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142-462: In Western esotericism , left-hand path and right-hand path are two opposing approaches to magic . Various groups engaged with the occult and ceremonial magic use the terminology to establish a dichotomy, broadly simplified as (malicious) black magic on the left and (benevolent) white magic on the right. Others approach the left/right paths as different kinds of workings, without connotations of good or bad magical actions. Still others treat

284-539: A japa mala or rosary for repetition of mantras ) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Devanagari . Hindus believe Sanskrit is a language of dynamism , and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore, she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all mantras . She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond

426-432: A "best example" of what Western esotericism should look like, against which other phenomena then had to be compared. The scholar of esotericism Kocku von Stuckrad (born 1966) noted that Faivre's taxonomy was based on his own areas of specialism—Renaissance Hermeticism, Christian Kabbalah, and Protestant Theosophy—and that it was thus not based on a wider understanding of esotericism as it has existed throughout history, from

568-582: A "brother of the left-hand path", or a "black brother", as one who failed to attain the grade of Magister Templi in Crowley's system of ceremonial magic. Crowley also referred to the left-hand path when describing the point at which the Adeptus Exemptus chooses to cross the Abyss, which is the location of Choronzon and the illusory eleventh Sephira , which is Da'ath or Knowledge. In this example,

710-484: A "universal spiritual dimension of reality, as opposed to the merely external ('exoteric') religious institutions and dogmatic systems of established religions." This approach views Western esotericism as just one variant of a worldwide esotericism at the heart of all world religions and cultures, reflecting a hidden esoteric reality. This use is closest to the original meaning of the word in late antiquity, where it applied to secret spiritual teachings that were reserved for

852-526: A capacity must be present, and this always remains something esoteric, so that there has never been anything purely exoteric about what philosophers say. In any case, drawing from the tradition of discourses that supposedly revealed a vision of the Absolute and truth present in mythology and initiatory rites of mystery religions , Plato and his philosophy began the Western perception of esotericism, to

994-540: A category of esotericism —ranging from ancient Gnosticism and Hermeticism through to Rosicrucianism and the Kabbalah and on to more recent phenomenon such as the New Age movement. Nevertheless, esotericism itself remains a controversial term, with scholars specialising in the subject disagreeing as to how best to define it. Some scholars have used Western esotericism to refer to "inner traditions" concerned with

1136-752: A category of movements that embrace an "enchanted" worldview in the face of increasing disenchantment. A third views Western esotericism as encompassing all of Western culture's "rejected knowledge" that is accepted neither by the scientific establishment nor orthodox religious authorities. The earliest traditions of Western esotericism emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity , where Hermeticism , Gnosticism and Neoplatonism developed as schools of thought distinct from what became mainstream Christianity. Renaissance Europe saw increasing interest in many of these older ideas, with various intellectuals combining pagan philosophies with

1278-411: A claim to possessing "wisdom that is superior to other interpretations of cosmos and history" that serves as a "master key for answering all questions of humankind." Accordingly, he believed that esoteric groups placed a great emphasis on secrecy, not because they were inherently rooted in elite groups but because the idea of concealed secrets that can be revealed was central to their discourse. Examining

1420-400: A core characteristic, "a claim to gnosis , or direct spiritual insight into cosmology or spiritual insight", and accordingly he suggested that these currents could be referred to as "Western gnostic" just as much as "Western esoteric". There are various problems with this model for understanding Western esotericism. The most significant is that it rests upon the conviction that there really

1562-741: A corpse and holds a freshly cut head and a plate to collect the dripping blood. She is worshipped by warriors, tantrics – the followers of Tantra . Other forms of Kali popularly worshipped in Bengal include Raksha Kali (form of Kali worshipped for protection against epidemics and drought), Bhadra Kali and Guhya Kali. Kali is said to have 8, 12, or 21 different forms according to different traditions. The popular forms are Adya Kali, Chintamani Kali, Sparshamani Kali, Santati Kali, Siddhi Kali , Dakshina Kali, Rakta Kali , Bhadra Kali, Smashana Kali, Adharvana Bhadra Kali, Kamakala Kali, Guhya Kali, Hamsa Kali, Shyama Kali, and Kalasankarshini Kali. In Gujarat , Khodiyar

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1704-469: A descriptor of this phenomenon. Egil Asprem has endorsed this approach. The historian of esotericism Antoine Faivre noted that "never a precise term, [esotericism] has begun to overflow its boundaries on all sides", with both Faivre and Karen-Claire Voss stating that Western esotericism consists of "a vast spectrum of authors, trends, works of philosophy, religion, art, literature, and music". Scholars broadly agree on which currents of thought fall within

1846-418: A giant sickle), a trishul (trident), a severed head, and a bowl or skull-cup ( kapāla ) collecting the blood of the severed head. This is the form of Bhima Kali. Two of these hands (usually the left) are holding a sword and a severed head. The sword signifies divine knowledge and the human head signifies human ego which must be slain by divine knowledge in order to attain moksha . The other two hands (usually

1988-572: A grand universal wisdom. Pope Innocent VIII condemned these ideas, criticising him for attempting to mix pagan and Jewish ideas with Christianity. Pico della Mirandola's increased interest in Jewish kabbalah led to his development of a distinct form of Christian Kabbalah . His work was built on by the German Johannes Reuchlin (1455–1522) who authored an influential text on the subject, De Arte Cabalistica . Christian Kabbalah

2130-415: A hair of his Shakti [his energy/female companion] in the cremation-ground, becomes a great poet, a Lord of the earth, and ever goes mounted upon an elephant. The Karpuradi-stotra , dated to approximately 10th century CE, clearly indicates that Kāli is more than a terrible, vicious, slayer of demons who serves Durga or Shiva . Here, she is identified as the supreme mother of the universe, associated with

2272-440: A magical practitioner, as essentially they have the same goals. The right-hand path is commonly thought to refer to magical or religious groups which adhere to a certain set of characteristics: The occultist Dion Fortune considered Abrahamic religions to be RHP. Historian Dave Evans studied self-professed followers of the left-hand path in the early 21st century, making several observations about their practices: Vāmācāra

2414-423: A mudra saying "fear not" ( abhayamudra ), the other conferring boons. Her left hands hold a severed head and blood-covered sword. The sword severs the bondage of ignorance and ego ( tamas ), represented by the severed head. One interpretation of Kali's tongue is that the red tongue symbolizes the rajasic nature being conquered by the white (symbolizing sattvic ) nature of the teeth. Her blackness represents that she

