A baldachin , or baldaquin (from Italian : baldacchino ), is a canopy of state typically placed over an altar or throne . It had its beginnings as a cloth canopy, but in other cases it is a sturdy, permanent architectural feature, particularly over high altars in cathedrals , where such a structure is more correctly called a ciborium when it is sufficiently architectural in form. Baldachins are often supported on columns, especially when they are disconnected from an enclosing wall.
178-410: A cloth of honour or cloth of estate is a simpler cloth hanging vertically behind the throne, usually continuing to form a canopy. It can also be used for similar canopies in interior design, for example above beds, and for processional canopies used in formal state ceremonies such as coronations, held up by four or more men with poles attached to the corners of the cloth. " Baldachin " was originally
356-503: A Whig majority, quickly resolved that the throne was vacant, and that it was safer if the ruler were Protestant. There were more Tories in the House of Lords , which would not initially agree, but after William refused to be a regent or to agree to remain king only in his wife's lifetime, there were negotiations between the two houses and the Lords agreed by a narrow majority that the throne
534-646: A Convention of the Estates of Scotland , which met on 14 March 1689. He sent it a conciliatory letter, while James sent haughty uncompromising orders, swaying a majority in favour of William. On 11 April, the day of the English coronation, the Convention finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland. William and Mary were offered the Scottish Crown; they accepted on 11 May. William encouraged
712-545: A Dutch rump state . In addition to differing political outlooks, William found that his lifestyle differed from his uncles Charles and James, who were more concerned with drinking, gambling, and cavorting with mistresses. The following year, the Republic's security deteriorated quickly as an Anglo-French attack became imminent. In view of the threat, the States of Gelderland wanted William to be appointed Captain-General of
890-703: A Dutch army, William landed at Brixham in southwest England on 5 November 1688. He came ashore from the ship Den Briel , proclaiming "the liberties of England and the Protestant religion I will maintain". William's fleet was vastly larger than the Spanish Armada 100 years earlier: approximately consisting of 463 ships with 40,000 men on board, including 9,500 sailors, 11,000 foot soldiers, 4,000 cavalry and 5,000 English and Huguenot volunteers. James's support began to dissolve almost immediately upon William's arrival; Protestant officers defected from
1068-659: A Shi'i adhān (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and a khutbah (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph. Despite his Shi'i inclinations, Al-Basasiri received support from Sunnis and Shi'is alike, for whom opposition to the Saljuq power was a common factor. On 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu , a grandson of Chingiz Khan ( Genghis Khan ), during
1246-488: A canopy of estate. Francisco Franco , the ruler of Spain from 1939 to 1975, frequently walked under a baldachin after formally proclaiming Spain a monarchy—a privilege he appropriated as de facto regent for life. In Spanish Holy Week processions the sculptures of Virgin Mary, shown as Queen of Sorrow, use to go on their floats under canopies with embroideries Madr with gold or silver yarn The surname Baldacchino comes from
1424-556: A canopy of estate; one can see the dosser against the gilded leather wall-covering and the tester above her head (the Tudor rose at its centre) supported on cords from the ceiling. The coats-of-arms embroidered or woven into the tapestry are of England (parted as usual with France) and the portcullis badge of the Beauforts. Sometimes, as in the presentation miniature Jean Wauquelin presenting his 'Chroniques de Hainaut' to Philip
1602-539: A champion of their faith. In 1685, his Catholic uncle and father-in-law, James, became king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. James's reign was unpopular with Protestants in the British Isles , who opposed Catholic Emancipation . Supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, William invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution . In 1688, he landed at
1780-782: A clan of the Oghuz Turks from Central Asia that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids , taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg , the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled the Buyid dynasty of Shiites that had ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of
1958-618: A colonel, another a knight, a third a peer, and a fourth an earl ." William's reputation in Scotland suffered further damage when he refused English assistance to the Darien scheme , a Scottish colony (1698–1700) that failed disastrously. Although the Whigs were William's strongest supporters, he initially favoured a policy of balance between the Whigs and Tories . The Marquess of Halifax ,
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#17327762379342136-431: A couple of times per year on average. Annual rainfall, almost entirely confined to the period from November through March, averages approximately 150 mm (5.91 in), but has been as high as 338 mm (13.31 in) and as low as 37 mm (1.46 in). On 11 January 2008, light snow fell across Baghdad for the first time in 100 years. Snowfall was again reported on 11 February 2020, with accumulations across
2314-522: A false tradition asserts they are the columns from the Temple of Jerusalem . The lowest parts of the four columns of Bernini's Baldachin have a helical groove, and the middle and upper sections of the columns are covered in olive and bay branches, which are populated with a myriad of bees and small putti. Pope Urban VIII's family coat of arms, those of the Barberini family, with their signature bees, are at
2492-524: A few intimates, were allowed to disturb him. The next year only Grave and Maastricht remained in French hands. Fagel now proposed to treat the liberated provinces of Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel as conquered territory ( Generality Lands ), as punishment for their quick surrender to the enemy. William refused but obtained a special mandate from the States General to appoint all delegates in
2670-657: A friend, and often having maintained secret contacts with him for years, many English politicians began to urge an armed invasion of England. William at first opposed the prospect of invasion, but most historians now agree that he began to assemble an expeditionary force in April 1688, as it became increasingly clear that France would remain occupied by campaigns in Germany and Italy, and thus unable to mount an attack while William's troops would be occupied in Britain. Believing that
2848-595: A further illness later in 1678, she never conceived again. Throughout William and Mary's marriage, William had only one reputed mistress, Elizabeth Villiers , in contrast to the many mistresses his uncles openly kept. By 1678, Louis XIV sought peace with the Dutch Republic. Even so, tensions remained: William remained suspicious of Louis, thinking that the French king desired " universal kingship " over Europe; Louis described William as "my mortal enemy" and saw him as an obnoxious warmonger. France's annexations in
3026-640: A gilded throne. The queens of France spent a great deal of time in their chambre , where they received the ladies of the court at the morning lever and granted private audiences. By the time Marie Antoinette escaped the mob from this bedroom, such state beds, with the elaborate etiquette they embodied, were already falling out of use. A state bed with a domed tester designed in 1775–76 by Robert Adam for Lady Child at Osterley Park and another domed state bed, delivered by Thomas Chippendale for Sir Edwin Lascelles at Harewood House , Yorkshire, in 1773 are two of
3204-558: A greater sense of urgency in November 1677 when William married his cousin Mary , Charles II of England's niece. An Anglo-Dutch defensive alliance followed in March 1678, although English troops did not arrive in significant numbers until late May. Louis seized this opportunity to improve his negotiating position and captured Ypres and Ghent in early March, before signing a peace treaty with
3382-563: A joint monarchy in England dated from the 16th century, when Queen Mary I married Philip of Spain . Philip remained king only during his wife's lifetime, and restrictions were placed on his power. William, on the other hand, demanded that he remain as king even after his wife's death. When the majority of Tory Lords proposed to acclaim her as sole ruler, William threatened to leave the country immediately. Furthermore, she, remaining loyal to her husband, refused. The House of Commons , with
3560-663: A letter from Charles, in which the English king stated that he had made war because of the aggression of the De Witt faction. The people thus incited, De Witt and his brother, Cornelis , were brutally murdered by an Orangist civil militia in The Hague on 20 August. Subsequently, William replaced many of the Dutch regents with his followers. Though William's complicity in the lynching has never been proved (and some 19th-century Dutch historians have made an effort to disprove that he
