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103-626: Galleria Umberto I is a public shopping gallery in Naples , southern Italy . It is located directly across from the San Carlo opera house. It was built between 1887 and 1890, and was the cornerstone in the decades-long rebuilding of Naples—called the risanamento (lit. "making healthy again")—that lasted until World War I . It was designed in the Stile Umbertino by Emanuele Rocco , who employed modern architectural elements reminiscent of

206-664: A British fleet . However, Naples' lower class lazzaroni were strongly pious and royalist, favouring the Bourbons; in the mêlée that followed, they fought the Neapolitan pro-Republican aristocracy, causing a civil war. Eventually, the Republicans conquered Castel Sant'Elmo and proclaimed a Parthenopaean Republic , secured by the French Army . A counter-revolutionary religious army of lazzaroni known as

309-470: A convert to the Catholic Church from Greek Orthodoxy , who was considered for the papacy , and was one of the most learned scholars of his time. There were several 15th-century and early 16th-century humanist Popes one of whom, Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), was a prolific author and wrote a treatise on The Education of Boys . These subjects came to be known as the humanities, and

412-656: A royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti ) who was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for François I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later the Collège de France ). Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarre , the sister of François I, was a poet , novelist , and religious mystic who gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément Marot , Pierre de Ronsard , and François Rabelais . Many humanists were churchmen, most notably Pope Pius II, Sixtus IV , and Leo X , and there

515-498: A "political reform program is central to the humanist movement founded by Petrarch. But it is not a 'republican' project in Baron's sense of republic; it is not an ideological product associated with a particular regime type." Two renowned Renaissance scholars, Eugenio Garin and Paul Oskar Kristeller collaborated with one another throughout their careers. But while the two historians were on good terms, they fundamentally disagreed on

618-442: A dismal mode of life. On the contrary, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure. This passage exemplifies the way in which the humanists saw pagan classical works , such as the philosophy of Epicurus , as being in harmony with their interpretation of Christianity . Renaissance Neo-Platonists such as Marsilio Ficino (whose translations of Plato's works into Latin were still used into

721-482: A flourishing return to linguistic, stylistic and literary models of antiquity. There emerged a consciousness of the need for a cultural renewal, which sometimes also meant a detachment from contemporary culture. Manuscripts and inscriptions were in high demand and graphic models were also imitated. This "return to the ancients" was the main component of so-called "pre-humanism", which developed particularly in Tuscany , in

824-481: A hall of the castle, and following this Pope Boniface VIII was elected pope by the cardinal collegium , before moving to Rome. Castel Capuano was built in the 12th century by William I , the son of Roger II of Sicily , the first monarch of the Kingdom of Naples . It was expanded by Frederick II and became one of his royal palaces. The castle was the residence of many kings and queens throughout its history. In

927-417: A new and more ambitious name ( Studia humanitatis ), but also increased its actual scope, content and significance in the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production. The studia humanitatis excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, Greek , and moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric,

1030-464: A ploy, not seriously meant by Valla, but designed to refute Stoicism, which he regarded together with epicureanism as equally inferior to Christianity. Valla's defense, or adaptation, of Epicureanism was later taken up in The Epicurean by Erasmus , the "Prince of humanists:" If people who live agreeably are Epicureans , none are more truly Epicurean than the righteous and godly. And if it

1133-474: A surrender in the face of insurgents. The city was already completely freed by 1 October 1943, when British and American forces entered the city. Departing Germans burned the library of the university , as well as the Italian Royal Society. They also destroyed the city archives. Time bombs planted throughout the city continued to explode into November. The symbol of the rebirth of Naples was

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1236-676: Is names that bother us, no one better deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the Christian philosophy Christ , for in Greek epikouros means "helper". He alone, when the law of Nature was all but blotted out by sins, when the law of Moses incited to lists rather than cured them, when Satan ruled in the world unchallenged, brought timely aid to perishing humanity. Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christ's having been sad and gloomy in character and calling upon us to follow