2556-432: A notion that he developed against the background of contemporary socialist and Catholic discourses. "Esotericism" and "occultism" were often employed as synonyms until later scholars distinguished the concepts. In the context of Ancient Greek philosophy , the terms "esoteric" and "exoteric" were sometimes used by scholars not to denote that there was secrecy, but to distinguish two procedures of research and education:

2698-467: A patty on a wall, she stood in the alidha pose, with her right foot forward. When she saw Krishnananda watching her, she was embarrassed and put her tongue between her teeth, Agamavagisha realized that this was the divine form of maa kali he was looking for. Krishnananda Agamavagisha was also the guru of the Kali devotee and poet Ramprasad Sen . Samhara Kali, also called Vama Kali, is the embodiment of

2840-485: A process of increasing secularisation of European governments and an embrace of modern science and rationality within intellectual circles. In turn, a "modernist occult" emerged that reflected varied ways esoteric thinkers came to terms with these developments. One of the esotericists of this period was the Swedish naturalist Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), who attempted to reconcile science and religion after experiencing

2982-459: A radical alternative to the disenchanted world views that have dominated Western culture since the scientific revolution , and must therefore always be at odds with secular culture. An early exponent of this definition was the historian of Renaissance thought Frances Yates in her discussions of a Hermetic Tradition , which she saw as an "enchanted" alternative to established religion and rationalistic science. The primary exponent of this view

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3124-484: A specific elite and hidden from the masses. This definition was popularised in the published work of 19th-century esotericists like A.E. Waite , who sought to combine their own mystical beliefs with a historical interpretation of esotericism. It subsequently became a popular approach within several esoteric movements, most notably Martinism and Traditionalism . This definition, originally developed by esotericists themselves, became popular among French academics during

3266-469: A tiger's skin and armed with a sword and noose. She has deep, red eyes with tongue lolling out as she catches drops of Raktabīja's blood before they fall to the ground and create duplicates. Kali consumes Raktabīja and his duplicates, and dances on the corpses of the slain. In the Devi Mahatmya version of this story, Kali is also described as a Matrika and as a Shakti or power of Devi . She

3408-496: A true and absolute nature of reality really existed, it would only be accessible through "esoteric" spiritual practices, and could not be discovered or measured by the "exoteric" tools of scientific and scholarly enquiry. Hanegraaff pointed out that an approach that seeks a common inner hidden core of all esoteric currents masks that such groups often differ greatly, being rooted in their own historical and social contexts and expressing mutually exclusive ideas and agendas. A third issue

3550-461: A variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that drips from Raktabīja, he reproduces a duplicate of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates. Durga summons Kāli to combat the demons. This episode is described in the Devi Mahatmyam , Kali is depicted as being fierce, clad in

3692-535: A vision of Jesus Christ . His writings focused on his visionary travels to heaven and hell and his communications with angels, claiming that the visible, materialist world parallels an invisible spiritual world, with correspondences between the two that do not reflect causal relations. Following his death, followers founded the Swedenborgian New Church —though his writings influenced a wider array of esoteric philosophies. Another major figure within

3834-427: A world view that embraces "enchantment" in contrast to world views influenced by post- Cartesian , post- Newtonian , and positivist science that sought to " dis-enchant " the world. That approach understands esotericism as comprising those world views that eschew a belief in instrumental causality and instead adopt a belief that all parts of the universe are interrelated without a need for causal chains. It stands as

3976-464: Is nirguna , beyond all qualities of nature, and transcendent. Kali's lolling tongue is interpreted as her being angry, enraged; while many in India interpret it as "biting the tongue" in shame. The most widespread interpretation of Kali's extended tongue involve her embarrassment over the sudden realization that she has stepped on her husband's chest. Kali's sudden "modesty and shame" over that act

4118-470: Is Mahakali, who appears from the body of sleeping Vishnu as goddess Yoga Nidra to wake him up in order to protect Brahma and the world from two asuras (demons), Madhu-Kaitabha . When Vishnu woke up he started a war against the two asuras. After a long battle with Vishnu, the two demons were undefeated and Mahakali took the form of Mahamaya to enchant the two asuras. When Madhu and Kaitabha were enchanted by Mahakali, Vishnu killed them. In later chapters,

4260-551: Is a Sanskrit term meaning "left-handed attainment". The converse term is dakshinachara . The Western use of the terms left-hand path and right-hand path originated with Madame Blavatsky , a 19th-century occultist who founded the Theosophical Society . She had travelled across parts of southern Asia and gave accounts of having met with many mystics and magical practitioners in India and Tibet . She developed

4402-439: Is a "universal, hidden, esoteric dimension of reality" that objectively exists. The existence of this universal inner tradition has not been discovered through scientific or scholarly enquiry; this had led some to claim that it does not exist, though Hanegraaff thought it better to adopt a view based in methodological agnosticism by stating that "we simply do not know—and cannot know" if it exists or not. He noted that, even if such

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4544-435: Is a category that represents "the academy's dustbin of rejected knowledge." In this respect, it contains all of the theories and world views rejected by the mainstream intellectual community because they do not accord with "normative conceptions of religion, rationality and science." His approach is rooted within the field of the history of ideas , and stresses the role of change and transformation over time. Goodrick-Clarke

4686-511: Is a central figure in the goddess-centric traditions of Hinduism as well as in Shaivism . The term Kali is derived from Kala , which is mentioned quite differently in Sanskrit . The homonym kālá (time) is distinct from kāla (black), but these became associated through popular etymology . Kali is then understood as "she who is the ruler of time", or "she who is black". Kālī

4828-909: Is a corpse—unable to act. Kali could be considered a general concept, like Durga, and is primarily worshipped in the Kali Kula sect of worship. The closest way of direct worship is Maha Kali or Bhadrakali (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). Kali is worshipped as one of the 10 Mahavidya forms of Adi Parashakti. One mantra for worship to Kali is: सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके । शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥ ॐ जयंती मंगला काली भद्रकाली कपालिनी । दुर्गा क्षमा शिवा धात्री स्वाहा स्वधा नमोऽस्तु‍ते ॥ Sarvamangal-māngalyē śivē sarvārthasādhikē. Śaraṇyē tryambakē Gauri nārāyaṇi namō'stu tē. Oṃ jayantī mangala kālī bhadrakālī kapālinī . Durgā kṣamā śivā dhātrī svāhā svadhā namō'stu‍tē. ॐ काली काली महाकाली कालिके परमेश्वरी । सर्वानन्दकरी देवी नारायणि नमोऽस्तुते ।। In fact, chanting of Mahishasura Mardhini

4970-497: Is a daily ritual in all Hindu Bengali homes especially during Navratri / Durga Pujo as it is called. The chant of the first chapter of Durga Saptashati is considered a very important hymn to Sri Mahakali as Devi Mahatmyam / Durga Saptashati dates back to the Upanishadic Era of Indological literature. Goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of Tantra Yoga, and are affirmed to be as central to discerning

