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158-482: The school is considered to have been founded in 1153 by Nicholas Breakspear (later Pope Adrian IV ), making the school the second oldest in Norway together with Oslo Cathedral School and Hamar Cathedral School , which were founded the same year, one year after the founding of Trondheim Cathedral School . Although the earliest written records documenting the school's existence date back to 1288, Bergen Cathedral School

316-576: A canon at the Augustinian priory in Merton, Surrey . Poole subscribes to this theory, citing a letter to Breakspear when pope in which he is reminded that "your worship was wont to speak" of Merton in conversation. The next point at which Breakspear can be positively identified is in the Southern French town of Arles , where he continued his studies in canon law , and probably under

474-651: A Sicilian–Byzantine alliance as being directed against him. The alliance with William had probably been strengthened by the Pope's belief that Barbarossa had already broken the Treaty of Constance. At the Treaty of Benevento, Adrian was represented by the Cardinals Ubald, Julius and Roland; the Papacy was forced to cede much valuable land, rights and income to William. The Emperor felt personally betrayed: according to

632-466: A Sunday as usual) in order to mislead the Romans, all this being somewhat incongruous for "the lord of the world and master of Rome" who was there with his armed forces. To this end, Adrian and Barbarossa met at Sutri in early June 1155. This soon, says Sayers, "turned out to be a spectacular contest between the two to gain propagandist supremacy". Adrian, reports an Imperial chronicler, was there "with

790-535: A brother called either Ranulf or Randall, a clerk in Feering , Essex. Paris is also the source for Nicholas' surname being Breakspear. Paris recounts a story that Nicholas was rejected by Abbot Robert de Gorron from taking his novitiate at the abbey, although as Poole points out, the story is demonstrably incorrect as Robert did not become abbot until 1151. Sayers, suggests that, true or not, during and after Breakspear's pontificate, "certainly St Albans fed upon

948-452: A bust of Julius Caesar might have been thrown away or discreetly disposed of, because Caesar's portraits could have been viewed as politically dangerous possessions after the dictator's assassination. Historians and archaeologists not affiliated with the French administration, among them Paul Zanker, the renowned archaeologist and expert on Caesar and Augustus , were quick to question whether

1106-601: A capacity of just over 17,000. A well known photography festival, Rencontres d'Arles , takes place in Arles every year, and the French national school of photography is located there. The major French publishing house Actes Sud is also situated in Arles. In the past years, several cultural organizations have set up a presence in Arles, such as the LUMA Foundation , the Fondation Vincent van Gogh Arles ,

1264-485: A delegation to the chapter of Pisa Cathedral to cut stone and columns. The chapter was requested, says Egger, to "help them in every possible way to conduct their business". Poole questions the reasoning for Breakspear's episcopal promotion. Not only was his abbey an obscure one, with little political value or great endowment, but Breakspear's reasons for attending the Papal court were unlikely to have enabled him to make

1422-603: A fraction of what it had been in Roman times, with much of old Arles lying in ruins. The town regained political and economic prominence in the 12th century, with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa traveling there in 1178 for his coronation. In the 12th century, it became a free city governed by an elected podestat (chief magistrate; literally "power"), who appointed the consuls and other magistrates. It retained this status until

1580-479: A generally good impression in the region: A later saga refers to Breakspear as "the good cardinal...now considered a saint". On his return to Rome he found Pope Eugenius had died the previous year, and that his successor had followed him only a few weeks before; the College of Cardinals was seeking a successor. Discussing the broader political context of the time, the historian Anne Duggan argues that "the Pope

1738-414: A hardline against the Roman commune. He threatened to place the city under interdict for protecting Arnold, whom the hierarchy condemned as a heretic. This strategy successfully drove a wedge between the commune and Arnold, who was expelled. He followed through with this threat following the beating of one of his cardinals Norwich has called this "an act of breath-taking courage", considering that Adrian

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1896-509: A joint celebration of the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul . There was much rejoicing, and contemporaries went so far as to proclaim that "a single state had been created from two princely courts". Ullmann, on the other hand, argues that, not only was the Emperor's power clearly derivative of the Pope but that Adrian himself had further diluted it in his rendition of the coronation ceremony. Nor

2054-449: A little hurt that, having treated Frederick so affectionately and honourably, he had not had a better response, but the actual words used to express these sentiments gave rise to immediate offence". Adrian's defence of Eskil of Lund contributed further to the decline in his relationship with Barbarossa. Adrian's choice of occasion on which to rebuke the Emperor was bound to offend him, argues Norwich. But even if unintentional, argues Freed,

2212-558: A major port on the Rhône. In the 19th century, the establishment of railways diminished river trade, leading to the city declining in prominence. This made it a destination for the painter Vincent van Gogh, who arrived there on 21 February 1888. He was fascinated by the Provençal landscapes, producing over 300 paintings and drawings during his time in Arles. Many of his most famous paintings were completed there, including The Night Cafe ,

2370-461: A mural in the Lateran of his predecessor Luthar which described the Emperor as a liegeman of the Pope. The painting was inscribed with the verse The king comes before the gates, first swearing to   uphold the rights of the city. Then he becomes the liegeman of the pope;   he accepts the crown, which the pope gives. Indignant, Barbarossa made a "friendly reproach" to

2528-547: A name for himself. Indeed, on at least one occasion it was in response to a summons concerning his behaviour. However, suggest Poole, a possible explanation may have its roots in Breakspear's residency at Merton. Duggan notes that the Cardinal Bishopric of Albino was part of the Pope's inner circle, which she suggests makes his rapid elevation to such a sensitive position all the more remarkable and indicative of

2686-482: A number of acts of religious significance that it was impossible to perform, such as the ceremony of the sede stercoraria , the physical claiming of the curule seats of Saints Peter and Paul. Soon after Adrian's election, a cardinal was badly beaten up by Roman republicans. Adrian was no more popular with the people or Commune of Rome than his immediate predecessors, so at Easter the next year he departed for Viterbo . His "primary task", argues Sayers, "was to control

2844-413: A peace conference, which the Pope had ("scornfully") rejected. Emperor Manuel I had launched his own military operation against William in southern Italy in 1154. He found Adrian a willing ally. The Russian historian Alexander Vasiliev notes that Adrian "expressed his desire 'to help in bringing all the brethren into one church' and compared the eastern church with lost drachma , wandering sheep, and

3002-518: A people pleasing to God, devoted to good works". He successfully introduced a new Scandinavian tythe —the denarium sancti Petri , or payment to St Peter—a financial acknowledgement by the Scandinavian church of Papal primacy. Breakspear, argues the scholar Andrew Beck, "gave the Swedish church its hierarchy and its attachment to Rome". He left Scandinavia in autumn 1154; he seems to have left

3160-477: A price of 6 million NOK as a temporary solution that would last until at least 2014. From 2016 to 2017, the original building was closed for renovation and an additional building was being added between it and the classroom wing. The administration, the school library and some classes were temporarily located at the former Tanks school. Of the mainline courses offered in Norwegian upper secondary schools, only