1339-583: Is noted for its association with pizza , which originated in the city, as well as numerous other local dishes. Restaurants in the Naples' area have earned the most stars from the Michelin Guide of any Italian province. Naples' Centro Direzionale was built in 1994 as the first grouping of skyscrapers in Italy, remaining the only such grouping in Italy until 2009. The most widely-known sports team in Naples

1442-593: Is one of the city's main museums, with one of the most extensive collections of artefacts of the Roman Empire in the world. It also houses many of the antiques unearthed at Pompeii and Herculaneum , as well as some artefacts from the Greek and Renaissance periods. Previously a Bourbon palace, now a museum and art gallery, the Museo di Capodimonte is another museum of note. The gallery features paintings from

1545-577: Is one of the most important in Europe. Naples' historic city centre has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . A wide range of culturally and historically significant sites are nearby, including the Palace of Caserta and the Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum . Naples is also known for its natural beauties, such as Posillipo , Phlegraean Fields , Nisida and Vesuvius . Neapolitan cuisine

1648-667: Is the Serie A football club Napoli , three-time Italian champions (most recently in 2023), who play at the Stadio Diego Armando Maradona in the west of the city, in the Fuorigrotta quartier. In 2024, TasteAtlas ranked Naples the 2nd city with best food in the world. Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. In the second millennium BC, a first Mycenaean settlement arose not far from

1751-435: Is the city's premier place of worship; each year on 19 September, it hosts the longstanding Miracle of Saint Januarius , the city's patron saint . During the miracle, which thousands of Neapolitans flock to witness, the dried blood of Januarius is said to turn to liquid when brought close to holy relics said to be of his body. Below is a selective list of Naples' major churches, chapels, and monastery complexes: Aside from

1854-444: Is the oldest opera house in Italy. Directly across San Carlo is Galleria Umberto . Naples is well known for its castles: The most ancient is Castel dell'Ovo ("Egg Castle"), which was built on the tiny islet of Megarides, where the original Cumaean colonists had founded the city. In Roman times the islet became part of Lucullus 's villa, later hosting Romulus Augustulus , the exiled last western Roman emperor. It had also been

1957-574: Is the third-most populous metropolitan city in Italy with a population of 3,115,320 residents, and its metropolitan area stretches beyond the boundaries of the city wall for approximately 30 kilometres (20 miles). Naples plays also a key international role in international diplomacy, since it is home to NATO 's Allied Joint Force Command Naples and of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean . Founded by Greeks in

2060-461: The sanfedisti under Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo was raised; they met with great success, and the French were forced to surrender the Neapolitan castles, with their fleet sailing back to Toulon . Ferdinand IV was restored as king; however, after only seven years, Napoleon conquered the kingdom and installed Bonapartist kings, including installing his brother Joseph Bonaparte . With the help of

2163-717: The Austrian Empire and its allies, the Bonapartists were defeated in the Neapolitan War . Ferdinand IV once again regained the throne and the kingdom. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 saw the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily combine to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , with Naples as the capital city. In 1839, Naples became the first city on the Italian Peninsula to have a railway, with

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2266-664: The Battle of Garigliano in 1503. Following the Spanish victory, Naples became part of the Spanish Empire , and remained so throughout the Spanish Habsburg period. The Spanish sent viceroys to Naples to directly deal with local issues: the most important of these viceroys was Pedro Álvarez de Toledo , who was responsible for considerable social, economic and urban reforms in the city; he also tried to introduce

2369-584: The Byzantine Emperor , with numerous local pretenders feuding for possession of the ducal throne. Theoctistus was appointed without imperial approval; his appointment was later revoked and Theodore II took his place. However, the disgruntled general populace chased him from the city and elected Stephen III instead, a man who minted coins with his initials rather than those of the Byzantine Emperor. Naples gained complete independence by

2472-457: The Chancellor of Florence . In Italy, the humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the mid-15th century, many of the upper classes had received humanist educations, possibly in addition to traditional scholastic ones. Some of the highest officials of the Catholic Church were humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal Basilios Bessarion ,