5112-427: Is a devotional view. According to Rachel Fell McDermott, the poets portrayed Shiva as "the devotee who falls at [Kali's] feet in devotion, in the surrender of his ego, or in hopes of gaining moksha by her touch." In fact, Shiva is said to have become so enchanted by Kali that he performed austerities to win her, and having received the treasure of her feet, held them against his heart in reverence. The popularity of

5254-417: Is a modern scholarly construct, not an autonomous tradition that already existed out there and merely needed to be discovered by historians. — The scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff, 2013. The concept of "Western esotericism" represents a modern scholarly construct rather than a pre-existing, self-defined tradition of thought. In the late 17th century, several European Christian thinkers presented

5396-464: Is a regional form of Mahakali . Interpretations of the symbolic meanings of Kali's appearance vary depending on Tantric or devotional approach, and on whether one views her image in a symbolic, allegorical or mystical fashion. There are many varied depictions of the different forms of Kali. The most common form shows her with four arms and hands, showing aspects of both creation and destruction. The two right hands are often held out in blessing, one in

5538-451: Is because Kali likes devotees who have childlike qualities in them. The forehead of Kali is seen to be as luminous as the full moon and eternally giving out ambrosia. Kali is often shown standing with her right foot on Shiva's chest. This represents an episode where Kali was out of control on the battlefield, such that she was about to destroy the entire universe. Shiva pacified her by laying down under her foot to pacify and calm her. Shiva

5680-423: Is confronted with the divine aspect of existence. — Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan, 2007. As an alternative to Faivre's framework, Kocku von Stuckrad developed his own variant, though he argued that this did not represent a "definition" but rather "a framework of analysis" for scholarly usage. He stated that "on the most general level of analysis", esotericism represented "the claim of higher knowledge",

5822-424: Is disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. Sometimes she dons a skirt made of human arms and a garland of human heads . Other times, she is seen wearing a tiger skin. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on the calm and prostrate Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular dakṣiṇācāra ("right-hand path"), as opposed to

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5964-480: Is given the epithet Cāṃuṇḍā ( Chamunda ), i.e. the slayer of the demons Chanda and Munda . Chamunda is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit. The goddess has two depictions: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali avatar. In both, she is described as being black in colour, though she is often seen as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication and rage. Her hair

6106-558: Is greatly offended. Parvati performs austerities to lose her dark complexion and becomes Gauri, the golden one. Her dark sheath becomes Kaushiki , who while enraged, creates Kali. In the Devi Bhagavata Purana , Kali turns black out of rage, while battling the demons Shumbha and Nishumbha . In Kāli's most famous legend, Durga and her assistants, the Matrikas , wound the demon Raktabīja , in various ways and with

6248-430: Is no association with Shiva. The Kalika Purana describes Kali as "possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotus, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful". Classic depictions of Kali share several features, as follows: Kali's most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously a Khadga (crescent-shaped sword or

6390-578: Is no comparable category of "Eastern" or "Oriental" esotericism. The emphasis on Western esotericism was nevertheless primarily devised to distinguish the field from a universal esotericism. Hanegraaff has characterised these as "recognisable world views and approaches to knowledge that have played an important though always controversial role in the history of Western culture". Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan asserted that Western esotericism constituted "a third pillar of Western culture" alongside "doctrinal faith and rationality", being deemed heretical by

6532-526: Is not a natural term but an artificial category, applied retrospectively to a range of currents and ideas that were known by other names at least prior to the end of the eighteenth century. [This] means that, originally, not all those currents and ideas were necessarily seen as belonging together:... it is only as recently as the later seventeenth century that we find the first attempts at presenting them as one single, coherent field or domain, and at explaining what they have in common. In short, 'Western esotericism'

6674-649: Is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman . It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali, signifying her greatness by the prefix "Mahā-". Mahakali, in Sanskrit, is etymologically the feminized variant of Mahakala or Great Time (which is interpreted also as Death ), an epithet of the God Shiva in Hinduism. Mahakali is the presiding Goddess of

6816-405: Is sometimes shown with a blissful smile on his face. She is typically shown with a garland of severed heads, often numbering fifty. This can symbolize the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet and therefore as the primordial sound of Aum from which all creation proceeds. The severed arms which make up her skirt represent her devotee's karma that she has taken on. There are several interpretations of

6958-590: Is the goddess of time or death and the consort of Shiva. She is called Kali Mata ("the dark mother") and also kālī , which can be read here either as a proper name or as a description: "the dark (or black) one". Although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda , the first use of it as a proper name is in the Kathaka Grhya Sutra (19.7). Kali originated as a tantric and non-Vedic goddess. Her roots are most probably connected to

7100-400: Is the prevalent interpretation among Odia Hindus . The biting of the tongue conveys the emotion of lajja or modesty, an expression that is widely accepted as the emotion being expressed by Kali. In Bengal also, Kali's protruding tongue is "widely accepted... as a sign of speechless embarrassment: a gesture very common among Bengalis." The twin earrings of Kali are small embryos. This

7242-506: Is typically portrayed as a benign and friendly goddess. The Linga Purana describes Shiva asking Parvati to defeat the asura Daruka , who received a boon that would only allow a female to kill him. Parvati merges with Shiva's body, reappearing as Kali to defeat Daruka and his armies. Her bloodlust gets out of control, only calming when Shiva intervenes. The Vamana Purana has a different version of Kali's relationship with Parvati. When Shiva addresses Parvati as Kali, "the dark blue one", she

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7384-419: Is typically shown with her right foot on Shiva 's chest—while depictions showing Kali with her left foot on Shiva's chest depict the even more fearsome Vamakali. Vamakali is usually worshipped by non-householders. The pose shows the conclusion of an episode in which Kali was rampaging out of control after destroying many demons. Vishnu confronted Kali in an attempt to cool her down. She was unable to see beyond

7526-538: The Chaldean Oracles . Scholars are still unsure of precisely what theurgy involved, but know it involved a practice designed to make gods appear, who could then raise the theurgist's mind to the reality of the divine. After the fall of Rome , alchemy and philosophy and other aspects of the tradition were largely preserved in the Arab and Near Eastern world and reintroduced into Western Europe by Jews and by

7668-597: The Chaldean Oracles represented an example of a superior religion of ancient humanity that had been passed down by the Platonists . Plethon's ideas interested the ruler of Florence, Cosimo de' Medici , who employed Florentine thinker Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) to translate Plato's works into Latin. Ficino went on to translate and publish the works of various Platonic figures, arguing that their philosophies were compatible with Christianity, and allowing for