3318-399: A repudiation of their existing treaty . Relations soured further when Frederick laid claim to a large swathe of territory in northern Italy. Adrian's relations with his country of birth, however, seem to have remained generally good. Certainly, he showered St Albans Abbey with privileges, and he appears to have forwarded King Henry II 's policies where he could. Most famously, in 1158 Adrian

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3476-535: A reputation as a prestigious school, because of its history and high grade requirements. A number of the most famous alumni in the history of the school are engraved in a plaque in the old building from 1840: 60°23′36.09″N 5°19′51.76″E  /  60.3933583°N 5.3310444°E  / 60.3933583; 5.3310444 Pope Adrian IV Pope Adrian IV ( Latin : Adrianus IV ; born Nicholas Breakspear (or Brekespear ); c.  1100  – 1 September 1159, also Hadrian IV )

3634-412: A result, he placed Eskil in charge of the new Swedish metropolitan. Duggan describes Adrian's legation in the north has a "diplomatic triumph", being so successful, says Sayers, "that he was later seen as the apostle of Scandinavia". Boso later lauded how Breakspear brought "peace to the kingdoms, law to the barbarians, tranquillity to the monasteries, order to the churches, discipline to the clergy and

3792-432: A sword, which emphasised the Emperor's role—as Adrian saw it—as the defender of the Papacy and its privileges. Adrian, on the other hand, disallowed his chancery from addressing the Emperor by either of his preferred titles, augustus semper or semper augustus . It may be that Adrian had been frightened by the Emperor's decisive approach on Rome —Duggan notes he "impos[ed] obedience on recalcitrant cities and proclaim[ed]

3950-882: Is a coastal city and commune in the South of France, a subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region , in the former province of Provence . A large part of the Camargue , the largest wetlands in France, is located within the territory of the commune, which is the largest in Metropolitan France in terms of geographic territory. In non-metropolitan France, Maripasoula in French Guiana

4108-412: Is believed to have been founded in 1153 by Nicholas Breakspear, who became Pope Adrian IV in 1154. It was founded as a theological school for the education of priests. Pupils would start attending the school around the age of seven. Until the school reform in 1806, the school was tied to the church. The school moved to its present location in 1840. The original building is still in use as the offices for

4266-456: Is even more unlikely. The focal point of the cult of St Olaf , Nidaros had until that point been only an episcopate. Adrian's council was intended to promulgate canons . To this end Breakspear made Nidaros a geographically extensive ecclesiastical province , covering the whole of Norway, Iceland and Greenland, as well as the Faroe , Orkney and Shetland Islands . Breakspear also authorised

4424-505: Is known that in 1147, while Eugenius was in Vico he granted one "N. abbot of St Rufus". It was probably in 1148 that Breakspear met who would become his good friend, John of Salisbury , in Rheims , and soon after when Eugenius appointed him Cardinal-Bishop of Albano , making Adrian at the time only the second Englishman to have been promoted to that rank. in which capacity he attended

4582-481: Is possible that Breakspear's plans fell through thanks to the machinations of the recently returned Archbishop Eskil. Eskil, having discovered that he had lost half his archepiscopate in his absence, may have stirred up the Swedes' and Goths' rivalries to ensure against losing any more. In the event, Breakspear appears to have repaired relations with Eskil, assuring him that Eskil would receive far more than he had lost. As

4740-430: Is served by a number of airports in the region, most notably the major international airport of Marseille Provence approximately an hour's drive away. The A54 autoroute toll motorway, which locally connects Salon-de-Provence with Nîmes and in a wider sense forms part of European route E80 , passes by Arles. The Rhône , which for navigation purposes is classified as a Class V waterway as far upstream as Lyon ,

4898-455: Is supposed to have granted Henry the papal bull Laudabiliter , which is thought to have authorised Henry to invade Ireland. Henry did not do so, however, for another 14 years, and scholars are uncertain whether the bull ever existed. Following Adrian's death at Anagni , there was uncertainty as to who to succeed him, with both pro- and anti-imperial cardinals voting for different candidates. Although Pope Alexander III officially took over,

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5056-483: Is that the dates commonly given are in every instance wrong". The English chronicler Matthew Paris says he came from Abbots Langley , although Paris mistakenly ascribes to his father the name Robert de Camera . Robert may have been a clerk although Sayers suggests that Paris' claim that Robert was a priest is probably correct, as is the likelihood that he later became a monk. As such, there are grounds for believing Nicholas to have been illegitimate. Nicholas had

5214-458: Is the largest French commune in general. The commune's land area is roughly similar to that of Singapore . The city has a long history, and was of considerable importance in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis . The Roman and Romanesque Monuments of Arles were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1981 for their testimony to the history of the region. The city is famous for being

5372-693: The Yellow Room , Starry Night Over the Rhone , and L'Arlésienne . Paul Gauguin visited van Gogh in Arles. However, van Gogh's mental health deteriorated and he became alarmingly eccentric, culminating in the ear-severing incident in December 1888 which resulted in two stays in the Old Hospital of Arles . The concerned Arlesians circulated a petition the following February demanding that van Gogh be confined. In May 1889, he voluntarily left Arles for

5530-589: The Abbey of Saint-Ruf  [ fr ] . There he became a canon regular and was eventually appointed abbot. He travelled to Rome several times, where he appears to have caught the attention of Pope Eugene III , and was sent on a mission to Catalonia where the Reconquista was attempting to reclaim land from the Muslim Al-Andalus . Around this time his abbey complained to Eugene that Breakspear

5688-1076: The Burgundians to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, he was exiled for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitaine. Political tensions were evident again in 512, when Arles held out against Theodoric the Great . Caesarius was imprisoned and sent to Ravenna to explain his actions before the Ostrogothic king. The friction between the Arian Christianity of the Visigoths and the Catholicism of the bishops sent out from Rome established deep roots for religious heterodoxy , even heresy , in Occitan culture. At Treves in 385, Priscillian achieved

5846-661: The Byzantine emperor , Manuel I Komnenos who was keen to re-assert his authority in the south of Italy, but was unable to do so due to the Norman kings' occupation of the region , now under William I of Sicily . Adrian's alliance with the Byzantine emperor came to nothing, as William decisively defeated Manuel and forced Adrian to come to terms at the Treaty of Benevento . This alienated Emperor Frederick even more, as he saw it as

6004-520: The Council of Reims in November 1148. Poole suggests that Breakspear's promotion was Eugenius' method of alleviating the monks' complaints, as Eugenius told them to "go forth [and] elect you a father with whom ye can or will live in peace; he [Breakspear] shall no longer be a burthen to you". When Breakspear was later pope, however, he seemed to favour St Ruf well, for example authorising them to send

6162-650: The French Revolution of 1789. Arles joined the countship of Provence in 1239, but, once more, its prominence was eclipsed by Marseilles. In 1378, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV made the Dauphin of France (later King Charles VI of France ) vicar of the moribund Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles for his lifetime. The kingdom ceased to have any political existence soon afterwards. Arles remained economically important for many years as

6320-577: The Iron Crown of Lombardy —as King of Italy —in Pavia , but also wished to receive his Imperial Crown from the Pope. Adrian originally saw the Emperor as protector and defender of the church. Both parties, notes Ullmann, were unpopular in Rome: Because of fear of Roman hostility and disturbances the imperial coronation on 18 June 1155 had to be performed secretly on a Saturday (instead of on