2575-602: The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan . The Galleria was named after Umberto I , King of Italy at the time of construction. It was meant to combine businesses, shops, cafés and social life—public space—with private space in the apartments on the third floor. The Galleria is a high and spacious cross-shaped structure, surmounted by a glass dome braced by 16 metal ribs. Of the four iron and glass-vaulted wings, one fronts on via Toledo (via Roma), still

2678-532: The Iberian Peninsula . Naples also became a centre of the Renaissance, with artists such as Laurana , da Messina , Sannazzaro and Poliziano arriving in the city. In 1501, Naples came under direct rule from France under Louis XII , with the Neapolitan king Frederick being taken as a prisoner to France; however, this state of affairs did not last long, as Spain won Naples from the French at

2781-826: The Inquisition . In 1544, around 7,000 people were taken as slaves by Barbary pirates and brought to the Barbary Coast of North Africa (see Sack of Naples ). By the 17th century, Naples had become Europe's second-largest city – second only to Paris – and the largest European Mediterranean city, with around 250,000 inhabitants. The city was a major cultural centre during the Baroque era, being home to artists such as Caravaggio , Salvator Rosa and Bernini , philosophers such as Bernardino Telesio , Giordano Bruno , Tommaso Campanella and Giambattista Vico , and writers such as Giambattista Marino . A revolution led by

2884-648: The Kingdom of Sicily , with Palermo as the capital. After a period of Norman rule, in 1189, the Kingdom of Sicily was in a succession dispute between Tancred, King of Sicily of an illegitimate birth and the Hohenstaufens , a Germanic royal house , as its Prince Henry had married Princess Constance the last legitimate heir to the Sicilian throne. In 1191 Henry invaded Sicily after being crowned as Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor , and many cities surrendered. Still, Naples resisted him from May to August under

2987-600: The Lombards for a brief period after the capture by Pandulf IV of the Principality of Capua , a long-term rival of Naples; however, this regime lasted only three years before the Greco-Roman-influenced dukes were reinstated. By the 11th century, Naples had begun to employ Norman mercenaries to battle their rivals; Duke Sergius IV hired Rainulf Drengot to wage war on Capua for him. By 1137,

3090-522: The Low Countries , Poland-Lithuania, Hungary and England with the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, and it became associated with the Reformation . In France, pre-eminent humanist Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) applied the philological methods of Italian humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history , composing a detailed commentary on Justinian's Code . Budé was

3193-786: The Ostrogoths , a Germanic people , and incorporated into the Ostrogothic Kingdom . However, Belisarius of the Byzantine Empire recaptured Naples in 536, after entering the city via an aqueduct. In 543, during the Gothic Wars , Totila briefly took the city for the Ostrogoths, but the Byzantines seized control of the area following the Battle of Mons Lactarius on the slopes of Vesuvius . Naples

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3296-561: The Palace of Caserta and the Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum . In 2017 the BBC defined Naples as "the Italian city with too much history to handle". The most prominent forms of architecture visible in present-day Naples are the Medieval , Renaissance and Baroque styles. Naples has a total of 448 historical churches (1000 in total ), making it one of the most Catholic cities in

3399-574: The Protestant denominations . Some humanists, even moderate Catholics such as Erasmus , risked being declared heretics for their perceived criticism of the institutional church. A number of humanists joined the Reformation movement and took over leadership functions, for example, Philipp Melanchthon , Ulrich Zwingli , Martin Luther , Henry VIII , John Calvin , and William Tyndale . With

3502-686: The Royal Palace of Naples stands the Galleria Umberto I , which contains the Coral Jewellery Museum . Occupying a 19th-century palazzo renovated by the Portuguese architect Álvaro Siza , the Museo d'Arte Contemporanea Donnaregina (MADRE) features an enfilade procession of permanent installations by artists such as Francesco Clemente , Richard Serra , and Rebecca Horn . The 16th-century palace of Roccella hosts

