because the Cortés expedition landed on Good Friday , a Christian holy day. When Cortés and his soldiers abolished the Aztec despotism and elected a Justicia Mayor and a Capitán General , they created the first city council on
14552-401: The seventeenth century, but silver mining in Mexico out-performed all other Spanish overseas territories in revenues for the royal coffers. The fast red dye cochineal was an important export in areas such as central Mexico and Oaxaca in terms of revenues to the crown and stimulation of the internal market of New Spain. Cacao and indigo were also important exports for the New Spain, but
14688-513: The ships that set sail from Veracruz were generally loaded with merchandise from the East Indies originating from the commercial centers of the Philippines , plus the precious metals and natural resources of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. During the 16th century, Spain held the equivalent of US$ 1.5 trillion (1990 terms) in gold and silver received from New Spain. However, these resources did not translate into development for
14824-424: The ships. As in other parts of Mexico, the indigenous peoples suffered from epidemics of European infectious diseases, which decimated the population after contact. The Portuguese Empire began to import African slaves via the port of Veracruz. In the 16th century, the state had more slaves than any other in Mexico. Before the slave trade was abolished, Mexico had the second-highest population of African slaves in
14960-422: The slave trade. In Peru, the other discovery that perpetuated the system of forced labor, the mit'a , was the enormously rich single silver mine discovered at Potosí, but in New Spain, labor recruitment differed significantly. With the exception of silver mines worked in the Aztec period at Taxco , southwest of Tenochtitlan, the Mexico's mining region was outside the area of dense indigenous settlement. Labor for
15096-499: The smallpox vaccine, which was from here transported to the whole of New Spain. The 19th century was marked by armed conflicts. During the Mexican War of Independence , Spain placed troops here to maintain Mexico City's sea link with Spain. In 1816, Antonio López de Santa Anna commanded royalist troops countering the insurgency. In 1820, insurgents took the city, despite Santa Anna's attempts to stop them. The last viceroy of New Spain, Juan O'Donojú , arrived here in 1821, where he signed
15232-517: The state of Veracruz. It has African and Caribbean influence and is popular throughout Mexico, Latin America and the United States. Traditional Veracruzian music is called " Son Jarocho ". Although there are many types of son music found in Mexico, the Son Jarocho is typically associated with the city of Veracruz. Other types of son include "Son Comercial". This style is faster and flashier than
15368-425: The successful campaign for independence. In 1821, New Spain officially became the independent nation of Mexico, ending three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. During the era of the conquest, in order to pay off the debts incurred by the conquistadors and their companies, the new Spanish governors awarded their men grants of native tribute and labor, known as encomiendas . In New Spain these grants were modeled after
15504-622: The surrender of the town, forts and garrison. On the 29th Vera Cruz and San Juan de Ulúa were occupied by Scott's army. About five thousand prisoners and four hundred pieces of artillery, in addition to large amounts of small arms and ammunition, fell into the hands of the victorious invaders. The casualties on the US side during the siege amounted to sixty-four officers and men, killed and wounded. Ten years later, civil war between liberals and conservatives forced Benito Juárez 's government to flee Mexico City. Juárez went to Veracruz and governed from there in 1857. In 1861 Spain sent its troops to occupy
15640-523: The town is 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) long. Some fishing is practiced. Industries are small, and consist chiefly of packing houses for vegetables and liquid fertilizer production. New Spain New Spain , officially the Viceroyalty of New Spain ( Spanish : Virreinato de Nueva España [birejˈnato ðe ˈnweβa esˈpaɲa] ; Nahuatl : Yankwik Kaxtillan Birreiyotl ), originally
15776-534: The town was incorporated into the municipality of Cajeme, and it was granted autonomy within the new Bácum Municipality in 1931. In 1949 the Yaqui River overflowed its banks, causing severe damage to agriculture and livestock raising. The river is now controlled by the Álvaro Obregón Dam upriver. Bácum Municipality is bounded by the Municipalities of Cajeme in the east and Guaymas in the west — and
15912-444: The traditional Son Jarocho and can be heard in Mexican folkdance exhibitions , when Veracruz women with long white dresses and fans dance with partners also dressed in white. The Son Comercial developed in the 1940s from the Son Jarocho; in the 21st century it is so pervasive that many mistakenly believe it to be the first version. The Casa de Cultura has a workshops for traditional music and son singers can be heard just about anytime on
16048-446: The transport constraints, only high-value, low-bulk goods continued to be shipped in the transatlantic trade, which stimulated local production of foodstuffs, rough textiles, and other products for a mass market. Although New Spain produced considerable sugar and wheat, these were consumed exclusively in the colony even though there was demand elsewhere. Philadelphia, not New Spain, supplied Cuba with wheat. The Caribbean port of Veracruz
16184-539: The tribute and corvee labor that the Mexica rulers had demanded from native communities. This system came to signify the oppression and exploitation of natives, although its originators may not have set out with such intent. In short order the upper echelons of patrons and priests in the society lived off the work of the lower classes. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the indigenous peoples, Bishop Bartolomé de las Casas suggested bringing black slaves to replace them. Fray Bartolomé later repented when he saw
16320-659: The upper level contains the choral window, above which is a medallion. The interior is simple with crystal candelabras. In the port area are the Pemex Tower, the old lighthouse, which was the seat of government for Venustiano Carranza , and the Crafts Market. On Marina Mercante Street are located the Old Customs Building, the Postal and Telegraph twin buildings, as well as the old railroad terminal. In
16456-540: The verses penned by Rafael de Zayas Enríquez . Chucho was arrested in the city of Querétaro after a jewelry store heist. He was sent to the Belén Prison in Mexico City, then to Veracruz. He was also renowned as a seducer of women, especially those who were rich and lonely. Most of his targets were jewelry shops, pawnshops and the homes of the wealthy. Along with Fort San Juan de Ulúa, the city used to be walled in for protection against pirates and invasions. All that