6478-572: The Manuel Rivera-Ortiz Foundation or the Lee Ufan Foundation. On top of that, there are countless galleries scattered throughout the city. Bullfights are conducted in the amphitheatre , including Provençal-style bullfights ( courses camarguaises ) in which the bull is not killed, but rather a team of athletic men attempt to remove a tassle from the bull's horn without getting injured. Every Easter and on

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6636-604: The Muslim Arabs after destroying Avignon. In 739. Charles definitely drove Maurontus to exile, and brought Provence to heel. Louis the Pious, in 829, placed Arles under royal protection and assigned it with special privileges. In 855, it was made the capital of a Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy , which included Burgundy and part of Provence, but was frequently terrorised by Saracen and Viking raiders. In 888, Rudolph, Count of Auxerre (now in north-western Burgundy), founded

6794-567: The Rhône near Arles, together with smaller statues of Marsyas in Hellenistic style and of the god Neptune from the third century AD. The larger bust was tentatively dated to 46 BC. Since the bust displayed several characteristics of an ageing person with wrinkles, deep naso-labial creases and hollows in his face, and since the archaeologists believed that Julius Caesar had founded the colony Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelate Sextanorum in 46 BC,

6952-483: The Saint-Paul asylum at nearby Saint-Rémy-de-Provence . Arles had an important and prominent Jewish community between the Roman era and the end of the 15th century. A local legend describes the first Jews in Arles as exiles from Judaea after Jerusalem fell to the Romans. Nevertheless, the first documented evidence of Jews in Arles is not before the fifth century, when a distinguished community already existed in

7110-463: The Treaty of Constance , to unite against both William of Sicily and the Roman Commune. Ullmann has identified four major areas of concern for Adrian at the beginning of his pontificate: the city of Rome under Arnold of Brescia, the new emperor who was marching towards Rome for his coronation, his counterpart in the east whose army had recently invaded southern Italy, and restlessness among

7268-408: The mistral , a cold wind which can cause sudden and severe frosts. Rainfall (636 mm per year) is fairly evenly distributed from September to May, with the summer drought being less marked than in other Mediterranean areas. The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Arles proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Arles ceded part of its territory to

7426-430: The school library , which is the oldest library known in Norway. For a while, the school administration considered delaying the start of the term , but this did not happen as the teachers and the day-time adult education classes ended up moving into temporary barracks in the schoolyards of Bergen Cathedral School and Tanks Upper Secondary School . In February 2008, it was decided that the building would be renovated at

7584-409: The "bruised and battered" papacy of Eugenius, says Damian Smith. Smith also notes that Breakspear's lengthy absence from St Ruf may have been a source of complaint by his monks, "but this was surely not of prime importance to the Pope". Egger suggests, however, that Breakspear's Catalonian mission was of great benefit to St Ruf, which became the blueprint for the religious houses created by Berenguer in

7742-476: The Apostles, and were solemnly anointed with the oil of majesty by the lord Pope Adrian, the successor to St Peter, before our fellows, and our name is held to be famous and glorious because of this". Adrian may have been caught off-balance by the Emperor's swift entry into Italy and the speed with which he approached Rome. The dispute was sparked by Barbarossa's unwillingness to act as the Pope's strator ; lead

7900-528: The Emperor" Frederick Barbarossa. Barbarossa had only recently been elected to the Imperial throne and for their own reasons, Pope and Emperor needed each other. Adrian needed Barbarossa's military support against William, (known as "The Bad") King of Sicily , who was threatening the Papal patrimony . For his part, the Emperor needed Adrian to perform the traditional imperial coronation service . Adrian took

8058-470: The Emperor's council would accept Adrian's letters "without any hesitation...as though proceeding from our mouth". The cardinals appear to have worsened their reception by calling Frederick "brother". Arles Arles ( / ɑːr l ( z )/ ARL(Z) , US also / ˈ ɑːr əl / AR -əl , French: [aʁl] ; Provençal : Arle [ˈaʀle] in both classical and Mistralian norms ; Classical Latin : Arelate )

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8216-593: The Emperor's departure. As a result, the Pope was left in "virtual exile" in Viterbo, and relations between the two declined further. Probably as a result, he responded positively to overtures from the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I , and also the native barons of Southern Italy, who saw in Adrian's support a chance for them to overthrow William, whom Adrian had recently excommunicated for invading

8374-678: The German inheritance of the universal dominion of Augustus, the Roman Empire continued to be, as it had been for centuries, a primarily theoretical concept based on an idealized notion of the protection of all Christendom...such claims often clashed with papal pretensions to the primary role as guardians of a unified and universal Christendom Norwich argues that, by now, whatever the public statements of either Papal or Imperial party, they were mutually antagonistic, and had been for many years. Even before Adrian's pontificate, he says, no peace treaty

8532-403: The German lands...by certain godless and infamous men", and Frederick had made no attempt to secure his release. Adrian's letter, suggests Godman, both upbraids the Emperor for "dissimulation" and "negligence" while accusing Rainald of Dassel of being a "wicked counsellor ", although Duggan describes it more as a "mild rebuke". Barber comments that "the tone is that of one who is surprised and

8690-466: The Imperial crown as a favour". Duggan too describes the incident as "at best a diplomatic incident—a faux pas —which suggests carelessness on the part of the drafter". Historians have disagreed as to the degree of deliberation behind the use of the word. Peter Munz , for example, believes it to have been a deliberate provocation, engineered by an anti-Imperial faction within the curia, designed to justify Adrian's treaty with King William. Anne Duggan, on

8848-552: The Jewish taxes to the clergy somewhat of a shield for the community from mob attacks, most frequent during the Crusades . The community lived relatively peacefully until the last decade of the 15th century, when they were expelled out of the city never to return. Several Jews did live in the city in the centuries after, though no community was found ever after. Nowadays, Jewish archaeological findings and texts from Arles can be found in

9006-505: The Latin term beneficium , which some of Barbarossa's councillors translated as fief , rather than benefice . This, they claimed, implied that the Pope saw the Empire as subordinate to the Papacy. The Emperor had to personally hold back Otto of Wittelsbach from assaulting the Pope's messengers. Ullmann, however, argues that Adrian's use of the word was "harmless enough...that he conferred

9164-474: The Papacy. Indeed, he stayed in Rome only enough time to be crowned, and then left immediately: "dubious protection" for the Pope, comments Barber. Before he left, however, his army was drawn into a bloody clash with Rome's citizens, incensed at what they saw as a display of Imperial authority in their city. Over 1,000 Romans died. The Senate continued revolting in Rome and William of Sicily remained entrenched in

9322-569: The Papal patrimony. The rebellion had started off promisingly, with rebel victories at Bari , Trani and Andria . They had already found themselves a powerful ally in Manuel, the Byzantine Emperor, and welcomed anyone—including Adrian—who was hostile to William. Their leader, Count Robert of Loritello, had been charged with treason by William but had managed to escape north. William was temporarily struck down with an unknown illness, as