3738-504: A lord named Miklas would one day build a spectacular city around the area of Baghdad. When al-Mansur heard the story, he became very joyful, for legend has it, he was called Miklas as a child. Mansur loved the site so much he is quoted saying: "This is indeed the city that I am to found, where I am to live, and where my descendants will reign afterward". The city's growth was helped by its excellent location, based on at least two factors: it had control over strategic and trading routes along
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#17327762379343916-538: A luxurious type of cloth from Baghdad , from which name the word is ultimately derived, appearing in English as " baudekin " and other spellings. Matthew Paris records that Henry III of England wore a robe " de preciosissimo baldekino " at a ceremony at Westminster Abbey in 1247. The word for the cloth became the word for the ceremonial canopies made from the cloth. In the Middle Ages, a hieratic canopy of state (or "estate"), cloth of honour, or cloth of state
4094-475: A major offensive, however, at the end of 1676. Intended to capture Valenciennes , Cambrai and Saint-Omer in the Spanish Netherlands. Louis believed this would deprive the Dutch regents of the courage to continue the war any longer. In this, however, he was mistaken. The impending French offensive actually led to an intensification of Dutch-Spanish cooperation. Still, the French offensive of 1677
4272-606: A more republican Netherlands. The Dutch authorities did their best at first to ignore these intrigues, but in the Second Anglo-Dutch War , one of Charles's peace conditions was the improvement of the position of his nephew. As a countermeasure in 1666, when William was sixteen, the States officially made him a ward of the government, or a "Child of State". All pro-English courtiers, including Zuylenstein, were removed from William's company. William begged De Witt to allow Zuylenstein to stay, but he refused. De Witt,
4450-437: A new Provincial Council was elected. This system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome; however, Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. At the lowest level, the neighborhood councils, each council represents an average of 75,000 people. The nine District Advisory Councils (DAC) are as follows: The nine districts are subdivided into 89 smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of
4628-697: A number of other locations whose names are compounds of the Middle Persian word bagh , including Baghlan and Bagram in Afghanistan, Baghshan in Iran itself, and Baghdati in Georgia , which likely share the same etymological Iranic origins. Other authors have suggested older origins for the name, in particular the name Bagdadu or Hudadu that existed in Old Babylonian (spelled with
4806-543: A part of the 2,797,859 guilder debt the House of Stuart owed the House of Orange. Charles was unable to pay, but William agreed to reduce the amount owed to 1,800,000 guilders. Charles found his nephew to be a dedicated Calvinist and patriotic Dutchman and reconsidered his desire to show him the Secret Treaty of Dover with France, directed at destroying the Dutch Republic and installing William as "sovereign" of
4984-467: A permanent appointment on his 22nd birthday. Meanwhile, William had written a secret letter to Charles in January 1672 asking his uncle to exploit the situation by exerting pressure on the States to appoint William stadtholder. In return, William would ally the Republic with England and serve Charles's interests as much as his "honour and the loyalty due to this state" allowed. Charles took no action on
5162-577: A series of meetings in each neighborhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbors to subsequent meetings. Each neighborhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighborhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbors to vote for them. Once all 88 (later increased to 89) neighborhood councils were in place, each neighborhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of
5340-421: A short treatise, perhaps by one of William's tutors, Constantijn Huygens . In these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence , fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange-Nassau . William was seen, despite his youth, as the leader of the "Orangist" party, heir to the stadholderships of several provinces and the office of Captain-General of
5518-480: A sign that can represent both bag and hu ), and the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic name of a place called Baghdatha ( בגדתא ). Some scholars suggested Aramaic derivations. Another view, suggested by Christophe Wall-Romana, is that name of "Baghdad" is derived from " Akkad ", as the cuneiform logogram for Akkad (𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠) is pronounced " a-ga-dè " ("Agade") and its resemblance to "Baghdad"
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5696-559: A significant center of Arab culture . Baghdad has faced severe infrastructural damage due to the Iraq War , which began with the United States-led invasion of Iraq , the subsequent insurgency and renewed war , resulting in a substantial loss of cultural heritage and historical artifacts . During this period, it had one of the highest rates of terrorist attacks in the world. However, terrorist attacks have gradually been on
5874-578: A significant cultural and intellectual center of the Muslim world . This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom , as well as a multi-ethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". For much of the Abbasid era, during the Islamic Golden Age , Baghdad was the largest city in the world. Its population peaked at more than one million people. The city
6052-415: A significant minority refused to acknowledge their claim to the throne, instead believing in the divine right of kings , which held that the monarch's authority derived directly from God rather than being delegated to the monarch by Parliament. Over the next 57 years Jacobites pressed for restoration of James and his heirs. Nonjurors in England and Scotland, including over 400 clergy and several bishops of
6230-643: A site north of the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , and on 30 July 762 the caliph Al-Mansur commissioned the construction of the city. It was built under the guidance of the Iranian Barmakids . Mansur believed that Baghdad was the perfect city to be the capital of the Islamic Empire under the Abbasids. The Muslim historian al-Tabari reported an ancient prediction by Christian monks that
6408-540: A strong candidate for the English throne should his father-in-law (and uncle) James be excluded because of his Catholicism. During the crisis concerning the Exclusion Bill in 1680, Charles at first invited William to come to England to bolster the king's position against the exclusionists, then withdrew his invitation—after which Lord Sunderland also tried unsuccessfully to bring William over, but now to put pressure on Charles. Nevertheless, William secretly induced
6586-498: Is Bataween is currently the only active synagogue. Al-Habibiyah Jewish Cemetery . Baghdad and its vicinity is home to numerous historic Jewish sites. The city is home to over 60 synagogues, which were active before the Jewish exodus. Today, around 100 Jews live in Baghdad. William III of England William III (William Henry; Dutch : Willem Hendrik ; 4 November 1650 – 8 March 1702), also known as William of Orange ,
6764-456: Is a shrine that is located in the Kādhimayn suburb of Baghdad. It contains the tombs of the seventh and ninth Twelver Shi'ite Imams , Musa al-Kadhim and Muhammad at-Taqi respectively, upon whom the title of Kādhimayn ("Two who swallow their anger") was bestowed. Many Shi'ites travel to the mosque from far away places to commemorate those imams. Before the Iraq War in 2003, Baghdad
6942-496: Is compelling. When the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name "City of Peace" (Arabic: مدینة السلام , romanized: Madīnat as-Salām ), which now refers to the Round City of Baghdad proper. This was the official name on coins, weights, and other official usage, although the common people continued to use the old name. By the 11th century, Baghdad became almost
7120-618: Is known as the battle of Saddam City in March 1991. However, as the situations eased, the government began beautifying the city. Saddam built numerous palaces across the country, as well as in Baghdad. He also constructed several monuments in Baghdad. Many of them were built around war-torn period. Most of the palaces were built after the two wars. In 2003, the invasion of Iraq by the United States caused huge damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure. The coalition forces launched massive aerial assaults in
7298-440: Is the last person to successfully invade England by force of arms. William summoned a Convention Parliament in England, which met on 22 January 1689, to discuss the appropriate course of action following James's flight. William felt insecure about his position; though his wife preceded him in the line of succession to the throne, he wished to reign as king in his own right, rather than as a mere consort . The only precedent for
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7476-473: Is typically under 50% in summer due to Baghdad's distance from the marshy southern Iraq and the coasts of Persian Gulf , and dust storms from the deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer. Winter temperatures are typical of hot desert climates . From December through February, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging 16 to 19 °C (61 to 66 °F), though highs above 21 °C (70 °F) are not unheard of. Lows below freezing occur