3605-804: The Veneto region, and at the papal court of Avignon , through the activity of figures such as Lovato Lovati and Albertino Mussato in Padua, Landolfo Colonna in Avignon, Ferreto de' Ferreti in Vicenza, Convenevole from Prato in Tuscany and then in Avignon , and many others. By the 14th century some of the first humanists were great collectors of antique manuscripts , including Petrarch , Giovanni Boccaccio , Coluccio Salutati , and Poggio Bracciolini . Of

3708-527: The apostles Peter and Paul are said to have preached in the city. Januarius , who would become Naples' patron saint , was martyred there in the fourth century AD. The last emperor of the Western Roman Empire , Romulus Augustulus , was exiled to Naples by the Germanic king Odoacer in the fifth century AD. Following the decline of the Western Roman Empire , Naples was captured by

3811-496: The civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. Humanism, while set up by a small elite who had access to books and education, was intended as a cultural movement to influence all of society. It was a program to revive the cultural heritage, literary legacy, and moral philosophy of the Greco-Roman civilization . It first began in Italy and then spread across Western Europe in

3914-468: The first millennium BC, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited urban areas in the world. In the eighth century BC, a colony known as Parthenope ( Ancient Greek : Παρθενόπη ) was established on the Pizzofalcone hill. In the sixth century BC, it was refounded as Neápolis. The city was an important part of Magna Graecia , played a major role in the merging of Greek and Roman society, and

4017-416: The late-2000s recession had a severe impact on the city, intensifying its waste-management and unemployment problems. By August 2011, the number of unemployed in the Naples area had risen to 250,000, sparking public protests against the economic situation. In June 2012, allegations of blackmail, extortion, and illicit contract tendering emerged concerning the city's waste management issues. Naples hosted

4120-403: The rationalism of ancient writings as having tremendous impact on Renaissance scholars: Here, one felt no weight of the supernatural pressing on the human mind, demanding homage and allegiance. Humanity—with all its distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities—was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, but, bolstered by

4223-516: The 1390s. He considered Petrarch's humanism to be a rhetorical, superficial project, and viewed this new strand to be one that abandoned the feudal and supposedly "otherworldly" (i.e., divine) ideology of the Middle Ages in favour of putting the republican state and its freedom at the forefront of the "civic humanist" project. Already controversial at the time of The Crisis ' publication, the "Baron Thesis" has been met with even more criticism over

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4326-466: The 13th to the 18th centuries, including major works by Simone Martini , Raphael , Titian , Caravaggio , El Greco , Jusepe de Ribera and Luca Giordano . The royal apartments are furnished with antique 18th-century furniture and a collection of porcelain and majolica from the various royal residences: the famous Capodimonte Porcelain Factory once stood just adjacent to the palace. In front of

4429-565: The 14th century, the Hungarian Angevin king Louis the Great captured the city several times. In 1442, Alfonso I conquered Naples after his victory against the last Angevin king, René , and Naples was unified with Sicily again for a brief period. Sicily and Naples were separated since 1282, but remained dependencies of Aragon under Ferdinand I . The new dynasty enhanced Naples' commercial standing by establishing relations with

4532-417: The 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. During the period, the term humanist ( Italian : umanista ) referred to teachers and students of the humanities , known as the studia humanitatis , which included the study of Latin and Ancient Greek literatures, grammar , rhetoric , history , poetry , and moral philosophy . It was not until the 19th century that this began to be called humanism instead of

4635-533: The 16th century by the Spanish, was demolished in 1906 to make room for the Via Marina, although two of the castle's towers remain as a monument. The Vigliena Fort, built in 1702, was destroyed in 1799 during the royalist war against the Parthenopean Republic and is now abandoned and in ruin. Naples is widely known for its wealth of historical museums. The Naples National Archaeological Museum

4738-533: The 16th century, it became the Hall of Justice. Another Neapolitan castle is Castel Sant'Elmo , which was completed in 1329 and is built in the shape of a star . Its strategic position overlooking the entire city made it a target of various invaders. During the uprising of Masaniello in 1647, the Spanish took refuge in Sant'Elmo to escape the revolutionaries. The Carmine Castle , built in 1392 and highly modified in