9480-498: The Patrimony. Adrian was trapped between King and Emperor. Freed suggests that Barbarossa's failure to suppress the Roman commune for Adrian led the Pope to believe the Emperor had broken the Treaty of Constance. Further, on the Emperor's march north, his army sacked and razed the town of Spoleto . Adrian left Rome also, as his relations with the commune were still too fragile for him to be able to guarantee his safety following

9638-522: The Pope in Rome, as Western emperors were. The death of Roger II presented Manuel with an opportunity he could not afford to let by, argues Professor Paul Magdalino . The Kingdom of Sicily had been recognised by Innocent II in 1143, notes the Italianist Graham Loud , but "relations with the Papacy remained fraught". The previous King of Sicily, Roger II , had ruled his kingdom with an iron fist, and his nobility chafed, particularly

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9796-433: The Pope should have instructed his delegates to meet with Barbarossa privately rather than in the open. Equally provocative, Freed suggests, was Adrian's later assertion that letters which criticised the Emperor's behaviour were somehow to his advantage. Adrian's "sharp" words also contributed to the Emperor's advisors increasing discontent with his messengers. The Pope had also ordered that, before any negotiations took place,

9954-608: The Pope vulnerable, and in June 1156 Adrian was forced to come to terms with the Sicilian King. This was, however, suggests Robinson, on generous terms, including "homage and fealty, reparation for the recent encroachments on the papal patrimony, help against the Romans, freedom from royal control for the Sicilian church". Adrian's new alliance with William exacerbated relations with Barbarossa, who believed that Adrian had broken

10112-471: The Pope's horse by the bridle—or to assist Adrian in dismounting—as was traditionally expected. In response, the Pope refused the Emperor the kiss of peace ; the Emperor was still willing to perform the duty of kissing Adrian's feet, though. These were minor affronts at best, says Barber, "but in an age so highly conscious of symbolic acts", took on a greater political import. The confusion at Sutri may have been accidental, but Frederick also took offence at

10270-566: The Pope's own vassals in his patrimony. By the time of Adrian's consecration, the city of Rome was a major player in Papal-Aristocratic regional politics. Under the governance of a republican commune since 1144, Pope Eugenius had recognised it the following year. While the city was usually happy to acknowledge the feudal lordship of the Pope, it was—even compared to other Italian city states —both "unusually self-aware, and also unusually idiosyncratic" compared to others. The commune

10428-488: The Pope's war chest. There was some discussion of an alliance between Roman Pope and Eastern Emperor, and Adrian despatched Anselm of Havelberg east to arrange it, although in the event negotiations came to nothing. Magdalino argues that Adrian would not have been interested in an alliance "without the lure of Byzantine gold". Although the Byzantine Emperor had sent his army to support the Pope in Italy—and indeed, had subdued

10586-470: The Pope. In a letter to a German bishop, he explained, "it began with a picture. The picture became an inscription. The inscription seeks to become an authoritative utterance. We shall not endure it, we shall not submit to it." Adrian told Barbarossa he would have it removed, "lest so trifling a matter might afford the greatest men in the world an occasion for dispute and discord. In the event, Adrian did not, and by 1158 Imperial commentators were describing

10744-455: The Salic. Though his successors counted themselves kings of Arles, few went to be crowned in the cathedral. Most of the kingdom's territory was progressively incorporated into France. During these troubled times, the amphitheatre was converted into a fortress, with watchtowers built at each of the four quadrants and a minuscule walled town being constructed within. The population was by now only

10902-423: The Treaty of Constance twice over, by allying with both King William and the Byzantine Emperor. Relations between Pope and Emperor were, argues Latowsky, "irreparably damaged. Adrian probably acted as mediator the following year in concluding a peace treaty between William and Manuel. The Emperor attempted to prevent the treaty by sending his most experienced diplomat, Abbot Wibald to intervene, as he probably saw

11060-415: The administration, as well as some classrooms. This building also houses the school library . In 1869 the school's gyms were built, and the same year the school changed its name from "Bergen Latinskole" to its present "Bergen katedralskole". The school was independent until 1896, but has been administered by the government since. In 1972, the school was made a regular upper secondary school administered by

11218-429: The archdiocese of Caesarius of Arles and Hilary of Arles . Additionally, many artists have lived and worked in this area, including Pablo Picasso , Paul Gauguin and Jacques Réattu . The Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh lived in Arles from 1888 to 1889, and produced over 300 paintings and drawings during his time there. These are held in internationally known museums and private collections around

11376-454: The area of Paris . In addition to the city proper in the north of the territory, the commune of Arles includes a number of outlying towns and hamlets, including Albaron, Gageron, Mas-Thibert, Moulès, Pont-de-Crau , Raphèle-lès-Arles, Saliers, Salin-de-Giraud and Le Sambuc. The Ligurians were in this area from about 800 BC. Later Celtic influences have also been discovered. The city became an important Phoenician trading port, before it

11534-482: The attempted displacement of the old by the new. New forces were released which had hitherto had no opportunity of asserting themselves and which challenged the traditional scheme of things vigorously. Eugenius had died in July 1153. His successor, Anastasius IV , had been already elderly when elected to succeed him, and only ruled for a year. Comparing the two, the popular historian John Julius Norwich comments that

11692-580: The best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself. Other museums include the Musée Réattu and the Museon Arlaten . The courtyard of the Old Arles hospital, now named "Espace Van Gogh," is a center for Vincent van Gogh's works, several of which are masterpieces. The garden, framed on all four sides by buildings of the complex, is approached through arcades on

11850-501: The bridge. This unusual design was a way of coping with the river's frequent violent floods, which would have made short work of a conventional bridge. Nothing remains of the Roman bridge, which has been replaced by a more modern bridge near the same spot. The city reached a peak of influence during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Roman Emperors frequently used it as their headquarters during military campaigns in Europe. In 395, it became

12008-580: The bust is a portrait of Caesar. Many noted the lack of resemblances to Caesar's likenesses issued on coins during the last years of the dictator's life, and to the Tusculum bust of Caesar, which depicts Julius Caesar in his lifetime, either as a so-called zeitgesicht or as a direct portrait. After a further stylistic assessment, Zanker dated the Arles-bust to the Augustan period. Elkins argued for

12166-667: The campaign itself, he was heavily involved in the reorganisation and administration of the Cistercian Order , as well as arbitrating disputes within its congregation. It is likely that he was present at the Siege of Lleida during the summer of 1149. He is less likely to have still been there in October, when it fell, as he had returned to Rome by December. However, he may well have brought news of another successful siege— that of Tortosa —which would have been particularly welcome to

12324-577: The cardinals, the role of the Roman people was ignored. Thus relations between the Pope and his city were poor from the beginning, as were relations between Adrian and the King of Sicily, who controlled much of southern Italy. Relations with the commune were so bad that Adrian was forced to remain in the Leonine City and was thus unable to immediately complete the enthronement ceremony, as tradition dictated, by making his adventus into Rome itself. In

12482-541: The channel, tending to confirm its long working life. It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down and so on, to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were well known to the Romans, being described by Vitruvius in his De Architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History of 77 AD. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on

12640-429: The church along Italian and European lines. Breakspear may have travelled to Norway via France and England —where, Sayers speculates, he could have recruited merchant contacts who knew the region. His mission may have been kept quiet, as Bergquist notes his arrival seems to have been unexpected: Archbishop Eskil of Lund had recently left to visit France, and the King of Norway was on a military campaign. His first stop