7654-461: Is very often shown sitting under a cloth of honour in medieval and Renaissance paintings where she is shown enthroned with saints. The cloth was often simply a luxurious textile, often imported and with rich patterns, as in brocades , but might have heraldic elements. French kings are often shown with blue cloths patterned with the gold fleur-de-lys . Margaret Beaufort , mother of Henry VII in her portrait by an anonymous artist, c. 1500 prays under
7832-790: The Act of Seclusion , which forbade the province of Holland from appointing a member of the House of Orange as stadtholder. After the English Restoration , the Act of Seclusion, which had not remained a secret for long, was declared void as the English Commonwealth (with which the treaty had been concluded) no longer existed. In 1660, William's mother Mary and grandmother Amalia tried to persuade several provincial States to designate William as their future stadtholder, but they all initially refused. In 1667, as William III approached
8010-518: The Arabian Nights , are set in Baghdad during this period. It would surpass even Constantinople in prosperity and size. Among the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries. Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature,
8188-957: The Assyrian Church of the East and the Syriac Orthodox Church , along with the largest Armenian Apostolic and Protestant communities in Iraq, which is also located in Baghdad. The city serves as the headquarters of the Chaldean Catholic Church, with its see located in the Cathedral of Our Lady of Sorrows , while the Ancient Church of the East has its see in the Cathedral of the Virgin. The city
8366-693: The Battle of the Boyne on 1 July 1690, after which James fled back to France. Upon William's return to England, his close friend Dutch General Godert de Ginkell , who had accompanied William to Ireland and had commanded a body of Dutch cavalry at the Battle of the Boyne, was named Commander in Chief of William's forces in Ireland and entrusted with further conduct of the war there. Ginkell took command in Ireland in
8544-542: The Dutch States Army as soon as possible, despite his youth and inexperience. On 15 December 1671, the States of Utrecht made this their official policy. On 19 January 1672, the States of Holland made a counterproposal: to appoint William for just a single campaign. The prince refused this and on 25 February a compromise was reached: an appointment by the States General for one summer, followed by
8722-660: The Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes sits in state to receive a presentation copy of the author's book. His seat is raised on a carpet-covered dais and backed with a richly embroidered dosser (French, dos ). Under his feet is a cushion, such as protected the feet of the King of France when he presided at a lit de justice . The King of France was also covered by a mobile canopy during his coronation, held up on poles by several peers of France. The Virgin Mary in particular
8900-589: The National Museum of Iraq was looted by Iraqi citizens during the 2003 US-led invasion. Baghdad's historic Jewish Quarter came to decline, as the war increased fear among the Jews. Numerous Assyrian Christians and Iraqi Mandaean families fled the city. Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed. The city also hosts various protests and rallies. In December 2015, Baghdad
9078-499: The Seleucid Empire , which had earlier replaced the city of Babylon. According to the traveler Ibn Battuta , Baghdad was one of the largest cities, not including the damage it has received. The residents are mostly Hanbalis . Baghdad is also home to the grave of Abu Hanifa where there is a cell and a mosque above it. The Sultan of Baghdad, Abu Said Bahadur Khan , was a Tatar king who embraced Islam. In its early years,
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#17327762379349256-616: The Speaker's House until the 1940s, when it was moved out as too opulent to be there during the difficult times of the Second World War . It was probably sold during a government modernisation, somehow appeared in an auction in Northamptonshire, and was bought for a family for £100 in the 1960s. They used it for thirty years, recognising that it was important but not knowing where it came from until an interiors expert at
9434-450: The Thames on his way. He was discovered and brought back to London by a group of fishermen. He was allowed to leave for France in a second escape attempt on 23 December. William permitted James to leave the country, not wanting to make him a martyr for the Roman Catholic cause; it was in his interests for James to be perceived as having left the country of his own accord, rather than having been forced or frightened into fleeing. William
9612-404: The Tigris , and it had an abundance of water in a dry climate. Water exists on both the north and south ends of the city, allowing all households to have a plentiful supply, which was quite uncommon during this time. The city of Baghdad quickly became so large that it had to be divided into three judicial districts: Madinat al-Mansur (the Round City), al-Sharqiyya ( al-Karkh ) and Askar al-Mahdi (on
9790-401: The University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius (though never officially enrolling as a student). While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft , William had a small personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck , and a new governor, Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein , who (as an illegitimate son of stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange )
9968-399: The Victoria and Albert Museum published an appeal to try to find it. The bed was bought back from the family and returned to Speaker's House after restoration and with new hangings. It can be viewed during tours of the Speaker's House. Pope Urban VIII commissioned Gian Lorenzo Bernini to design and construct a large structure that would be placed over the main altar, believed to be above
10146-431: The right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments . William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute. The Bill of Rights also settled
10324-435: The siege of Baghdad . Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim , and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to
10502-403: The 21st century, some 1.5 million people migrated to Baghdad. The 2013–2017 war following the Islamic State's invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city. The vast majority of Baghdad's population are Iraqi Arabs . Minority ethnic groups include Feyli Kurds , Turkmen , Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriacs and Armenians . The city
10680-491: The 35 member Baghdad Regional Council. The first step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February 2004 and served until national elections held in January 2005, when
10858-474: The Abbasid Caliphate. It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilization never fully recovered. At this point, Baghdad was ruled by the Ilkhanate , a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran. In August 1393, Baghdad was occupied by the Central Asian Turkic conqueror Timur ("Tamerlane"), by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz . Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where
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#173277623793411036-436: The Abbasid regime). Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs. Baghdad was captured in 1394 , 1534 , 1623 and 1638 . The city has been sieged in 812 , 865 , 946 , 1157 , 1258 and in 1393 and 1401, by Tamerlane . In 1058, Baghdad was captured by the Fatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of the Ismailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh. Not long before
11214-414: The Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character. Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period. The earliest was that of the famous Al-Ma'mun , who
11392-407: The British during World War I . In the Mesopotamian campaign , Baghdad fell in hands of the British forces in 1917. In 1920, Baghdad became the capital of the British Mandate of Mesopotamia , with several architectural and planning projects commissioned to reinforce this administration. After receiving independence in 1932, the city became capital of the Kingdom of Iraq . During this period,
11570-508: The Captain-General or Admiral-General of the Netherlands could not serve as stadtholder in any province. Even so, William's supporters sought ways to enhance his prestige and, on 19 September 1668, the States of Zeeland appointed him as First Noble . To receive this honour, William had to escape the attention of his state tutors and travel secretly to Middelburg . A month later, Amalia allowed William to manage his own household and declared him to be of majority age. The province of Holland,
11748-532: The Church of England and Scottish Episcopal Church as well as numerous laymen, refused to take oaths of allegiance to William. Ireland was controlled by Roman Catholics loyal to James, and Franco-Irish Jacobites arrived from France with French forces in March 1689 to join the war in Ireland and contest Protestant resistance at the Siege of Derry . William sent his navy to the city in July, and his army landed in August . After progress stalled, William personally intervened to lead his armies to victory over James at