4841-551: The 17th century and the artistic revolution he inspired. It was also an important centre of humanism and Enlightenment . The city has long been a global point of reference for classical music and opera through the Neapolitan School . Between 1925 and 1936, Naples was expanded and upgraded by the Fascist regime . During the later years of World War II , it sustained severe damage from Allied bombing as they invaded

4944-413: The 19th century) attempted to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, according to the suggestions of early Church Fathers Lactantius and Saint Augustine . In this spirit, Pico della Mirandola attempted to construct a syncretism of religions and philosophies with Christianity, but his work did not win favor with the church authorities, who rejected it because of his views on magic. The historian of

5047-559: The Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent (1545–1563), positions hardened and a strict Catholic orthodoxy based on scholastic philosophy was imposed. However the education systems developed by Jesuits ran on humanist lines. Hans Baron (1900–1988) was the inventor of the now ubiquitous term "civic humanism." First coined in the 1920s and based largely on his studies of Leonardo Bruni, Baron's "thesis" proposed

5150-596: The Duke of Noja , employing rigorous surveying accuracy and becoming an essential urban planning tool for Naples. During the time of Ferdinand IV , the effects of the French Revolution were felt in Naples: Horatio Nelson , an ally of the Bourbons, arrived in the city in 1798 to warn against the French republicans. Ferdinand was forced to retreat and fled to Palermo , where he was protected by

5253-563: The Naples area between 1876 and 1913. In the forty years following unification, the population of Naples grew by only 26%, vs. 63% for Turin and 103% for Milan; however, by 1884, Naples was still the largest city in Italy with 496,499 inhabitants, or roughly 64,000 per square kilometre (more than twice the population density of Paris). Public health conditions in certain areas of the city were poor, with twelve epidemics of cholera and typhoid fever claiming some 48,000 people between 1834 and 1884. A death rate 31.84 per thousand, high even for

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5356-565: The Normans had attained great influence in Italy, controlling previously independent principalities and duchies such as Capua , Benevento , Salerno , Amalfi , Sorrento and Gaeta ; it was in this year that Naples, the last independent duchy in the southern part of the peninsula, came under Norman control. The last ruling duke of the duchy, Sergius VII , was forced to surrender to Roger II , who had been proclaimed King of Sicily by Antipope Anacletus II seven years earlier. Naples thus joined

5459-427: The Palazzo delle Arti Napoli, which contains the civic collections of art belonging to the City of Naples, and features temporary exhibits of art and culture. Palazzo Como, which dates from the 15th century, hosts the Museo Civico Filangieri of plastic arts , created in 1883 by Gaetano Filangieri . Naples is the seat of the Archdiocese of Naples ; there are hundreds of churches in the city. The Cathedral of Naples

5562-478: The Piazza del Plebiscito, Naples has two other major public squares: the Piazza Dante and the Piazza dei Martiri . The latter originally had only a memorial to religious martyrs , but in 1866, after the Italian unification , four lions were added, representing the four rebellions against the Bourbons. Renaissance humanism Renaissance humanists sought to create a citizenry able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity, and thus capable of engaging in

5665-399: The Renaissance Sir John Hale cautions against too direct a linkage between Renaissance humanism and modern uses of the term humanism: "Renaissance humanism must be kept free from any hint of either 'humanitarianism' or 'humanism' in its modern sense of rational, non-religious approach to life ... the word 'humanism' will mislead ... if it is seen in opposition to a Christianity its students in

5768-504: The Renaissance humanists as occupying the same kind of "characteristic angst the existentialists attributed to men who had suddenly become conscious of their radical freedom," further weaving philosophy with Renaissance humanism. Hankins summarizes the Kristeller v. Garin debate as: According to Russian historian and Stalinist assassin Iosif Grigulevich two characteristic traits of late Renaissance humanism were "its revolt against abstract, Aristotelian modes of thought and its concern with

5871-401: The Romans soon captured the city from them and made it a Roman colony . During the Punic Wars , the strong walls surrounding Neápolis repelled the invading forces of the Carthaginian general Hannibal . The Romans greatly respected Naples as a paragon of Hellenistic culture . During the Roman era, the people of Naples maintained their Greek language and customs. At the same time, the city