7810-460: The Devas or Hindu Gods and are often the identifying weapon or ritual item of a given Deva. The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman. While not displaying ten heads, an "ekamukhi" or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms, signifying the same concept:

7952-456: The Kabbalah and Christian philosophy, resulting in the emergence of esoteric movements like Christian Kabbalah and Christian theosophy . The 17th century saw the development of initiatory societies professing esoteric knowledge such as Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry , while the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century led to the development of new forms of esoteric thought. The 19th century saw

8094-613: The Mahadevi . In the Mahanirvana-tantra , Kāli is one of the epithets for the primordial ṥakti , and in one passage Shiva praises her: At the dissolution of things, it is Kāla [Time] Who will devour all, and by reason of this He is called Mahākāla [an epithet of Lord Shiva], and since Thou devourest Mahākāla Himself, it is Thou who art the Supreme Primordial Kālika. Because Thou devourest Kāla, Thou art Kāli,

8236-591: The Theosophical Society with several other people in 1875. She set about writing several books, including Isis Unveiled (1877) in which she introduced the terms left-hand path and right-hand path , firmly stating that she herself followed the RHP, and that followers of the LHP were practitioners of black magic who were a threat to society. The occult community soon picked up on her newly introduced duality, which, according to historian Dave Evans, "had not been known before" in

8378-581: The Ungrund , and that God himself was composed of a wrathful core, surrounded by the forces of light and love. Though condemned by Germany's Lutheran authorities, Böhme's ideas spread and formed the basis for a number of small religious communities, such as Johann Georg Gichtel 's Angelic Brethren in Amsterdam , and John Pordage and Jane Leade 's Philadelphian Society in England. From 1614 to 1616,

8520-593: The Waldensians were thought to have utilized esoteric concepts. During the Renaissance , a number of European thinkers began to synthesize " pagan " (that is, not Christian) philosophies, which were then being made available through Arabic translations, with Christian thought and the Jewish kabbalah. The earliest of these individuals was the Byzantine philosopher Plethon (1355/60–1452?), who argued that

8662-487: The counterculture of the 1960s and later cultural tendencies, which led to the New Age phenomenon in the 1970s. The idea that these disparate movements could be classified as "Western esotericism" developed in the late 18th century, but these esoteric currents were largely ignored as a subject of academic enquiry. The academic study of Western esotericism only emerged in the late 20th century, pioneered by scholars like Frances Yates and Antoine Faivre . The concept of

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8804-552: The natural world . The primary exponent of this approach was Paracelsus (1493/94–1541), who took inspiration from alchemy and folk magic to argue against the mainstream medical establishment of his time—which, as in Antiquity, still based its approach on the ideas of the second-century physician and philosopher, Galen , a Greek in the Roman Empire. Instead, Paracelsus urged doctors to learn medicine through an observation of

8946-542: The "esoteric" originated in the 2nd century with the coining of the Ancient Greek adjective esôterikós ("belonging to an inner circle"); the earliest known example of the word appeared in a satire authored by Lucian of Samosata ( c.  125 – after 180). In the 15th and 16th centuries, differentiations in Latin between exotericus and esotericus (along with internus and externus ) were common in

9088-696: The 1980s, exerting a strong influence over the scholars Mircea Eliade , Henry Corbin , and the early work of Faivre. Within the academic field of religious studies , those who study different religions in search of an inner universal dimension to them all are termed "religionists". Such religionist ideas also exerted an influence on more recent scholars like Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke and Arthur Versluis . Versluis for instance defined "Western esotericism" as "inner or hidden spiritual knowledge transmitted through Western European historical currents that in turn feed into North American and other non-European settings". He added that these Western esoteric currents all shared

9230-595: The 19th and 20th centuries, scholars increasingly saw the term "esotericism" as meaning something distinct from Christianity—as a subculture at odds with the Christian mainstream from at least the time of the Renaissance. After being introduced by Jacques Matter in French, the occultist and ceremonial magician Eliphas Lévi (1810–1875) popularized the term in the 1850s. Lévi also introduced the term l'occultisme ,

9372-630: The 20th century various groups arose that self-professedly described themselves as LHP but did not consider themselves as practicing black magic. In 1975, Kenneth Grant , a student of Aleister Crowley, explained in Cults of the Shadow that he and his group, the Typhonian Order , practiced the LHP. Grant's usage takes meaning from its roots in eastern Tantra; Grant states that it is about challenging taboos, but that it should be used in conjunction with

9514-520: The Abyss, ossify around him. He is then titled a "brother of the left-hand path", who will eventually be broken up and disintegrated against his will, since he failed to choose voluntary disintegration. Crowley associated all this with "Mary, a blasphemy against Babalon ", and with the celibacy of Christian clergy. A figure Fortune considered to be a follower of the LHP was Arthur Edward Waite , who did not recognise these terms, and acknowledged that they were newly introduced and that in any case he believed

9656-549: The Age of Enlightenment, these esoteric traditions came to be regularly categorised under the labels of " superstition ", " magic ", and " the occult "—terms often used interchangeably. The modern academy , then in the process of developing, consistently rejected and ignored topics coming under "the occult", thus leaving research into them largely to enthusiasts outside of academia. Indeed, according to historian of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff (born 1961), rejection of "occult" topics

9798-633: The Hellenistic Eastern Mediterranean, then part of the Roman Empire , during Late Antiquity . This was a milieu that mixed religious and intellectual traditions from Greece, Egypt, the Levant, Babylon, and Persia—in which globalisation , urbanisation, and multiculturalism were bringing about socio-cultural change. One component of this was Hermeticism, an Egyptian Hellenistic school of thought that takes its name from

9940-580: The Pre-Aryan period. According to Indologist Wendy Doniger , Kali's origins can be traced to the deities of the Pre-Vedic village, tribal, and mountain cultures of South Asia who were gradually appropriated and transformed by the Sanskritic traditions. Her most well-known appearance is on the battlefield in the sixth century text Devi Mahatmyam . The deity of the first chapter of Devi Mahatmyam

10082-472: The RHP to achieve balance. Western esotericism The idea of grouping a wide range of Western traditions and philosophies together under the term esotericism developed in 17th-century Europe. Various academics have debated numerous definitions of Western esotericism. One view adopts a definition from certain esotericist schools of thought themselves, treating "esotericism" as a perennial hidden inner tradition . A second perspective sees esotericism as

10224-614: The Renaissance—among them Paracelsianism , Weigelianism , and Christian theosophy —in his book he labelled all of these traditions under the category of "Platonic–Hermetic Christianity", portraying them as heretical to what he saw as "true" Christianity. Despite his hostile attitude toward these traditions of thought, Colberg became the first to connect these disparate philosophies and to study them under one rubric, also recognising that these ideas linked back to earlier philosophies from late antiquity . In 18th-century Europe, during