12798-518: The church generally. His visit to Sweden was recorded by contemporary chroniclers and published in the 13th century. Similarly to what he had done in Norway with Trondheim, Adrian attempted to create an archepiscopal see for Sweden. This was opposed by one of the three provinces, Gothland , and the venture came to nothing. According to Bergquist, Breakspear ""was taken aback by this unseemly conflict, and declared that neither people deserved this highest ecclesiastical honour". Indeed, he suggests that it

12956-528: The church of St Peter. Strategically, King William's position was not looking good, and he offered Adrian large sums in financial compensation for the Pope to withdraw his forces. However, the majority of Adrian's curia were averse to holding negotiations with the Sicilians, and the King's offer was rejected somewhat haughtily. This turned out to be a bad mistake. William soon won decisive victories over both Greek and Apulian armies in mid-1156, culminating in

13114-477: The commune remained as the governing body. Adrian angled for the support of the Emperor in capturing the heretic Arnold. Arnold was captured by Imperial troops in summer 1155. Arrested and tried in a Papal court for rebellion rather than heresy, he was hanged and his body burnt. Adrian claimed that Arnold's execution had been on the initiative of the prefect of Rome, but some contemporary observers, such as Gerhoh of Reichersberg , suspected Adrian of ordering

13272-433: The contemporary chronicler Geoffrey of Viterbo , the Pope, "wish[ed] to be an enemy of Caesar". Duggan, however, suggests that the Imperial alliance with the papacy had only ever been a flag of convenience , "ready to be discarded when it had served its purpose". Bolton, meanwhile, suggests that, as Benevento was an Imperial town, the fact that following the treaty he stayed there for eight more months indicates that Adrian

13430-409: The county government. A classrooms-only building was built in 1957. Another building, containing science laboratories, computer rooms and a cafeteria was built in 1992. In July 2007, large amounts of mold were discovered in the building from 1840. This led to the building getting closed, resulting in a shortage of teacher offices . The building contains several old classrooms, an auditorium and

13588-691: The dead Lazarus ". Adrian's isolation led directly to his concordat with the Eastern Empire in 1156, although Duggan emphasises that he was reacting to external political pressures rather than deliberately initiating a new policy. As a result, says Barber, he "became involved in a fruitless Byzantine plan to overcome the Normans which ended, as so often before when the popes had ventured south in arms, in Norman victory". Adrian—as if, says Partner, "the unhappy experiences of at least three popes has taught

13746-428: The distinction of becoming the first Christian executed for heresy ( Manichaean in his case, see also Cathars , Camisards ). Despite this tension and the city's decline in the face of barbarian invasions, Arles remained a great religious centre. It hosted church councils (see Council of Arles ), the rival of Vienne , for hundreds of years. The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman watermill complex located on

13904-535: The end of the 1st century until about the end of the 3rd century. The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for 12,000 of the 30,000–40,000 inhabitants of Arelate at that time. A similar mill complex existed also on the Janiculum in Rome . Examination of the mill leat still just visible on one side of the hill shows a substantial accretion of lime in

14062-491: The entire Roman Church, met us joyfully, paternally offered us holy consecration and complained to us of the injuries he had suffered at the hands of the Roman populace". Barbarossa later recalled the ceremony in a letter to the Eastern Emperor in 1189: For in the city of Rome, which is known as the lady and head of the world, we received the crown and rule over all of Christianity from the altar of St Peter, Prince of

14220-492: The event, Adrian was required to remain there for the next four months. As a result, although he had been consecrated, he had not been crowned in the ceremony dies coronae at the Lateran which gave him not his title but gave him feudal title of the papal lands. It is probable that, due to problematic relations with the Romans, he did not receive his crown until the following Easter. Due to Arnold's presence in Rome, there were

14378-444: The execution himself. The Emperor's willingness to assist the Pope in his own city, and help him crush his enemies, was an explicit recognition from Barbarossa of the Pope's possession of Rome. Papal relations with the lords of Campania were already tense, as they, in the Pope's view, were little more than robber barons , who both fought among each other and robbed pilgrims from the south on their way to Rome. Barbarossa had received

14536-545: The expansion of what was to become Europe's most northerly medieval cathedral , and its largest. While in Norway he founded three cathedral schools , at Nidaros in 1152 and two more at Bergen and Hamar the following year. His work in Norway earned him the praise of contemporary Icelandic writer and politician, Snorri Sturluson . If the Council of Nidaros was held in the early months of 1153, suggests Bergquist, then it appears that Breakspear sailed to Sweden as soon as it

14694-510: The final defeat of the Eastern Empire at the Battle of Brindisi . When William soundly defeated the rebels, Adrian—who was by now, even more, bogged down in the problem of Rome and without allies —had to sue for peace on the King's terms. This was yet another external event—indeed, probably the single most important event of the pontificate she argues—that Adrian had had no way of influencing but had to deal with its consequences, notes Duggan. He

14852-530: The first floor. A circulation gallery is located on the first and second floors. The LUMA Tower is a 56-meter tall construction, the center of the LUMA Arles arts center. In September–October 2007, divers led by Lucas Longas from the French Department of Subaquatic Archaeological Research, headed by Michel L'Hour, discovered a life-sized marble bust of an apparently important Roman person in

15010-467: The first weekend of September, during the feria , Arles also holds Spanish-style corridas (in which the bulls are killed) with an encierro (bull-running in the streets) preceding each fight. Parts of the films Ronin , At Eternity's Gate and Taxi 3 were filmed in Arles. Arles played a major role in Marseille-Provence 2013 , the year-long series of cultural events held in

15168-492: The former "was old and ineffectual, concerned chiefly with his own self-glorification"; Adrian, though, was "a man of very different calibre". Anastasius died on 3 December 1154, and by which time, Breakspear had returned to Rome. Even before the death of Eugenius, argues Barber, "a new and formidable figure had appeared" on the political scene. The Hohenstaufen Frederick Barbarossa had been elected Holy Roman Emperor on 4 March 1152. Barbarossa and Eugenius had contracted, at

15326-476: The future of the Sicilian monarchy". According to Boso, the rebels asked Adrian to come to them as their feudal lord, to act as their spiritual advisor and bless them in their endeavours. Adrian, believing that William's kingdom would collapse imminently, tried to exploit William's weakness and allied with the rebels in September. As it turned out, this was a miscalculation. William had already asked Adrian for

15484-594: The generalist line, studiespesialisering , is offered by Bergen Cathedral School. The school is the only one in Bergen offering the IB Diploma Programme , from which about forty students graduate per year. In the 2005–2006 school year, the senior year students of Bergen Cathedral School received the third best grades in Western Norway , which was the highest achieving region of Norway. The school has

15642-469: The great abbey" there. It has been suggested that he was born in the hamlet of Bedmond in the parish of Abbots Langley . Much of what is known is brought to historians by the writings of Cardinal Boso and William of Newburgh , both of whom were, however, writing over 30 years after Breakspear's death. As a result, notes Poole, there is a dearth of information—and especially dates—for Breakspear's life until his election as pope, and "all that can be said