11926-413: The Duke of York, later King James II of England (James VII of Scotland). Mary was eleven years his junior and he anticipated resistance to a Stuart match from the Amsterdam merchants who had disliked his mother (another Mary Stuart), but William believed that marrying Mary would increase his chances of succeeding to Charles's kingdoms, and would draw England's monarch away from his pro-French policies. James
12104-472: The Dutch States Army as one of the most disciplined and best-trained European armed forces. This had not been enough to keep France from making conquests in the Spanish Netherlands, which William and the regents blamed mainly on the Spaniards; the Dutch expected the once powerful Spanish Empire to have more military strength. During the war with France, William tried to improve his position by marrying, in 1677, his first cousin Mary , elder surviving daughter of
12282-472: The Dutch blamed the Imperial commander, de Souches , and after a failed attempt to capture Oudenaarde , largely due to obstructionism from de Souches, he was relieved of command. Frustrated, William joined the army under Rabenhaupt with 10,000 troops instead of campaigning further in the Spanish Netherlands. He assumed command of operations at Grave , which had been besieged since 28 June. Grave surrendered on 27 October. The Dutch were split by internal disputes;
12460-413: The Dutch on 10 August. The Battle of Saint-Denis was fought three days later on 13 August, when a combined Dutch-Spanish force under William attacked the French army under Luxembourg . Luxembourg withdrew and William thus ensured Mons would remain in Spanish hands. On 19 August, Spain and France agreed an armistice, followed by a formal peace treaty on 17 September. The war had seen the rebirth of
12638-413: The English army (the most notable of whom was Lord Churchill of Eyemouth , James's most able commander), and influential noblemen across the country declared their support for the invader. James at first attempted to resist William, but saw that his efforts would prove futile. He sent representatives to negotiate with William, but secretly attempted to flee on 11 December, throwing the Great Seal into
12816-477: The English people would not react well to a foreign invader, he demanded in a letter to Rear-Admiral Arthur Herbert that the most eminent English Protestants first invite him to invade. In June, Mary of Modena, after a string of miscarriages, gave birth to a son, James Francis Edward Stuart , who displaced William's Protestant wife to become first in the line of succession and raised the prospect of an ongoing Catholic monarchy. Public anger also increased because of
12994-467: The French army quickly overran the provinces of Gelderland and Utrecht. On 14 June, William withdrew with the remnants of his field army into Holland, where the States had ordered the flooding of the Dutch Waterline on 8 June. Louis XIV of France, believing the war was over, began negotiations to extract as large a sum of money from the Dutch as possible. The presence of a large French army in
13172-483: The French supply lines. In September 1673, the Dutch situation further improved. The resolute defence by John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen and Hans Willem van Aylva in the north of the Dutch Republic finally forced the troops of Münster and Cologne to withdraw, while William crossed the Dutch Waterline and recaptured Naarden . In November, a 30,000-strong Dutch-Spanish army, under William's command, marched into
13350-471: The Good by Rogier van der Weyden , the cloth continues over the seat, and then to the floor. In the summer of 1520, a meeting was staged between Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England , where the ostentatious display of wealth and power earned the meeting-place the name of The Field of Cloth of Gold . The canopy of estate may still be seen in most formal throne rooms . When Mary, Queen of Scots ,
13528-543: The Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur's envoys. Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned. In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by Timur. When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads. Baghdad became a provincial capital controlled by
13706-654: The Mongol Jalayirid (1400–1411), Turkic Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Turkic Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties. In 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Empire . Under the Ottomans , Baghdad continued into a period of decline , partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Iranian Safavids , which did not accept the Sunni control of
13884-843: The Southern Netherlands and Germany (the Réunion policy) and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, caused a surge of Huguenot refugees to the Republic. This led William III to join various anti-French alliances, such as the Association League, and ultimately the League of Augsburg (an anti-French coalition that also included the Holy Roman Empire , Sweden , Spain and several German states) in 1686. After his marriage in November 1677, William became
14062-519: The States General to send Charles the "Insinuation", a plea beseeching the king to prevent any Catholics from succeeding him, without explicitly naming James. After receiving indignant reactions from Charles and James, William denied any involvement. In 1685, when James II succeeded Charles, William at first attempted a conciliatory approach, at the same time trying not to offend the Protestants in England. William, ever looking for ways to diminish
14240-406: The States of Holland end their interference. To appease Charles, they complied on 30 September 1661. That year, Zuylenstein began to work for Charles and induced William to write letters to his uncle asking him to help William become stadtholder someday. After his mother's death, William's education and guardianship became a point of contention between his dynasty's supporters and the advocates of
14418-513: The States of these provinces anew. William's followers in the States of Utrecht on 26 April 1674 appointed him hereditary stadtholder. On 30 January 1675, the States of Gelderland offered him the titles of Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen . The negative reactions to this from Zeeland and the city of Amsterdam made William ultimately decide to decline these honours; he was instead appointed stadtholder of Gelderland and Overijssel. Baruch Spinoza 's warning in his Political Treatise of 1677 of
14596-481: The Syro-Mesopotamian heartland, one of the better-known examples being Mari , while Tell Chuera and Tell al-Rawda also provide examples of this type of urban planning existing in bronze age Syria . This style of urban planning contrasted with Ancient Greek and Roman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles. Baghdad
14774-533: The Union (see Politics and government of the Dutch Republic ). He was viewed as the leader of the nation in its independence movement and its protector from foreign threats. This was in the tradition of the princes of Orange before him: his great-grandfather William the Silent , his grand-uncle Maurice , his grandfather Frederick Henry , and his father William II . From early 1659, William spent seven years at
14952-544: The West Bank). Al-Mansur also planned out al-Karkh district so that he could separate the markets from the Round City in order to keep the turbulent populace away from the Round City to ensure that the gates would not be open at night for markets. Over time, the markets became diverse and a home to merchants and craftsmen. Officials with the title of “Muhtasib” were hired to look after markets to prevent cheating and check
15130-464: The Western half known as " Karkh ". The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being of quaternary alluvial origin due to the periodic large floods which have occurred on the river. Baghdad has a hot desert climate ( Köppen BWh ), featuring extremely hot, prolonged, dry summers and mild to cool, slightly wet, short winters. In the summer, from June through August,
15308-674: The age of 18, the Orangist party again attempted to bring him to power by securing for him the offices of stadtholder and Captain-General . To prevent the restoration of the influence of the House of Orange, De Witt, the leader of the States Party , allowed the pensionary of Haarlem , Gaspar Fagel , to induce the States of Holland to issue the Perpetual Edict . The Edict, supported by the important Amsterdam politicians Andries de Graeff and Gillis Valckenier , declared that
15486-522: The arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf. It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimid da'i , al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in taking Mawṣil , Wāsit and Kufa . Soon after, by December 1058,
15664-777: The artisans who used to make the Baldachin. The surname is found mainly in the islands of Malta and Sicily, particularly in Agrigento and Naro. Baghdad Baghdad is the capital and largest city of Iraq . Situated on the Tigris , it is part of the Baghdad Governorate and is located near the Diyala River . With a population variously estimated at 6 or over 7 million, Baghdad forms 22% of Iraq's total population. In comparison to its large population,
15842-481: The attempt to quell the violence. The Jews experienced further hardships. Between 1950 and 1951, Jews were targeted in series of bombings. According to Avi Shlaim , Israel was behind bombings, which is also believed by the majority of the Iraqis. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950. A development plan for Greater Baghdad was planned during the reign of King Faisal II. However,