10366-685: The West and the East. As for the noun "esotericism", probably the first mention in German of Esoterismus appeared in a 1779 work by Johann Georg Hamann , and the use of Esoterik in 1790 by Johann Gottfried Eichhorn . But the word esoterisch had already existed at least since 1731–1736, as found in the works of Johann Jakob Brucker ; this author rejected everything that is characterized today as an "esoteric corpus". In this 18th century context, these terms referred to Pythagoreanism or Neoplatonic theurgy , but

10508-634: The Western Esoteric Tradition. For instance, Dion Fortune , founder of the magical group the Society of the Inner Light , also took the side of the RHP, making the claim that followers of the LHP were homosexuals and that Indian servants might use malicious magical rites devoted to the goddess Kali against their European masters. Aleister Crowley further altered and popularized the term in certain occult circles, referring to

10650-506: The adept must surrender all, including the guidance of his Holy Guardian Angel , and leap into the Abyss. If his accumulated karma is sufficient, and if he has been utterly thorough in his own self-destruction, he becomes a "babe of the abyss", arising as a Star in the Crowleyan system. On the other hand, if he retains some fragment of ego, or if he fears to cross, he then becomes encysted. The layers of his self, which he could have shed in

10792-456: The afternoon, while he reserved the morning for "akroatika" (acroamatics), referring to natural philosophy and logic , taught during a walk with his students. Furthermore, the term "exoteric" for Aristotle could have another meaning, hypothetically referring to an extracosmic reality, ta exo , superior to and beyond Heaven, requiring abstraction and logic. This reality stood in contrast to what he called enkyklioi logoi, knowledge "from within

10934-405: The ancient world to the contemporary period. Accordingly, Von Stuckrad suggested that it was a good typology for understanding "Christian esotericism in the early modern period " but lacked utility beyond that. Somewhat crudely, esotericism can be described as a Western form of spirituality that stresses the importance of the individual effort to gain spiritual knowledge, or gnosis , whereby man

11076-479: The ancient, medieval, and Renaissance traditions of esoteric thought. In France, following the social upheaval of the 1789 Revolution , various figures emerged in this occultist milieu who were heavily influenced by traditional Catholicism, the most notable of whom were Éliphas Lévi (1810–1875) and Papus (1865–1916). Also significant was René Guénon (1886–1951), whose concern with tradition led him to develop an occult viewpoint termed Traditionalism ; it espoused

11218-417: The argument that one could categorise certain traditions of Western philosophy and thought together, thus establishing the category now labelled "Western esotericism". The first to do so, Ehregott Daniel Colberg  [ de ] (1659–1698), a German Lutheran theologian, wrote Platonisch-Hermetisches Christianity (1690–91). A hostile critic of various currents of Western thought that had emerged since

11360-510: The circle", involving the intracosmic physics that surrounds everyday life. There is a report by Strabo and Plutarch , however, which states that the Lyceum's school texts were circulated internally, their publication was more controlled than the exoteric ones, and that these "esoteric" texts were rediscovered and compiled only with the efforts of Andronicus of Rhodes . Plato would have orally transmitted intramural teachings to his disciples,

11502-843: The concept was particularly sedimentated by two streams of discourses: speculations about the influences of the Egyptians on ancient philosophy and religion, and their associations with Masonic discourses and other secret societies, who claimed to keep such ancient secrets until the Enlightenment; and the emergence of orientalist academic studies , which since the 17th century identified the presence of mysteries, secrets or esoteric "ancient wisdom" in Persian, Arab, Indian and Far Eastern texts and practices (see also Early Western reception of Eastern esotericism ) The noun "esotericism", in its French form "ésotérisme", first appeared in 1828 in

11644-573: The consuming aspects of reality. As such, she is also a "forbidden thing", or even death itself. In the Pancatattva ritual, the sadhaka boldly seeks to confront Kali, and thereby assimilates and transforms her into a vehicle of salvation. This is clear in the work of the Karpuradi-stotra , short praise of Kāli describing the Pancatattva ritual unto her, performed on cremation grounds . ( Samahana-sadhana ); He, O Mahākāli who in

11786-623: The cosmos was established. Copernicus' theories were adopted into esoteric strains of thought by Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), whose ideas were deemed heresy by the Roman Catholic Church , which eventually publicly executed him. A distinct strain of esoteric thought developed in Germany, where it became known as Naturphilosophie . Though influenced by traditions from Late Antiquity and medieval Kabbalah, it only acknowledged two main sources of authority: Biblical scripture and

11928-500: The covering of Maya since she is pure ( nirguna ) being-consciousness-bliss and far above Prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is Brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities—she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, and bad do not apply to her. Mahakali ( Sanskrit : Mahākālī, Devanagari : महाकाली, Bengali : মহাকালী, Gujarati : મહાકાળી), literally translated as "Great Kali",

12070-401: The cremation-ground, who wear skull garland and skirt of bones and with dishevelled hair, intently meditates upon Thee and recites Thy mantra, and with each recitation makes offering to Thee of a thousand Akanda flowers with seed, becomes without any effort a Lord of the earth. Oh Kāli, whoever on Tuesday at midnight, having uttered Thy mantra, makes offering even but once with devotion to Thee of

12212-604: The cultural contact between Christians and Muslims in Sicily and southern Italy. The 12th century saw the development of the Kabbalah in southern Italy and medieval Spain . The medieval period also saw the publication of grimoires , which offered often elaborate formulas for theurgy and thaumaturgy . Many of the grimoires seem to have kabbalistic influence. Figures in alchemy from this period seem to also have authored or used grimoires. Medieval sects deemed heretical such as

12354-450: The damage she had done, her blood-red tongue hung from her mouth, calming her down. In some interpretations of the story, Shiva was attempting to receive Kali's grace by receiving her foot on his chest. There are many different interpretations of the pose held by Dakshinakali, including those of the 18th and 19th-century bhakti poet-devotees such as Ramprasad Sen . Some have to do with battle imagery and tantric metaphysics. The most popular

12496-441: The development of the field of psychical research . Somnambulism also exerted a strong influence on the early disciplines of psychology and psychiatry ; esoteric ideas pervade the work of many early figures in this field, most notably Carl Gustav Jung —though with the rise of psychoanalysis and behaviourism in the 20th century, these disciplines distanced themselves from esotericism. Also influenced by artificial somnambulism