5974-428: The ancient Greek foundation of Neapolis is still discernible. It has indeed continued to provide the layout for the present-day Historic Centre of Naples, one of the major Mediterranean port cities. From the Middle Ages to the 18th century, Naples was a focal point in terms of art and architecture, expressed in its ancient forts, the royal ensembles such as the Royal Palace of 1600, and the palaces and churches sponsored by

6077-401: The city from Vienna through viceroys of his own. However, the War of the Polish Succession saw the Spanish regain Sicily and Naples as part of a personal union , with the 1738 Treaty of Vienna recognising the two polities as independent under a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons . In 1755, the Duke of Noja commissioned an accurate topographic map of Naples, later known as the Map of

6180-428: The city's recent illegal waste disposal issues to the Camorra , the organized crime network centered in Campania. Due to illegal waste dumping, as exposed by Roberto Saviano in his book Gomorrah , severe environmental contamination and increased health risks remain prevalent. In 2007, Silvio Berlusconi 's government held senior meetings in Naples to demonstrate their intention to solve these problems. However,

6283-404: The city. Many examples of Gothic architecture sprang up around Naples, including the Naples Cathedral , which remains the city's main church. In 1282, after the Sicilian Vespers , the Kingdom of Sicily was divided into two. The Angevin Kingdom of Naples included the southern part of the Italian peninsula, while the island of Sicily became the Aragonese Kingdom of Sicily . Wars between

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6386-440: The competing dynasties continued until the Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Frederick III recognised as king of Sicily, while Charles II was recognised as king of Naples by Pope Boniface VIII . Despite the split, Naples grew in importance, attracting Pisan and Genoese merchants, Tuscan bankers, and some of the most prominent Renaissance artists of the time, such as Boccaccio , Petrarch and Giotto . During

6489-415: The complexities of medieval Christian theology . Very broadly, the project of the Italian Renaissance humanists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the studia humanitatis : the study of the humanities , "a curriculum focusing on language skills." This project sought to recover the culture of ancient Greece and Rome through its literature and philosophy and to use this classical revival to imbue

6592-587: The construction of the Naples–Portici railway . After the Expedition of the Thousand led by Giuseppe Garibaldi , which culminated in the controversial siege of Gaeta , Naples became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 as part of the Italian unification , ending the era of Bourbon rule. The economy of the area formerly known as the Two Sicilies as dependant on agriculture suffered the international pressure on prices of wheat, and together with lower sea fares prices lead to an unprecedented wave of emigration , with an estimated 4 million people emigrating from

6695-459: The development of scientific method, though this remains a matter of controversy. Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age Though humanists continued to use their scholarship in the service of the church into the middle of the sixteenth century and beyond, the sharply confrontational religious atmosphere following the Reformation resulted in the Counter-Reformation that sought to silence challenges to Catholic theology , with similar efforts among

6798-553: The diverse customs of the East, and gradually permitted expression in matters of taste and dress. The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy. Two noteworthy trends in some Renaissance humanists were Renaissance Neo-Platonism and Hermeticism , which through

6901-418: The early ninth century. Naples allied with the Muslim Saracens in 836 and asked for their support to repel the siege of Lombard troops coming from the neighbouring Duchy of Benevento . However, during the 850s, Muslim general Muhammad I Abu 'l-Abbas sacked Miseno , but only for Khums purposes (Islamic booty), without conquering the territories of Campania . The duchy was under the direct control of

7004-416: The existence of a central strain of humanism, particularly in Florence and Venice, dedicated to republicanism. As argued in his chef-d'œuvre , The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny , the German historian thought that civic humanism originated in around 1402, after the great struggles between Florence and Visconti-led Milan in

7107-507: The four, Petrarch was dubbed the "Father of Humanism," as he was the one who first encouraged the study of pagan civilizations and the teaching of classical virtues as a means of preserving Christianity. He also had a library , of which many manuscripts did not survive. Many worked for the Catholic Church and were in holy orders , like Petrarch, while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities, and thus had access to book copying workshops, such as Petrarch's disciple Salutati ,