16020-428: The average maximum temperature is as high as 44 °C (111 °F) and accompanied by sunshine. Rainfall has been recorded on fewer than half a dozen occasions at this time of year and has never exceeded 1 mm (0.04 in). Even at night, temperatures in summer are seldom below 24 °C (75 °F). Baghdad's record highest temperature of 51.8 °C (125.2 °F) was reached on 28 July 2020. The humidity
16198-565: The base of every column. All of these combine to create a feeling of upward movement. A baldachin may also be used in formal processions, including royal entries , coronation or funeral processions, to signify the elite status of the individual it covers. The origins of such an emblematic use in Europe lay in the courts of the Neo-Assyrian state, adopted in Athens perhaps as early as
16376-455: The bedchamber", a signal honour. The state bed, a lit à la duchesse —its canopy supported without visible posts—was delivered for the use of Queen Marie Leszczyńska at Versailles , as the centrepiece of a new decor realised for the Queen in 1730–35. Its tester is quickly recognisable as a baldachin, serving its time-honoured function; the bedding might easily be replaced by
16554-454: The central part of the building, there was a green dome that was 39m high. Surrounding the palace was an esplanade , a waterside building, in which only the caliph could come riding on horseback. In addition, the palace was near other mansions and officer's residences. Near the Gate of Syria, a building served as the home for the guards. It was made of brick and marble. The palace governor lived in
16732-491: The centre of anti-Orangism, abolished the office of stadtholder, and four other provinces followed suit in March 1670, establishing the so-called "Harmony". De Witt demanded an oath from each Holland regent (city council member) to uphold the Edict; all but one complied. William saw all this as a defeat, but the arrangement was a compromise: De Witt would have preferred to ignore the prince completely, but now his eventual rise to
16910-591: The city has a small area at just 673 square kilometers (260 sq mi). It is the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo , and the second-largest city in West Asia after Tehran . Baghdad is historically known as a global cultural hub. In 762 AD, Baghdad was founded as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate , and became its most notable major development project. Within a short time, it evolved into
17088-627: The city in 1967 and 1973 were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice. Saddam International Airport was opened in 1982. However, the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted by Saddam Hussein to the army and thousands of residents were killed. Iran launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad in retaliation for Iraqi Army's continuous bombardments of Tehran's residential districts. Between 1990 and 1991,
17266-455: The city in the war. After the invasion, the airport was renamed as Baghdad International Airport. Following the fall of Baghdad , the government lost its power. Saddam's statue was toppled at Firdos Square , which marked the overthrow of his regime. Also two minor riots took place in 2003, on 21 July and 2 October, caused some disturbance in the population. Religious and ethnic minorities such as Christians, Mandaeans and Jews began leaving
17444-515: The city is also many churches , mandis and synagogues . Through its airport, Baghdad is known as the "Gateway of Iraq". The name Baghdad is pre-Islamic, and its origin is disputed. The site where the city of Baghdad developed has been populated for millennia. Archaeological evidence shows that the site of Baghdad was occupied by various peoples long before the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia in 637 CE, and several ancient empires had capitals located in
17622-418: The city served as administrative centers for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function. Beginning in April 2003, the U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating new functions for these. The process initially focused on the election of neighborhood councils in the official neighborhoods, elected by neighborhood caucuses. The CPA convened
17800-624: The city was impacted by the Gulf War. The multinational alliance targeted numerous sites in Baghdad, in the Gulf War air campaign . Baghdad was bombed during the Gulf War by the multinational alliance force . Shortly after the end of the war, civil unrest began in the city, during the 1991 uprisings. Sadr City , a Shia populated neighborhood, was sight of clashes between Shia rebels and the Ba'ath Forces Republican Guard led by Qusay Hussein , which
17978-462: The city was known as a deliberate reminder of an expression in the Qur'an , when it refers to Paradise . It took four years to build (764–768). Mansur assembled engineers, surveyors, and art constructionists from around the world to come together and draw up plans for the city. Over 100,000 construction workers came to survey the plans; many were distributed salaries to start the building of the city. July
18156-433: The city's nine district councils. The number of neighborhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighborhood's population. The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council. This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from
18334-543: The city's population was between 1.2 million and 2 million. Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate , including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135). The Seljuks were
18512-554: The city's population were Iraqi Shi'ites . Sunni Muslims make up 29–34% of Iraq's population and they are still a majority in west and north Iraq. As early as 2003, about 20 percent of the population of the city was the result of mixed marriages between Shi'ites and Sunnis. Following the civil war between the Sunni and Shia militia groups during the U.S. occupation of Iraq , the population of Sunnis significantly decreased as they were pushed out of many neighborhoods. Masjid Al-Kadhimain
18690-553: The city, with fear of getting targeted in the attacks. As they were subjected of kidnapping, death threats and attacks. The Iraqi Film Archive building was also bombed by the coalition forces. The Iraq War took place from 2003 to 2011, but an Islamist insurgency lasted until 2013. It was followed by another war from 2013 to 2017 and a low-level insurgency from 2017, which included suicide bombings in January 2018 and January 2021 . Priceless collection of artifacts in
18868-444: The city. Administratively, Baghdad Governorate is divided into districts which are further divided into sub-districts . Municipally, the governorate is divided into 9 municipalities, which have responsibility for local issues. Regional services, however, are coordinated and carried out by a mayor who oversees the municipalities. The governorate council is responsible for the governorate-wide policy. These official subdivisions of
19046-464: The city. Between 1623 and 1638 , it returned to Iranian rule before falling back into Ottoman hands. Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague and cholera , and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out. The city became part of an eyalet and then a vilayet . For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East. The city saw relative revival in
19224-493: The date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah , a Jew from Khorasan , Iran . Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce . The city flourished into an unrivaled intellectual center of science , medicine , philosophy , and education , especially with the Abbasid translation movement began under the second caliph Al-Mansur and thrived under
19402-545: The daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland . His father died a week before his birth, making William III the prince of Orange from birth. In 1677, he married his first cousin Mary, the elder daughter of his maternal uncle James, Duke of York , the younger brother and later successor of King Charles II . A Protestant , William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic French ruler Louis XIV in coalition with both Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded William as
19580-618: The decline since the territorial defeat of the Islamic State militant group in Iraq in 2017, and are very rare now. A major center of Islamic history , the city is known for its numerous historic mosques . It includes museums such as the Iraq Museum , Baghdadi Museum and Abd al-Karim Qasim Museum . Baghdad is also nicknamed as "City of Palaces", as its home to numerous palaces such as Abbasid Palace , Radwaniyah Palace and Al-Faw Palace . Previously being multi-religious city,
19758-472: The directions of these destinations. The distance between these gates was a little less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi). Each gate had double doors that were made of iron; the doors were so heavy it took several men to open and close them. The wall itself was about 44 m thick at the base and about 12 m thick at the top. Also, the wall was 30 m high, which included merlons , a solid part of an embattled parapet usually pierced by embrasures . This wall
19936-410: The districts above. The following is a selection (rather than a complete list) of these neighborhoods: Baghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015. The surrounding metropolian region's population is estimated to be 10,500,000. It is second largest city in the Arab world, after Cairo and fourth largest metropolitan area in the Middle East after Cairo and Tehran. At the beginning of