12638-410: The distillation of divine wrath into a goddess of salvation, who rids the sadhaka of fear. Here, Kali appears as a symbol of triumph over death. Kali is a central figure in late medieval Bengal devotional literature, with such notable devotee poets as Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (1769–1821), Ramprasad Sen (1718–1775). With the exception of being associated with Parvati as Shiva 's consort, Kāli

12780-670: The emergence of a wider movement in Renaissance Platonism, or Platonic Orientalism. Ficino also translated part of the Corpus Hermeticum , though the rest was translated by his contemporary, Lodovico Lazzarelli (1447–1500). Another core figure in this intellectual milieu was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), who achieved notability in 1486 by inviting scholars from across Europe to come and debate with him 900 theses that he had written. Pico della Mirandola argued that all of these philosophies reflected

12922-677: The emergence of new trends of esoteric thought now known as occultism . Significant groups in this century included the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia , the Theosophical Society and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . Also important in this connection is Martinus Thomsen 's " spiritual science ". Modern paganism developed within occultism and includes religious movements such as Wicca . Esoteric ideas permeated

13064-442: The esoteric movement of this period was the German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1814), who developed the theory of Animal Magnetism , which later became known more commonly as Mesmerism . Mesmer claimed that a universal life force permeated everything, including the human body, and that illnesses were caused by a disturbance or block in this force's flow; he developed techniques he claimed cleansed such blockages and restored

13206-523: The first episode of the Devi Mahatmya . Here, she is depicted as Devi in her universal form as Shakti . Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored. Kali is depicted in the Mahakali form as having ten heads, ten arms, and ten legs. Each of her ten hands is carrying a various implement which varies in different accounts, but each of these represents the power of one of

13348-406: The first reserved for teachings that were developed "within the walls" of the philosophical school, among a circle of thinkers ("eso-" indicating what is unseen, as in the classes internal to the institution), and the second referring to those whose works were disseminated to the public in speeches and published ("exo-": outside). The initial meaning of this last word is implied when Aristotle coined

13490-456: The five elements. In union with Lord Shiva, she creates and destroys worlds. Her appearance also takes a different turn, befitting her role as ruler of the world and object of meditation. In contrast to her terrible aspects, she takes on hints of a more benign dimension. She is described as young and beautiful, has a gentle smile, and makes gestures with her two right hands to dispel any fear and offer boons. The more positive features exposed offer

13632-557: The former and irrational by the latter. Scholars nevertheless recognise that various non-Western traditions have exerted "a profound influence" over Western esotericism, citing the example of the Theosophical Society 's incorporation of Hindu and Buddhist concepts like reincarnation into its doctrines. Given these influences and the imprecise nature of the term "Western", the scholar of esotericism Kennet Granholm has argued that academics should cease referring to " Western esotericism" altogether, instead simply favouring "esotericism" as

13774-488: The gift given to a priest before performing a ritual or to one's guru. Such gifts are traditionally given with the right hand. Dakshinakali's two right hands are usually depicted in gestures of blessing and giving of boons. One version of the origin of her name comes from the story of Yama , lord of death, who lives in the south ( dakshina ). When Yama heard Kali's name, he fled in terror, and so those who worship Kali are said to be able to overcome death itself. Dakshinakali

13916-666: The goddess Durga 's fury to defeat the demon Raktabija . She is stated to destroy evil and defend the innocent. Kali is worshipped as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, and Divine feminine energy . Shakta and Tantric sects additionally worship Kali as the ultimate reality or Brahman . She is also seen as the divine protector and bestower of moksha (liberation). Worshipped throughout South Asia but particularly in Nepal, Southern India, Bengal, and Assam, Kali

14058-616: The idea of an original, universal tradition, and thus a rejection of modernity . His Traditionalist ideas strongly influenced later esotericists like Julius Evola (1898–1974), founder of the UR Group , and Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998). Kali Traditional Kali ( / ˈ k ɑː l iː / ; Sanskrit : काली , IAST : Kālī ), also called Kalika , is a major goddess in Hinduism , primarily associated with time, death and destruction. The origins of Kali can be traced to

14200-650: The justification of a theological esotericism, and Numenius wrote "On the Secrets of Plato" ( Peri tôn para Platoni aporrhèta ). Probably based on the "exôtikos/esôtikos" dichotomy, the Hellenic world developed the classical distinction between exoteric/esoteric, stimulated by criticism from various currents such as the Patristics . According to examples in Lucian, Galen and Clement of Alexandria , at that time it

14342-487: The legendary Egyptian wise man, Hermes Trismegistus . In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, a number of texts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus appeared, including the Corpus Hermeticum , Asclepius , and The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth . Some still debate whether Hermeticism was a purely literary phenomenon or had communities of practitioners who acted on these ideas, but it has been established that these texts discuss

14484-459: The limitless power of her rage and Vishnu had to move out of her way. Seeing this the devas became more fearful, afraid that in her rampage, Kali would not stop until she destroyed the entire universe. Shiva saw only one solution to prevent Kali's endless destruction. Shiva lay down on the battlefield so that Goddess Mahakali would have to step on him. When she saw her consort under her foot, Kali realized that she had gone too far. Filled with grief for

14626-638: The material world by a malevolent entity known as the Demiurge , who was served by demonic helpers, the Archons . It was the Gnostic belief that people, who were imbued with the divine light, should seek to attain gnosis and thus escape from the world of matter and rejoin the divine source. A third form of esotericism in Late Antiquity was Neoplatonism , a school of thought influenced by the ideas of

14768-453: The means of accessing higher knowledge, he highlighted two themes that he believed could be found within esotericism, that of mediation through contact with non-human entities, and individual experience. Accordingly, for Von Stuckrad, esotericism could be best understood as "a structural element of Western culture" rather than as a selection of different schools of thought. Hanegraaff proposed an additional definition that "Western esotericism"

14910-443: The more infamous and transgressive vamachara ("left-hand path"). These serpents and jackals are shown to drink Raktabīja 's blood as it drips out of his head while the goddess carries the head in her hand, preventing it from falling on the ground. In the ten-armed form of Mahakali, she is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces, ten feet, and three eyes for each head. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There

15052-492: The natural world, though in later work he also began to focus on overtly religious questions. His work gained significant support in both areas over the following centuries. One of those influenced by Paracelsus was the German cobbler Jakob Böhme (1575–1624), who sparked the Christian theosophy movement through his attempts to solve the problem of evil . Böhme argued that God had been created out of an unfathomable mystery,

15194-483: The nature of reality as are the male deities. Although Parvati is often said to be the recipient and student of Shiva 's wisdom in the form of Tantras , it is Kali who seems to dominate much of the Tantric iconography, texts, and rituals. In many sources Kāli is praised as the highest reality or greatest of all deities. The Nirvana-tantra says the gods Brahma , Vishnu , and Shiva all arise from her like bubbles in