15800-469: The keys of the kingdom of heaven, the power of both the earthly and the heavenly empire". From the beginning of his reign, Barbarossa sought to present himself as the heir to a long, established line of Roman Emperors, and likewise that his empire was a continuation of theirs . The historian Anne A. Latowsky explains how this was the cause of tension in the European polity: Despite grandiose allusions to

15958-471: The kingdom of Transjuran Burgundy (literally, beyond the Jura mountains), which included western Switzerland as far as the river Reuss, Valais , Geneva , Chablais and Bugey . In 933, Hugh of Arles ("Hugues de Provence") gave his kingdom up to Rudolph II, who merged the two kingdoms into a new Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles . In 1032, King Rudolph III died, and the kingdom was inherited by Emperor Conrad II

16116-586: The large number he had effectively dispossessed. His son was less interested than his father in the minutiae of government, and when Roger died in 1154 they took advantage of the new king and rebelled. This was of interest to the Papacy as the rebels were willing to ally themselves with anyone for their purpose. It was Breakspear's being "in the right place at the right time", suggests the Papal librarian Bradford Lee Eden , that led to his election as pope on Saturday, 4 December 1154, although Duggan argues that he must also have had exceptional qualities, both to reach

16274-403: The local museum. Arles has a hot summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ) with a mean annual temperature of 14.6 °C (1948–1999). The summers are warm and moderately dry, with seasonal averages between 22 °C and 24 °C, and cool to mild winters with a mean temperature of about 7 °C. The city is constantly, but especially in the winter months, subject to the influence of

16432-479: The marsh'. The river Rhône forks into two branches just upstream of Arles, forming the Camargue delta. Because the Camargue is for a large part administratively part of Arles, the commune as a whole is the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory. But its population numbers only slightly more than 50,000. Its area is 758.93 km (293.02 sq mi), which is more than seven times

16590-567: The masters of Roman law also. On completion of his studies he became a canon regular at the Abbey of Saint-Ruf in Avignon , around 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the north of Arles. He was soon appointed prior and then abbot of St Ruf. While still a canon, in 1140 he appears to have written a charter in Barcelona . However, there appear to have been complaints that he was overly strict, and

16748-501: The matter of the painting and its inscription as the fundamental cause of the dispute between Pope and Emperor. Adrian, says Freed, was "perplexed" at the Emperor's refusal to offer him squire service: he "dismounted and seated himself on a folding stool". Barbarossa, if he wished to be crowned, had limited options against the Pope. He took advice from councillors based on records of "the more ancient princes and especially those who had come with King Lothar to Pope Innocent". An entire day

16906-403: The mill complex, and a sluice which enabled the operators to control the water supply to the complex. The mill consisted of 16 water wheels in two separate rows built into a steep hillside. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills are built. The mills apparently operated from

17064-474: The monks rebelled. As a result, he was summoned to Rome; a temporary peace was established, but it was not long until the monks rebelled again. Breakspear may have visited Rome three times while at St Ruf—"each time with more conspicuous success"—and which would have consumed many months of his time. Sayers suggests that it was while Breakspear was at St Ruf that he attracted the attention of Pope Eugenius III , who saw in him useful leadership qualities. It

17222-515: The new commune of Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône in 1904, and to the new commune of Saint-Martin-de-Crau in 1925. Arles has important Roman remnants, most of which have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1981 within the Arles, Roman and Romanesque Monuments group. They include: The town also has a museum of ancient history, the Musée de l'Arles et de la Provence antiques , with one of

17380-513: The next 40 years, and included powers over ecclesiastical appointments traditionally held by the Popes as the region's feudal lord. Adrian's treaty with William angered the Emperor, who took it as a personal slight that Adrian had treated with the two Imperial rivals to Italy and confirmed his view of Adrian's Papal arrogance. This, suggests Robinson, sowed the seeds of the disputed election following Adrian's death. The defeat of Manuel's army left

17538-463: The now-unrecognisable qualities that Eugenius saw in him. It was probably at the Council of Reims that Eugenius selected Breakspear for a mission to Catalonia, possibly as a kind of unofficial legate to the crusaders. Breakspear met Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona who had been waging the latest campaign against the Moors since 1147. Although no records exist to show Breakspear was involved in

17696-525: The only English pope. He was one of the few popes of his era who did not need consecrating on his election, as he was already a bishop. According to Boso, Breakspear had to be forced "against his will" into the Papal throne. He took the name Adrian IV, possibly in honour of Adrian I , who revered St Alban and first granted the abbey of that name its privileges. It was, suggests Julius Norwich, " wise choice, for energy and force were desperately needed". Although he had been elected unanimously from among

17854-545: The other hand, suggests this view is "scarcely credible": not only was Adrian in no position of strength from which to threaten Frederick, but he was also aware that the Emperor was planning a campaign against Milan for the following year, and would hardly wish to provoke him into marching on towards the Papal States. In October 1157, Barbarossa was celebrating his wedding in Besançon with an Imperial Diet , when he

18012-491: The papacy nothing" —organised a papal army comprising Roman and Campagnan nobility and crossed the border into Apulia in September 1155. Although it has been suggested that Manuel offered to pay Adrian a large sum of money in return for ceding him certain Apulian cities, it seems unlikely that this was ever actioned; certainly, notes Duggan, Adrian was wholly against the creation of a Byzantine kingdom on his own doorstep. This

18170-415: The people, and when he left, chroniclers called him a saint. Breakspear returned to Rome in 1154; Eugene's successor Pope Anastasius IV had died only a few weeks previously. For reasons now unknown, but possibly at his predecessor's request, Breakspear was elected next pope by the cardinals. He was unable to complete his coronation service, however, because of the parlous state of politics in Rome, which at

18328-532: The persons involved in the find of having willfully invented their claims for publicity reasons. The French ministry of culture has not yet responded to the criticism and negative reviews. AC Arles-Avignon was a professional French football team. They previously played in Championnat de France Amateur, the fourth division in French football, but were dissolved in 2016. They play at the Parc des Sports , which has

18486-676: The popes, its most important aspect was the stipulation that the crowning of the next emperor was contingent on expelling Arnold of Brescia from Rome. It also assured each party of the other's support against both King William in Sicily and the Byzantine Empire when necessary. The treaty was confirmed by Adrian in January 1155. Eugenius was a believer in the Gregorian doctrine of Papal supremacy , stating that Christ "gave to St Peter

18644-413: The province of Gallia Narbonensis . It covered an area of some 40 hectares (99 acres) and possessed a number of monuments, including an amphitheatre , triumphal arch , Roman circus , theatre , and a full circuit of walls. Ancient Arles was closer to the sea than it is now and served as a major port. The river has carried centuries of silt that has filled in the former harbor. The city had (and still has)

18802-486: The rank he had and as seen in his Scandinavian trip —or as William of Newburgh later wrote, "raised as if from the dust to sit in the midst of princes. Events moved rapidly: the period was one of great crisis for the papacy. Adrian was enthroned on the 5th and crowned in St Peter's on the 6th. His election, said Boso, "happened—not without divine council—that they unanimously agreed" on Adrian. To date, Adrian has been