20114-568: The document remained unsigned at William II's death and was therefore void. On 13 August 1651, the Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland (Supreme Court) ruled that guardianship would be shared between his mother, his grandmother and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg , husband of his paternal aunt Louise Henriette . William's mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. William's education
20292-468: The end of 2014, only 1,500 Assyrians remained in Dora. The majority of the citizens are Muslims with minorities of Christians , Yezidis , Jews and Mandeans also present. There are many religious centers distributed around the city including mosques, churches, synagogues and Mashkhannas cultic huts. The city historically has a predominantly Sunni population, but by the early 21st century around 52% of
20470-462: The end of the Republic's existence. William answered famously: "There is one way to avoid this: to die defending it in the last ditch." On 7 July, the inundations were complete and the further advance of the French army was effectively blocked. On 16 July, Zeeland offered the stadtholdership to William. Johan de Witt had been unable to function as Grand Pensionary after being wounded by an attempt on his life on 21 June. On 15 August, William published
20648-521: The exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis. Christophe Wall-Romana has suggested that al-Mansur's choice to found his "new city" at Baghdad because of its strategic location was the same criteria which influenced Sargon's choice to found the original city of Akkad in the exact same location. After the fall of the Umayyads , the first Muslim dynasty, the victorious Abbasid rulers wanted their own capital from which they could rule. They chose
20826-509: The first element can be traced to boghu and is related to Indo-Iranian bhag and Slavic bog "god." A similar term in Middle Persian is the name Mithradāt ( Mehrdad in New Persian ), known in English by its borrowed Hellenistic form Mithridates , meaning "Given by Mithra " ( dāt is the more archaic form of dād , related to Sanskrit dāt , Latin dat and English donor ), ultimately borrowed from Persian Mehrdad . There are
21004-454: The formal thanks of the House of Commons and was awarded the title of Earl of Athlone by the king. A series of Jacobite risings also took place in Scotland, where Viscount Dundee raised Highland forces and won a victory on 27 July 1689 at the Battle of Killiecrankie , but he died in the fight and a month later Scottish Cameronian forces subdued the rising at the Battle of Dunkeld . William offered Scottish clans that had taken part in
21182-534: The formation of Mu'tazili theology, as well as Al-Tabari culminating in the scholarship on the Quranic exegesis . Baghdad is likely to have been the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it tied with Córdoba . Several estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak. Many of the One Thousand and One Nights tales, widely known as
21360-635: The heart of the Republic caused a general panic, and the people turned against De Witt and his allies. On 4 July, the States of Holland appointed William stadtholder, and he took the oath five days later. The next day, a special envoy from Charles II, Lord Arlington , met William in Nieuwerbrug and presented a proposal from Charles. In return for William's capitulation to England and France, Charles would make William Sovereign Prince of Holland, instead of stadtholder (a mere civil servant). When William refused, Arlington threatened that William would witness
21538-570: The lands of the Bishops of Münster and Cologne. The Dutch troops took revenge and carried out many atrocities. Together with 35,000 Imperial troops, they then captured Bonn , an important magazine in the long logistical lines between France and the Dutch Republic. The French position in the Netherlands became untenable and Louis was forced to evacuate French troops. This deeply shocked Louis and he retreated to Saint Germain where no one, except
21716-551: The last English state beds intended for a main floor State Bedroom in a non-royal residence. In Britain, monarchs slept in a state bed in the Palace of Westminster the night before their coronation. This tradition was started by William the Conqueror in 1066 and continued until 1821, when George IV was the last monarch to sleep in the bed. The original state bed was damaged in a fire and replaced in 1859. The new bed remained in
21894-412: The late seventh century BC, but relegated to the use of women by the late fifth century (compare parasol ). Such canopies might be made of anything from muslin to heavy brocade, or even constructed of less flexible materials, and are supported by poles, whether affixed to a carriage, or carried by people walking on each side. An Egyptian pharaoh, for example, was escorted both in life and in death by such
22072-479: The latter part of the 18th century, under Mamluk government. Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed by Ali Rıza Pasha in 1831. From 1851 to 1852 and from 1861 to 1867, Baghdad was governed, under the Ottoman Empire by Mehmed Namık Pasha . The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000. Baghdad and southern Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until 1917, when they were captured by
22250-399: The latter part of the building and the commander of the guards in the front. In 813, after the death of caliph Al-Amin , the palace was no longer used as the home for the caliph and his family. The roundness points to the fact that it was based on Arabic script . The two designers who were hired by Al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht , a Zoroastrian who also determined that
22428-539: The leading politician of the Republic, took William's education into his own hands, instructing him weekly in state matters and joining him for regular games of real tennis . After the death of William's father, most provinces had left the office of stadtholder vacant. At the demand of Oliver Cromwell , the Treaty of Westminster , which ended the First Anglo-Dutch War , had a secret annexe that required
22606-567: The need to organize the state so that the citizens maintain control over the sovereign was an influential expression of this unease with the concentration of power in one person. Meanwhile, the front of the war against France had shifted to the Spanish Netherlands . In 1674, Allied forces in the Netherlands were numerically superior to the French army under Condé , which was based along the Piéton river near Charleroi . William took
22784-552: The neighborhood, through the district, and up to the city council. The same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the city itself. There, local councils were elected from 20 neighborhoods ( Nahia ) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils ( Qada ). As within the city, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on
22962-509: The offensive and sought to bring on a battle by outflanking the French positions but the broken ground forced him to divide his army into three separate columns. At Seneffe , Condé led a cavalry attack against the Allied vanguard and by midday on 11 August had halted their advance. Against the advice of his subordinates, he then ordered a series of frontal assaults which led to very heavy casualties on both sides with no concrete result. William and
23140-588: The office of supreme army commander was implicit. De Witt further conceded that William would be admitted as a member of the Raad van State , the Council of State, then the generality organ administering the defence budget. William was introduced to the council on 31 May 1670 with full voting rights, despite De Witt's attempts to limit his role to that of an advisor. In November 1670, William obtained permission to travel to England to urge Charles to pay back at least
23318-552: The park of the country house in Soestdijk. In 1674 Wilhelm bought the estate from Jacob de Graeff, which was later converted into Soestdijk Palace . This first involvement of the authorities did not last long. On 23 December 1660, when William was ten years old, his mother died of smallpox at Whitehall Palace , London, while visiting her brother, the recently restored King Charles II. In her will, Mary requested that Charles look after William's interests, and Charles now demanded that
23496-515: The passage of the Toleration Act 1689 , which guaranteed religious toleration to Protestant nonconformists . It did not, however, extend toleration as far as he wished, still restricting the religious liberty of Roman Catholics, non-trinitarians , and those of non-Christian faiths. In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights,
23674-553: The power of France, hoped that James would join the League of Augsburg, but by 1687 it became clear that James would not join the anti-French alliance. Relations worsened between William and James thereafter. In November, James's second wife, Mary of Modena , was announced to be pregnant. That month, to gain the favour of English Protestants, William wrote an open letter to the English people in which he disapproved of James's pro-Roman Catholic policy of religious toleration. Seeing him as