15336-740: The original form of all things, and because of Thou art the Origin of and devourest all things Thou art called the Adya [the Primordial One]. Re-assuming after Dissolution Thine own form, dark and formless, Thou alone remainest as One ineffable and inconceivable. Though having a form, yet art Thou formless; though Thyself without beginning, multiform by the power of Maya, Thou art the Beginning of all, Creatrix, Protectress, and Destructress that Thou art. The figure of Kāli conveys death, destruction, and

15478-539: The paths as fundamental schemes, connected with external divinities on the right, contrasted with self-deification on the left. The terms have their origins in tantra : the right-hand path (RHP, or dakṣiṇācāra ) applied to magical groups that follow specific ethical codes and adopt social convention , while the left-hand path (LHP, or vāmācāra ) adopts the opposite attitude, breaking taboos and abandoning set morality . Contemporary occultists such as Peter J. Carroll have stressed that both paths can be followed by

15620-567: The patient to full health. One of Mesmer's followers, the Marquis de Puységur , discovered that mesmeric treatment could induce a state of somnumbulic trance in which they claimed to enter visionary states and communicate with spirit beings. These somnambulic trance-states heavily influenced the esoteric religion of Spiritualism , which emerged in the United States in the 1840s and spread throughout North America and Europe. Spiritualism

15762-418: The philosopher Plato . Advocated by such figures as Plotinus , Porphyry , Iamblichus , and Proclus , Neoplatonism held that the human soul had fallen from its divine origins into the material world, but that it could progress, through a number of hierarchical spheres of being, to return to its divine origins once more. The later Neoplatonists performed theurgy , a ritual practice attested in such sources as

15904-534: The point that Kocku von Stuckrad stated "esoteric ontology and anthropology would hardly exist without Platonic philosophy." In his dialogues, he uses expressions that refer to cultic secrecy (for example, ἀπορρήτων , aporrhéton , one of the Ancient Greek expressions referring to the prohibition of revealing a secret, in the context of mysteries ). In Theaetetus 152c, there is an example of this concealment strategy: Can it be, then, that Protagoras

16046-507: The power of destruction. The chief goddess of Tantric texts, Samhara Kali is the most dangerous and powerful form of Kali. Samhara Kali takes form when Kali steps out with her left foot holding her sword in her right hand. She is the Kali of death, destruction and is worshipped by tantrics. As Samhara Kali she gives death and liberation. According to the Mahakala Samhita, Samhara Kali is two armed and black in complexion. She stands on

16188-421: The powers of the various Gods come only through her grace . The name Mahakali , when kali is rendered to mean "black", translates to Japanese as Daikoku (大黒) . Dakshinakali is the most popular form of Kali in Bengal. She is the benevolent mother, who protects her devotees and children from mishaps and misfortunes. There are various versions for the origin of the name Dakshinakali . Dakshina refers to

16330-586: The pre-Vedic and Vedic era Goddess worship traditions in Ancient India . Kali is the first of the ten Mahavidyas in the Hindu tantric tradition and is the supreme deity in the Kalikula worship tradition. The first major appearance of Kali in the Sanskrit literature was in the sixth-century CE text Devi Mahatmya . Kali appears in numerous stories, with her most famous being when she sprang from

16472-614: The public, so several people described themselves as "Rosicrucian", claiming access to secret esoteric knowledge. A real initiatory brotherhood was established in late 16th-century Scotland through the transformation of Medieval stonemason guilds to include non-craftsmen: Freemasonry . Soon spreading into other parts of Europe, in England it largely rejected its esoteric character and embraced humanism and rationalism, while in France it embraced new esoteric concepts, particularly those from Christian theosophy. The Age of Enlightenment witnessed

16614-402: The right) are in the abhaya (fearlessness) and varada (blessing) mudras , which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter. This is the form of Dakshina Kali. She wears a garland of human heads , variously enumerated at 108 (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on

16756-460: The same battle, the asura Raktabija is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground. Countless Raktabija clones appear on the battlefield. Kali eventually defeats him by sucking his blood before it can reach the ground, and eating the numerous clones. Kinsley writes that Kali represents "Durga's personified wrath, her embodied fury". Other origin stories involve Parvati and Shiva. Parvati

16898-536: The scholar Kennet Granholm stated only that Faivre's definition had been "the dominating paradigm for a long while" and that it "still exerts influence among scholars outside the study of Western esotericism". The advantage of Faivre's system is that it facilitates comparing varying esoteric traditions "with one another in a systematic fashion." Other scholars criticised his theory, pointing out various weaknesses. Hanegraaff claimed that Faivre's approach entailed "reasoning by prototype" in that it relied upon already having

17040-528: The scholar discourse on ancient philosophy. The categories of doctrina vulgaris and doctrina arcana are found among Cambridge Platonists . Perhaps for the first time in English, Thomas Stanley , between 1655 and 1660, would refer to the Pythagorean exoterick and esoterick . John Toland in 1720 would state that the so-called nowadays "esoteric distinction" was a universal phenomenon, present in both

17182-594: The sea, ceaselessly arising and passing away, leaving their original source unchanged. The Niruttara-tantra and the Picchila-tantra declare all of Kāli's mantras to be the greatest and the Yogini-tantra , Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra all proclaim Kāli vidyas (manifestations of Mahadevi , or "divinity itself"). They declare her to be an essence of her own form ( svarupa ) of

17324-400: The story of two asuras who were destroyed by Kali can be found. Chanda and Munda attack the goddess Kaushiki . Kaushiki responds with such anger that it causes her face to turn dark, resulting in Kali appearing out of her forehead. Kali's appearance is dark blue, gaunt with sunken eyes, wearing a tiger skin sari and a garland of human heads . She immediately defeats the two asuras. Later in

17466-535: The supposed "esoteric" content of which regarding the First Principles is particularly highlighted by the Tübingen School as distinct from the apparent written teachings conveyed in his books or public lectures. Hegel commented on the analysis of this distinction in the modern hermeneutics of Plato and Aristotle: To express an external object not much is required, but to communicate an idea

17608-690: The symbolism behind the commonly represented image of Kali standing on Shiva's supine form. A common interpretation is that Shiva symbolizes purusha , the universal unchanging aspect of reality, or pure consciousness. Kali represents Prakriti , nature or matter, sometimes seen as having a feminine quality of creation of life. The merging of these two qualities represent ultimate reality. A tantric interpretation sees Shiva as consciousness and Kali as power or energy. Consciousness and energy are dependent upon each other, since Shiva depends on Shakti, or energy, in order to fulfill his role in creation, preservation, and destruction. In this view, without Shakti, Shiva