16592-653: The very base and in every aspect," and the development of many regional economies was typically centered on support of that export sector. Mexico City was the center of the Central region, and the hub of New Spain. The development of Mexico City itself was vitally important to the development of New Spain as a whole. It was the seat of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the Archdiocese of the Catholic Church,
16728-466: The viceregal capital and the port of Veracruz, in a fertile basin with a dense indigenous population, largely not held in encomienda , made Puebla a destination for later arriving Spaniards. If there had been significant mineral wealth in Puebla, it could have been even more prominent a center for New Spain, but its first century established its importance. In 1786 it became the capital of an intendancy of
16864-405: The wages were good, which is what drew the indigenous labor. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was the principal source of income for Spain in the eighteenth century, with the revival of mining under the Bourbon Reforms . Important mining centers like Zacatecas , Guanajuato , San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo had been established in the sixteenth century and suffered decline for a variety of reasons in
17000-466: The winter dry season. Fauna mostly consists of birds, small mammals and insects. Much of the land in the municipality outside of the city is used for agriculture and livestock. Principal crops include corn, beans, watermelon, oranges, sorghum , mango , pineapple and sugar cane. Livestock raised includes cattle, pigs, sheep, fowl and horses. There is also some forestry. The municipality contains deposits of marble, lime, cement, sand and clay. In and around
17136-533: Was a kingdom and not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula . The monarch had sweeping power in the overseas territories, with not just sovereignty over the realm but also property rights. All power over the state came from the monarch. The crown had sweeping powers over the Catholic Church in its overseas territories, and via the Patronato real , a grant by the papacy to
17272-433: Was administered by a viceroy residing in Mexico City and appointed by the Spanish monarch , who had administrative oversight of all of these regions, although most matters were handled by the local governmental bodies, which ruled the various regions of the viceroyalty. First among these were the audiencias , which were primarily superior tribunals, but which also had administrative and legislative functions. Each of these
17408-672: Was built in the Mesoamerican heartland of the Aztec Empire in Central Mexico. The South (Oaxaca, Michoacán, Yucatán, and Central America) was a region of dense indigenous settlement of Mesoamerica, but without exploitable resources of interest to Europeans, the area attracted few Europeans, while the indigenous presence remained strong. The North was outside the area of complex indigenous populations, inhabited primarily by nomadic and hostile northern indigenous groups. With
17544-542: Was established in 1527, prior to the establishment of the viceroyalty. The First Audiencia was headed by Hernán Cortés 's rival Nuño de Guzmán , who used the court to deprive Cortés of power and property. The crown dissolved the First Audiencia and established the Second Audiencia. The audiencias of New Spain were Santo Domingo (1511, effective 1526, predated the Viceroyalty); Mexico (1527, predated
17680-481: Was established. Former royalist military officer turned insurgent for independence Agustín de Iturbide would be crowned as emperor. The Kingdom of New Spain was established on 18 August 1521, following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , as a New World kingdom ruled by the Crown of Castile . The initial funds for exploration came from Queen Isabella . Although New Spain was a dependency of Castile, it (Mexico)
17816-459: Was founded as a villa in 1618, to serve as a Spanish base against runaway slave ( cimarrón ) predations on mule trains traveling the route from the port to the capital. Some cimarrón settlements sought autonomy, such as one led by Gaspar Yanga , with whom the crown concluded a treaty leading to the recognition of a largely black town, San Lorenzo de los Negros de Cerralvo, later called the municipality of Yanga. European diseases immediately affected
17952-457: Was privileged in a number of ways, starting with its status as a Spanish settlement not founded on existing indigenous city-state, but with a significant indigenous population. It was located in a fertile basin on a temperate plateau in the nexus of the key trade triangle of Veracruz–Mexico City–Antequera (Oaxaca). Although there were no encomiendas in Puebla itself, encomenderos with nearby labor grants settled in Puebla. And despite its foundation as
18088-594: Was responsible to the Viceroy of New Spain in administrative matters (though not in judicial ones), but they also answered directly to the Council of the Indies . The Captaincy Generals were the second-level administrative divisions and these were relatively autonomous from the viceroyalty. The viceroy was captain-general of those provinces that remained directly under his command. Santo Domingo (1535); Philippines (1565); Puerto Rico (1580); Cuba (1608); Guatemala (1609); Yucatán (1617); Commandancy General of
18224-443: Was small, with its hot, pestilential climate not a draw for permanent settlers: its population never topped 10,000. Many Spanish merchants preferred living in the pleasant highland town of Jalapa (1,500 m). For a brief period (1722–76) the town of Jalapa became even more important than Veracruz, after it was granted the right to hold the royal trade fair for New Spain, serving as the entre for goods from Asia via Manila galleon through
18360-469: Was strongly resisted by the viceroyalties and general captaincies similar to the opposition in the Iberian Peninsula when the reform was adopted. Royal audiencias and ecclesiastical hierarchs opposed the reform for its intervention in economic issues, for its centralist politics, and the forced ceding of many of their functions to the intendants. In New Spain, these units generally corresponded to
18496-460: Was used through rather the vice royalties rather than contact with European countries due to piracy, and smuggling. The indigo industry in particular also helped to temporarily unite communities throughout the Kingdom of Guatemala due to the smuggling. There were two major ports in New Spain, Veracruz the viceroyalty's principal port on the Atlantic, and Acapulco on the Pacific, terminus of
#708291