23852-516: The powerful Amsterdam mercantile body was anxious to end an expensive war once their commercial interests were secured, while William saw France as a long-term threat that had to be defeated. This conflict increased once ending the war became a distinct possibility when Grave was captured in October 1674, leaving only Maastricht. On both sides, the last years of the war saw minimal return for their investment of men and money. The French were preparing
24030-521: The project was ceased, when new the government came to power. On 14 July 1958, members of the Iraqi Army , under Abdul-Karim Qasim , staged a coup to topple the Kingdom of Iraq . King Faisal II , former Prime Minister Nuri al-Said , former Regent Prince Abd al-Ilah , members of the royal family, and others were brutally killed during the coup. Many of the victim's bodies were then dragged through
24208-708: The proposal, and continued his war plans with his French ally. For the Dutch Republic, 1672 proved calamitous. It became known as the Rampjaar ("disaster year") because in the Franco-Dutch War and the Third Anglo-Dutch War , the Netherlands was invaded by France and its allies: England, Münster , and Cologne . Although the Anglo-French fleet was disabled by the Battle of Solebay , in June
24386-462: The question of succession to the Crown. After the death of either William or Mary, the other would continue to reign. Next in the line of succession was Mary II's sister, Anne , and her issue, followed by any children William might have had by a subsequent marriage. Roman Catholics, as well as those who married Catholics, were excluded. Although most in Britain accepted William and Mary as sovereigns,
24564-622: The regal power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives". William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689 by the Bishop of London , Henry Compton. Normally, the coronation is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury , but the Archbishop at the time, William Sancroft , refused to recognise James's removal. William also summoned
24742-453: The remaining space in the center is unknown. The circular design of the city was a direct reflection of the traditional Near Eastern urban design . The Sasanian city of Gur in Fars , built 500 years before Baghdad, is nearly identical in its general circular design, radiating avenues, and the government buildings and temples at the center of the city. Much earlier, circular cities had existed in
24920-633: The resulting Anglo-Iraqi War and after Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and his government had fled, the Mayor of Baghdad surrendered to British and Commonwealth forces. On 1–2 June, during the ensuing power vacuum , Jewish residents were attacked following rumors they had aided the British. In what became known as the Farhud , over 180 Jews were killed, 1,000 injured and hundreds of Jewish properties were ransacked. Between 300 and 400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in
25098-486: The rising a pardon provided that they signed allegiance by a deadline, and his government in Scotland punished a delay with the 1692 Massacre of Glencoe , which became infamous in Jacobite propaganda as William had countersigned the orders. Bowing to public opinion, William dismissed those responsible for the massacre, though they still remained in his favour; in the words of the historian John Dalberg-Acton , "one became
25276-497: The scholarship involved not only Arabs, but also Persians , Syriacs , Nestorians , Jews , Arab Christians , and people from other ethnic and religious groups native to the region. These are considered among the fundamental elements that contributed to the flourishing of scholarship in the Medieval Islamic world. Baghdad was also a significant center of Islamic religious learning, with Al-Jahiz contributing to
25454-492: The seventeenth century, developing the medieval tradition of receiving visitors in the bedroom, which had become the last and most private room of the standard suite of rooms in a Baroque apartment. Louis XIV developed the rituals of receptions in his state bedchamber, the petit lever to which only a handful of his court élite might expect to be invited. The other monarchs of Europe soon imitated his practice; even his staunchest enemy, William III of England , had his "grooms of
25632-420: The seventh caliph Al-Ma'mun . Baytul-Hikmah or the "House of Wisdom" was among the most well known academies, and had the largest selection of books in the world by the middle of the 9th century. Notable scholars based in Baghdad during this time include translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq , mathematician al-Khwarizmi , and philosopher Al-Kindi . Although Arabic was used as the international language of science,
25810-575: The south-western English port of Brixham ; James was deposed shortly afterward. William's reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him and his wife to take power. During the early years of his reign, William was occupied abroad with the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), leaving Mary to govern Britain alone. She died in 1694. In 1696 the Jacobites , a faction loyal to the deposed James, plotted unsuccessfully to assassinate William and restore James to
25988-405: The spring of 1691, and following the Battle of Aughrim , succeeded in capturing both Galway and Limerick , thereby effectively suppressing the Jacobite forces in Ireland within a few more months. After difficult negotiations a capitulation was signed on 3 October 1691—the Treaty of Limerick . Thus concluded the Williamite pacification of Ireland, and for his services, the Dutch general received
26166-403: The streets of Baghdad. Baghdad was also site for opposition and coup attempts against Qasim's rule by Arab nationalists. During the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum , Iraq's main export. New infrastructure including modern sewerage, water, and highway facilities were built during this period. The masterplans of
26344-402: The substantial Jewish community (probably exceeding 100,000 people) comprised between a quarter and a third of the city's population. On 1 April 1941, members of the " Golden Square " and Rashid Ali al-Gaylani staged a coup in Baghdad . Rashid Ali al-Gaylani installed a pro- German and pro- Italian government to replace the pro-British government of Regent Abd al-Ilah . On 31 May, after
26522-418: The surrounding area. Arab authors, realizing the pre-Islamic origins of Baghdad's name, generally looked for its roots in Middle Persian . They suggested various meanings, the most common of which was "bestowed by God". Modern scholars generally tend to favor this etymology, which views the word as a Persian compound of bagh ( [REDACTED] ) "god" and dād ( [REDACTED] ) "given". In Old Persian
26700-452: The throne. In Scotland, William's role in ordering the Massacre of Glencoe remains notorious. William's lack of children and the death in 1700 of his nephew the Duke of Gloucester , the son of his sister-in-law Anne , threatened the Protestant succession. The danger was averted by placing William and Mary's cousins, the Protestant Hanoverians , in line to the throne after Anne with the Act of Settlement 1701 . Upon his death in 1702, William
26878-450: The time, streets were frequently washed free of debris and trash. In fact, by the time of Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad had a few thousand hammams . These baths increased public hygiene and served as a way for the religious to perform ablutions as prescribed by Islam. Moreover, entry fees were usually so low that almost everyone could afford them. In the center of the city lay the mosque , as well as headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of
27056-448: The tomb of Saint Peter , in the new St. Peter's Basilica . The canopy imitated cloth in bronze, as did many subsequent imitations. This famous and spectacular feature is generally called the "Baldacchino", though strictly it is a ciborium . Bernini's design for the Baldacchino incorporated giant solomonic columns inspired by columns that ringed the altar of the Old St. Peter's. These columns were originally donated by Constantine , and
27234-460: The trial of seven bishops who had publicly opposed James's Declaration of Indulgence granting religious liberty to his subjects, a policy which appeared to threaten the establishment of the Anglican Church . On 30 June 1688—the same day the bishops were acquitted—a group of political figures, known afterward as the " Immortal Seven ", sent William a formal invitation . William's intentions to invade were public knowledge by September 1688. With
27412-416: The weighs and measures of stocks. Baghdad eclipsed Ctesiphon, the capital of the Sassanians, which was located some 30 km (19 mi) to the southeast. Today, all that remains of Ctesiphon is the shrine town of Salman Pak , just to the south of Greater Baghdad which is where Salman the Persian is believed to have been buried. Ctesiphon itself had replaced and absorbed Seleucia , the first capital of
27590-495: Was a hectic city during the day and had many attractions at night. There were cabarets and taverns, halls for backgammon and chess, live plays, concerts, and acrobats. On street corners, storytellers engaged crowds with tales such as those later told in Arabian Nights. Storytelling became a profession called " al-Qaskhun " which survived until the modern era. The four surrounding walls of Baghdad were named Kufa , Basra , Khurasan , and Syria ; named because their gates pointed in