17750-414: The term left-hand path as a translation of the term vamachara , an Indian Tantric practice that emphasised the breaking of Hindu societal taboos by having sexual intercourse in ritual, drinking alcohol , eating meat and assembling in graveyards, as a part of the spiritual practice. The term vamachara literally meant "the left-hand way" in Sanskrit , and it was from this that Blavatsky first coined

17892-402: The term "exoteric speeches" ( ἐξωτερικοὶ λόγοι ), perhaps to refer to the speeches he gave outside his school. However, Aristotle never employed the term "esoteric" and there is no evidence that he dealt with specialized secrets; there is a dubious report by Aulus Gellius , according to which Aristotle disclosed the exoteric subjects of politics, rhetoric and ethics to the general public in

18034-427: The term provided a "useful generic label" for "a large and complicated group of historical phenomena that had long been perceived as sharing an air de famille ." Various academics have emphasised that esotericism is a phenomenon unique to the Western world. As Faivre stated, an "empirical perspective" would hold that "esotericism is a Western notion." As scholars such as Faivre and Hanegraaff have pointed out, there

18176-573: The term. Returning to Europe, Blavatsky began using the term. It was relatively easy for her to associate left with evil in many European countries, where it already has had an association with evil and bad luck since the Classical Latin era. As the historian Dave Evans noted, homosexuals were referred to as "left-handed", while in Protestant nations Roman Catholics were called "left-footers". In New York, Madame Blavatsky founded

18318-407: The terms LHP and RHP to be distinct from black and white magic. However, despite Waite's attempts to distinguish the two, the equation of the LHP with black magic was propagated more widely in the fiction of Dennis Wheatley ; Wheatley also conflated the two with Satanism and also the political ideology of communism , which he viewed as a threat to traditional British society. In the latter half of

18460-526: The three Rosicrucian Manifestos were published in Germany. These texts purported to represent a secret, initiatory brotherhood founded centuries before by a German adept named Christian Rosenkreutz . There is no evidence that Rosenkreutz was a genuine historical figure, nor that a Rosicrucian Order had ever existed before then. Instead, the manifestos are likely literary creations of Lutheran theologian Johann Valentin Andreae (1586–1654). They interested

18602-406: The true nature of God, emphasising that humans must transcend rational thought and worldly desires to find salvation and be reborn into a spiritual body of immaterial light, thereby achieving spiritual unity with divinity. Another tradition of esoteric thought in Late Antiquity was Gnosticism. Various Gnostic sects existed, and they broadly believed that the divine light had been imprisoned within

18744-547: The work by Protestant historian of gnosticism Jacques Matter (1791–1864), Histoire critique du gnosticisme (3 vols.). The term "esotericism" thus came into use in the wake of the Age of Enlightenment and of its critique of institutionalised religion, during which alternative religious groups such as the Rosicrucians began to disassociate themselves from the dominant Christianity in Western Europe. During

18886-470: The worship of the Dakshinakali form of Goddess Kali is often attributed to Krishnananda Agamavagisha . He was a noted 17th-century Bengali Tantra thinker and author of Tantrasara . Devi Kali reportedly appeared to him in a dream and told him to popularize her in a particular form that would appear to him the following day. The next morning he observed a young woman making cow dung patties. While placing

19028-668: Was Faivre, who published a series of criteria for how to define "Western esotericism" in 1992. Faivre claimed that esotericism was "identifiable by the presence of six fundamental characteristics or components", four of which were "intrinsic" and thus vital to defining something as being esoteric, while the other two were "secondary" and thus not necessarily present in every form of esotericism. He listed these characteristics as follows: Faivre's form of categorisation has been endorsed by scholars like Goodrick-Clarke, and by 2007 Bogdan could note that Faivre's had become "the standard definition" of Western esotericism in use among scholars. In 2013

19170-483: Was a common practice among philosophers to keep secret writings and teachings. A parallel secrecy and reserved elite was also found in the contemporary environment of Gnosticism . Later, Iamblichus would present his definition (close to the modern one), as he classified the ancient Pythagoreans as either "exoteric" mathematicians or "esoteric" acousmatics, the latter being those who disseminated enigmatic teachings and hidden allegorical meanings. 'Western esotericism'

19312-438: Was a very ingenious person who threw out this obscure utterance for the unwashed like us but reserved the truth as a secret doctrine (ἐν ἀπορρήτῳ τὴν ἀλήθειαν) to be revealed to his disciples? The Neoplatonists intensified the search for a "hidden truth" under the surface of teachings, myths and texts, developing the hermeneutics and allegorical exegesis of Plato , Homer , Orpheus and others. Plutarch, for example, developed

19454-400: Was based on the concept that individuals could communicate with spirits of the deceased during séances . Most forms of Spiritualism had little theoretical depth, being largely practical affairs—but full theological worldviews based on the movement were articulated by Andrew Jackson Davis (1826–1910) and Allan Kardec (1804–1869). Scientific interest in the claims of Spiritualism resulted in

19596-501: Was critical of this approach, believing that it relegated Western esotericism to the position of "a casualty of positivist and materialist perspectives in the nineteenth-century" and thus reinforces the idea that Western esoteric traditions were of little historical importance. Bogdan similarly expressed concern regarding Hanegraaff's definition, believing that it made the category of Western esotericism "all inclusive" and thus analytically useless. The origins of Western esotericism are in

19738-497: Was expanded in the work of the German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535/36), who used it as a framework to explore the philosophical and scientific traditions of Antiquity in his work De occulta philosophia libri tres . The work of Agrippa and other esoteric philosophers had been based in a pre-Copernican worldview, but following the arguments of Copernicus , a more accurate understanding of

19880-425: Was seen as a "crucial identity marker" for any intellectuals seeking to affiliate themselves with the academy. Scholars established this category in the late 18th century after identifying "structural similarities" between "the ideas and world views of a wide variety of thinkers and movements" that, previously, had not been in the same analytical grouping. According to the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff,

20022-463: Was that many of those currents widely recognised as esoteric never concealed their teachings, and in the 20th century came to permeate popular culture, thus problematizing the claim that esotericism could be defined by its hidden and secretive nature. He noted that when scholars adopt this definition, it shows that they subscribe to the religious doctrines espoused by the very groups they are studying. Another approach to Western esotericism treats it as

20164-484: Was the religion of New Thought , founded by the American mesmerist Phineas P. Quimby (1802–1866). It revolved around the concept of " mind over matter "—believing that illness and other negative conditions could be cured through the power of belief. In Europe, a movement usually termed occultism emerged as various figures attempted to find a "third way" between Christianity and positivist science while building on

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