18960-780: The region after it was designated the European Capital of Culture for 2013. The city hosted a segment of the opening ceremony with a pyrotechnical performance by Groupe F on the banks of the Rhône. It also unveiled the new wing of the Musée Départemental Arles Antique as part of Marseille-Provence 2013. Arles's open-air street market is a major market in the region. It takes place on Saturday and Wednesday mornings. The Gare d'Arles railway station offers connections to Avignon , Nîmes , Marseille , Paris , Bordeaux and several regional destinations. Arles does not have its own commercial airport, but

19118-425: The resumption of Imperial rights" as he did. If so, that may have led him to over-reacting the face of a perceived slight, however small. Following the Imperial coronation, both sides appear to have taken extra care to ensure they abided by the Treaty of Constance. Barbarossa, for example, refused to entertain an embassy from the Roman commune. He did not, however, further perform as Adrian hoped, and did not defend

19276-608: The river Moselle by the poet Ausonius . The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water wheels was widespread in Roman mines. In 735, after raiding the Lower Rhône, Andalusian Saracens led by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri moved into the stronghold summoned by Count Maurontus , who feared Charles Martel 's expansionist ambitions, though this may have been an excuse to further Muslim expansion beyond Iberia. The next year, Charles campaigned south to Septimania and Provence, attacking and capturing Arles from

19434-507: The scholar Joshua C. Birk explains, "this brought the enemies of the kingdom of Sicily out of the woodwork"; among them, Adrian excommunicated William. By 1154, William had captured important towns in the Patrimony. In summer 1155 rebellion broke out in southern Italy by the native nobility against their lord, the King of Sicily. One group of rebels, having gained the support of Emperor Manuel, overran Ancona . By winter 1155, suggests Norwich, few contemporaries "would have held out much hope for

19592-468: The scientists came to the preliminary conclusion that the bust depicted a life-portrait of the Roman dictator: France's Minister of Culture Christine Albanel reported on 13 May 2008 that the bust would be the oldest representation of Caesar known today. The story was picked up by all larger media outlets. The realism of the portrait was said to place it in the tradition of late Republican portrait and genre sculptures. The archaeologists further claimed that

19750-603: The seat of the Praetorian Prefecture of the Gauls , governing the western part of the Western Empire: Gaul proper plus Hispania (Spain) and Armorica ( Brittany ). At that time, the city was home to an estimated 75,000–100,000 people. It became a favorite city of Emperor Constantine I , who built baths there, substantial remains of which are still standing. His son, Constantine II ,

19908-530: The southernmost bridge on the Rhône. The recently discovered republican House of the Harpist is an exceptional example of ancient architecture and interior decoration. Dating from 70-50 BC, it has yielded elaborate frescoes. The Roman bridge was unique in that it was not fixed but consisted of a pontoon-style bridge of boats , with towers and drawbridges at each end. The boats were secured in place by anchors and were tethered to twin towers built just upstream of

20066-425: The story of the local boy who had made good". William of Newburgh reports that Nicholas was too poor to receive anything more than a rudimentary education, and Brooke speculates that he travelled to France to learn the skills of a clerk. This was, he notes, a normal path to preferment in the 12th century, although it was more unusual for those that did so to have Breakspear's inauspicious background. He may have become

20224-457: The subsequent election of an antipope led to a 22-year-long schism. Scholars have debated Adrian's pontificate widely. Much of a positive nature—his building programme and reorganisation of papal finances, for example—has been identified, particularly in the context of such a short reign. He was also up against powerful forces out of his control, which, while he never overcame them, he managed effectively. The son of Richard Breakspear, his family

20382-412: The territory of the commune of Fontvieille , a few kilometres from Arles. The complex has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world ". The remains of the mill streams and buildings which housed the overshot water wheels are still visible at the site, and it is by far the best-preserved of ancient mills. There are two aqueducts which join just north of

20540-462: The third century AD as the terminus post quem for the deposition of the statues, refuting the claim that the bust was thrown away due to feared repercussions from Caesar's assassination in 44 BC. The main argument by the French archaeologists that Caesar had founded the colony in 46 BC proved to be incorrect, as the colony was founded by Caesar's former quaestor Tiberius Claudius Nero on the dictator's orders in his absence. Mary Beard has accused

20698-410: The time was a den of ' heresy ' and republicanism . Adrian decisively restored the papal authority there, but his other major policy issue—relations with the newly crowned Holy Roman emperor , Frederick I —started off badly and got progressively worse. Each party, as a result of a particular aggravating incident, found something to condemn the other for. As a result, Adrian entered into an alliance with

20856-583: The town. Arles was an important Jewish crossroads, as a port city and close to Spain and the rest of Europe alike. It served a major role in the work of the Hachmei Provence group of famous Jewish scholars, translators and philosophers, who were most important to Judaism throughout the Middle Ages. In the eighth century, jurisdiction over the Jews of Arles was passed to the local Archbishop, making

21014-509: The troublesome region of the Balkans —Adrian, argues Sayers, "could not accept any power for the emperor that was not dependent on the pope". Ullmann argues that although Adrian was receptive to Manuel's ambition of uniting the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, he did not appreciate the manner in which the offer was made. He was particularly averse to Manuel's suggestion that the pope's sword

21172-427: The wake of the retreating Muslim empire. Around mid-1152, he was despatched to Scandinavia as Papal legate . Former Canon residentiary of St Albans Abbey, Andes Bergquist has described Breakspear's journey to northern Europe as "one of the better documented" of his career. It is possible that Boso—from whom much of the information comes—was in his entourage, although this is not certain. On his arrival, Norway

21330-455: The world. An international photography festival has been held annually in the city since 1970. The settlement is attested as Arelate in the mid-1st century BC ( Caesar ), Areláte (Ἀρελάτε) in the early 1st c. AD ( Strabo ), Arlate civitas in 954, and Arle in the 13th century. The toponym Arelate is a Latinized form of the Gaulish * Arelati , meaning 'by the marsh', or 'in front of

21488-404: Was Norway. At some point, Breakspear presided over a council at Nidaros . This council, says Robinson, "strengthened the economic position of the church and the social status of the clergy". Its timing though is difficult to ascertain, says Bergquist: Autumn 1152 seems to allow too little time to organise such a major council following his arrival, yet much later and the depth of a Norwegian winter

21646-461: Was a foreign Pope of only a few weeks' tenure, who "knew the city and its increasingly xenophobic inhabitants hardly at all and was able to rely on little or no popular support". on the Via Sacra . Rome was forced to submit to the Pope, and Arnold of Brescia was expelled. Although he had managed to restore Papal authority in the city, he was unable to eradicate the principle of republicanism, and

21804-483: Was a relatively humble one. The exact year of his birth is unknown but he was probably around 55 years old on his election. Little is known of his background, and that which is, comments Brooke, "savour[s] of gossip rather than sober history." He was probably born in or around the Hertfordshire town of St Albans . As a result, much of that that is thought to be known may well be mythological "tradition woven at

21962-493: Was accepted as William's feudal overlord, while being forbidden from entering Sicily without an invitation from the King, thereby granting William effectively Legatine authority over the church in his own land. For his part, William gave the Pope his homage and contracted to pay an annual tribute and provide military support on request. The treaty conferred extended powers on the Kings of Sicily that they would enjoy for at least