27768-401: Was a prisoner in England at Tutbury Castle in 1585 she protested to her keepers Amias Paulet and John Somers about the removal of her cloth of estate from a dining room, which seemed to be a slight against her royal status. The state bed, intended for receiving important visitors and producing heirs before a select public, but not intended for sleeping in, evolved during the second half of
27946-427: Was a success. The Spaniards found it difficult to raise enough troops due to financial constraints and the Allies were defeated in the Battle of Cassel . This meant that they could not prevent the cities from falling into French hands. The French then took a defensive posture, afraid that more success would force England to intervene on the side of the Allies. The peace talks that began at Nijmegen in 1676 were given
28124-419: Was also home to a large Jewish community and regularly visited by Sikh pilgrims from India. The historic "Assyrian Quarter" of the city — Dora , which boasted a population of 150,000 Assyrians in 2003, made up over 3% of the capital's Assyrian population then. The community has been subject to kidnappings , death threats , vandalism, and house burnings by al-Qaeda and other insurgent groups. As of
28302-498: Was an accessory), he thwarted attempts to prosecute the ringleaders, and even rewarded some, like Hendrik Verhoeff , with money, and others, like Johan van Banchem and Johan Kievit , with high offices. This damaged his reputation in the same fashion as his later actions at Glencoe . William continued to fight against the invaders from England and France, allying himself with Spain , Brandenburg , and Emperor Leopold I . In November 1672, he took his army to Maastricht to threaten
28480-536: Was born, his father died of smallpox ; thus, William was the sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. Immediately, a conflict arose between his mother and his paternal grandmother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels , over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William ( Willem ) to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder . William II had intended to appoint his wife as their son's guardian in his will; however,
28658-457: Was caliph from 813 to 833. Another was established by Sabur ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy. This second library was plundered and burned by the Seljuks only seventy years after it was established. This was a good example of the sort of library built up out of the needs and interests of a literary society. The last two were examples of madrasa or theological college libraries. The Nezamiyeh
28836-438: Was chosen as the starting time because two astrologers , Naubakht Ahvazi , an Iranian Zoroastrian , and Mashallah , an Iranian Jew , believed that the city should be built under the sign of the lion , Leo . Leo is associated with fire and symbolizes productivity, pride, and expansion and Leo's connection symbolically to Mithra. The bricks used to make the city were 18 in (460 mm) on all four sides. Abu Hanifah
29014-485: Was designed as a circle about 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter, leading it to be known as the "Round City". The original design shows a single ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction added another ring inside the first. Within the city there were many parks, gardens, villas, and promenades. There was a large sanitation department, many fountains and public baths, and unlike contemporary European cities at
29192-484: Was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, some of English descent, including Walburg Howard and the Scottish noblewoman Lady Anna Mackenzie . From April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius . The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince d'Orange ,
29370-414: Was founded by the Persian Nizam al-Mulk , who was vizier of two early Seljuk sultans. It continued to operate even after the coming of the Mongols in 1258. The Mustansiriyah madrasa , which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded by Al-Mustansir , the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242. This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad. By the 10th century,
29548-403: Was his paternal uncle. Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt and his uncle Cornelis de Graeff pushed the States of Holland to take charge of William's education and ensure that he would acquire the skills to serve in a future—though undetermined—state function; the States acted on 25 September 1660. Around this time, the young prince played with De Graeff's sons Pieter and Jacob de Graeff in
29726-463: Was home to a large Jewish community, which numbered around 150,000, constituting around 25% of the population. Baghdad was leading center for Jewish learning in the 19th century. Due to increase in persecution of Jews, most of them fled Iraq in 1951. Until the 2003 war, Iraq retained a substantial Jewish community of 1,000 people. Around 500 to 600 Jews lived in Baghdad, primarily in old Jewish quarters of Bataween and Shorja . Meir Taweig Synagogue
29904-425: Was home to more than 300,000 Christians, primarily concentrated in several neighborhoods with a Christian majority, the most notable being al- Karrada and al-Dora , which had around 150,000 Christians before the war. The Christian community in Baghdad is divided among various denominations, mainly the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Syriac Catholic Church . There is also a significant presence of followers of
30082-400: Was hung above the seat of a personage of sufficient standing, as a symbol of authority. The seat under such a canopy of state would normally be raised on a dais . The cloth above a seat generally continued vertically down to the ground behind the seat. Emperors and kings, reigning dukes and bishops were accorded this honour. In a 15th-century manuscript illumination the sovereign Grand Master of
30260-494: Was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires, such as the Mesopotamian Mamluk Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire, until the World War I. The city served as capital of the former British Mandate of Mesopotamia . With the recognition of Iraq as an independent monarchical state in 1932, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as
30438-400: Was not inclined to consent, but Charles II pressured his brother to agree. Charles wanted to use the possibility of marriage to gain leverage in negotiations relating to the war, but William insisted that the two issues be decided separately. Charles relented, and Bishop Henry Compton married the couple on 4 November 1677. Mary became pregnant soon after the marriage, but miscarried . After
30616-410: Was passed. The Act, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right , established restrictions on the royal prerogative . It provided, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition , raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny
30794-406: Was selected by UNESCO as the first Arab city of the center of literary creativity. The city attracted global media attention on 3 January 2020, when Iranian general Qasem Soleimani was assassinated in a U.S. drone strike near Baghdad Airport. The city is located on a vast plain bisected by the Tigris river. The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called " Risafa " and
30972-505: Was succeeded in Britain by Anne and as titular Prince of Orange by his cousin John William Friso . William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650. Baptised William Henry ( Dutch : Willem Hendrik ), he was the only child of Mary, Princess Royal , and stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange . Mary was the elder daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland and sister of kings Charles II and James II and VII . Eight days before William
31150-407: Was surrounded by another wall with a thickness of 50 m. The second wall had towers and rounded merlons, which surrounded the towers. This outer wall was protected by a solid glacis , which is made out of bricks and quicklime . Beyond the outer wall was a water-filled moat. The Golden Gate Palace, the residence of the caliph and his family, was in the heart of Baghdad, in the central square. In
31328-406: Was the counter of the bricks and he developed a canal, which brought water to the work site for both human consumption and the manufacture of the bricks. Marble was also used to make buildings throughout the city, and marble steps led down to the river's edge. The basic framework of the city consists of two large semicircles about 19 km (12 mi) in diameter. The inner city connecting them
31506-472: Was the sovereign Prince of Orange from birth, Stadtholder of Holland , Zeeland , Utrecht , Guelders , and Overijssel in the Dutch Republic from the 1670s, and King of England , Ireland , and Scotland from 1689 until his death in 1702. He ruled Great Britain and Ireland with his wife, Queen Mary II , and their joint reign is known as that of William and Mary . William was the only child of William II, Prince of Orange , and Mary, Princess Royal ,
31684-437: Was vacant. On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Bill of Rights 1689 , in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee, had abdicated the government of the realm, thereby leaving the throne vacant. The Crown was not offered to James's infant son, who would have been the heir apparent under normal circumstances, but to William and Mary as joint sovereigns. It was, however, provided that "the sole and full exercise of
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