22120-403: Was asserting his power. By 1157, suggests Whalen, having secured the border with the south (by his alliance with Sicily) and the commune as peaceful as it had been for some time, Adrian was able to reside in Rome again and "stood in a more secure position than any of his predecessors had for decades". They were made worse in 1157 when, in a letter to the Emperor, Adrian referred to the Empire by

22278-418: Was beset by problems at home and abroad. The election of Adrian IV as Pope, comments the papal scholar Ian S. Robinson —and, indeed, the elections of his immediate predecessors—"took place in the shadow of the communal revolution in Rome". From Eugenius, Adrian inherited what Walter Ullmann has called a "mutual assistance pact" with the Emperor, the Treaty of Constance, signed the year of Eugenius' death. For

22436-538: Was born in Arles. Usurper Constantine III declared himself emperor in the West (407–411) and made Arles his capital in 408. Arles became renowned as a cultural and religious centre during the late Roman Empire. It was the birthplace of Favorinus , known as the sceptical philosopher. It was also a key location for Roman Christianity and an important base for the Christianization of Gaul. The city's bishopric

22594-567: Was concluded. His activities in Sweden followed a similar course to those in Norway. He called another council, this time at Linköping , which reorganised the Swedish church under the Archbishop of Lund (it had previously been subject to German patriarchy). He also received permission from the Swedish monarchy to introduce Peter's pence and to reduce the influence of the lay community on

22752-457: Was effectively captured and forced to come to terms at Benevento three weeks later. This one event, says Duggan, changed Adrian's policy for good, whether or not he liked it. As a result, at the Concordat of Benevento , Adrian had to invest William with the lands he claimed in southern Italy, symbolised by the presentation of the Pope's own pennoned lances and the kiss of peace. The Pope

22910-657: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 4 December 1154 to his death in 1159. He is the only Englishman to have been pope . Adrian was born in Hertfordshire , England , but little is known of his early life. Although he does not appear to have received a great degree of schooling, while still a youth he travelled to the south of France where he was schooled in Arles , studying law. He then travelled to Avignon , where he joined

23068-675: Was held by a series of outstanding clerics, beginning with Saint Trophimus around 225 and continuing with Saint Honoratus , then Saint Hilarius in the first half of the 5th century. The political tension between the Catholic bishops of Arles and the Visigothic kings is epitomized in the career of the Frankish St. Caesarius, bishop of Arles 503–542. Suspected by the Arian Visigoth Alaric II of conspiring with

23226-596: Was hostile to the Papacy. The Papacy was weak in the city of Rome . The heretic , Arnold of Brescia , had ruled since 1146 and was popular. He also had the support of the Roman Commune . The popularity of Arnold directly translated into hostility towards the popes. Chichele Professor Chris Wickham describes the relationship between the Pope and the lords of his Patrimony as one in which, because "their lords did not by any means all look to Rome [they] had to be coaxed back or brought back by force". Papal politics

23384-503: Was in a state of civil war and the authority of the King, Inge I , was neither strong nor respected. Breakspear reconciled the warring factions—albeit temporarily—and restored the monarchy. although no official record of his instructions survives, Bergquist suggests that they can be inferred from his actions: to divide the existing Archbishopric of Lund—which covered both Norway and Sweden–into two distinct national metropolitans, to arrange payment of Peter's Pence and to generally reorganise

23542-490: Was in spite of Manuel deliberately not pressing his ancestor's historical claim to south Italy as a whole, and was interested primarily in the coastal areas. Initially, his campaign succeeded, and by 1155 he had occupied the area from Ancona to Taranto . Byzantine funding enabled Adrian to temporarily restore his vassal Robert, Count of Loritello , although on one occasion William was able to capture 5,000 pounds (2,300 kilograms) of gold from Manuel that had been destined for

23700-586: Was merely a spiritual force, and, suggests Ullmann, "received Manuel's overtures with that scepticism which they deserved". Adrian, though, while agreeing on the basic tenet of a single emperor and a single church, believed that it was not a case of the Western church joining that of the East, but the latter returning to the former with the "obedience due to a mother", as he put it in a letter to Manuel. In other words, all Christians, East or West, should be subjugated to

23858-419: Was not master of his own house". Likewise, Walter Ullmann has argued that the age was a radical one, in which the temporal power —specifically, the "educated lay element"—was encroaching upon traditional spiritual realms. The age in which Adrian took office was one that witnessed profound changes in all spheres of life, and change always brings in its train restlessness, crises, stress and tension, caused by

24016-527: Was spent inspecting both "old documents", and hearing from those of his entourage who had been present at the 1131 ceremony. The Pope's party saw this as a sign of aggression, and deserted Adrian for the security of a nearby castle. The Emperor was, though, eventually persuaded, performed the necessary services. He was eventually crowned in Nepi on 18 June. Peace was maintained at Nepi, however, and both Pope and Emperor dined together, wearing their crowns in

24174-460: Was stripped of its possessions, which were transferred to Arelate as a reward. The town was formally established as a colony for veterans of the Roman legion Legio VI Ferrata , which had its base there. Its full title as a colony was Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum , "the ancestral Julian colony of Arles of the soldiers of the Sixth." Arelate was a city of considerable importance in

24332-508: Was strong enough to unite them for long: "The days when it had been realistic to speak of the two swords of Christendom were gone—gone since Gregory VII and Henry IV had hurled depositions and anathemas at each other nearly a hundred years before". The situation, suggest Duggan, was "a minefield", for the Pope, and Adrian had to negotiate it. It was the ambition of the Emperor of the Eastern Empire, Manuel I Kommenus, to reunite both Empires under one crown, and, as such, he wished to be crowned by

24490-518: Was taken over by the Romans . The Romans took the town in 123 BC and expanded it into an important city. They built a canal link to the Mediterranean Sea in 104 BC. Arles had to compete with Massalia (Marseille) further along the coast. Arles' leaders sided with Julius Caesar against Pompey , providing military support. Massalia backed Pompey; when Caesar emerged victorious, Massalia

24648-407: Was there an official enthronement for the new emperor. This ceremony, says Sayers, was arguably a new version of the traditional one, which now "highlight[ed] the difference between the anointing of a mere layman and that of a priest". Previously, Emperors had been anointed on the head, as a priest was; this time, Adrian anointed Barbarossa between the shoulders. Further, the Pope invested him with

24806-465: Was too heavy a disciplinarian, and in order to make use of him as a papal legate as well as to pacify his monks, he was appointed Bishop of Albano some time around 1149. As bishop, Breakspear was soon sent on another diplomatic mission, this time to Scandinavia . In the middle of a civil war , Breakspear reorganised the Church in Norway and then moved on to Sweden. Here, he was very much acclaimed by

24964-440: Was visited by Papal legates Roland and Bernard . Theirs was an important mission bringing personal letters from Adrian, and they were met "with honour and kindness, claiming (as they did) to be the bearers of good tidings". The Pope complained about the lack of activity in discovering who attacked Eskil , Archbishop of Lund while he travelled through Imperial territory. Eskil, complained Adrian, had been captured somewhere "in

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