7210-431: The geographical position of the future city of Parthenope. Sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established probably a small commercial port called Parthenope ( Παρθενόπη , meaning "Pure Eyes", a Siren in Greek mythology ) on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC. By the eighth century BC, the settlement was expanded by Cumaeans , as evidenced by the archaeological findings, to include Monte Echia. In

7313-407: The kingdom. Conflict between the Hohenstaufens and the Papacy led in 1266 to Pope Innocent IV crowning the Angevin duke Charles I King of Sicily: Charles officially moved the capital from Palermo to Naples, where he resided at the Castel Nuovo . Having a great interest in architecture, Charles I imported French architects and workmen and was personally involved in several building projects in

7416-509: The leadership of Richard, Count of Acerra , Nicholas of Ajello , Aligerno Cottone and Margaritus of Brindisi before the Germans suffered from disease and were forced to retreat. Conrad II, Duke of Bohemia and Philip I, Archbishop of Cologne died of disease during the siege . During his counterattack, Tancred captured Constance, now empress. He had the empress imprisoned at Castel dell'Ovo at Naples before her release on May 1192 under

7519-428: The liberation of the city. Naples Naples ( / ˈ n eɪ p əl z / NAY -pəlz ; Italian : Napoli [ˈnaːpoli] ; Neapolitan : Napule [ˈnɑːpələ] ) is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy , after Rome and Milan , with a population of 909,048 within the city's administrative limits as of 2022. Its province-level municipality

7622-594: The local fisherman Masaniello saw the creation of a brief independent Neapolitan Republic in 1647. However, this lasted only a few months before Spanish rule was reasserted. In 1656, an outbreak of bubonic plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants. In 1714, Spanish rule over Naples came to an end as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession ; the Austrian Charles VI ruled

7725-472: The main cause of insalubrity , with large and airy avenues. The project proved difficult to accomplish politically and economically due to corruption, as shown in the Saredo Inquiry , land speculation and extremely long bureaucracy. This led to the project to massive delays with contrasting results. The most notable transformations made were the construction of Via Caracciolo in place of the beach along

7828-707: The main downtown thoroughfare, and another opens onto the San Carlo Theatre . It has returned to being an active center of Neapolitan civic life after years of decay. The building is part of the UNESCO listing of the Historic Centre of Naples as a World Heritage Site . The Galleria Umberto is the setting for The Gallery (1947) by the American writer John Horne Burns (1916–1953) based on his experiences as an American soldier in Naples shortly after

7931-455: The main wished to supplement, not contradict, through their patient excavation of the sources of ancient God-inspired wisdom." Historian Steven Kreis expresses a widespread view (derived from the 19th-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt ), when he writes that: The period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth worked in favor of the general emancipation of the individual. The city-states of northern Italy had come into contact with

8034-425: The most important member of the whole group. However, in investigating this definition in his article "The changing concept of the studia humanitatis in the early Renaissance," Benjamin G. Kohl provides an account of the various meanings the term took on over the course of the period. And so, the term studia humanitatis took on a variety of meanings over the centuries, being used differently by humanists across

8137-1029: The movement which they inspired is shown as humanism. The migration waves of Byzantine Greek scholars and émigrés in the period following the Crusader sacking of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 was a very welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries for the revival of Greek literature and science via their greater familiarity with ancient Greek works. They included Gemistus Pletho , George of Trebizond , Theodorus Gaza , and John Argyropoulos . There were important centres of Renaissance humanism in Bologna , Ferrara , Florence , Genoa , Livorno , Mantua , Padua , Pisa , Naples , Rome , Siena , Venice , Vicenza , and Urbino . Italian humanism spread northward to France , Germany ,

8240-471: The nature of Renaissance humanism. During the period in which they argued over these differing views, there was a broader cultural conversation happening regarding Humanism: one revolving around Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger . While this discourse was taking place outside the realm of Renaissance Studies (for more on the evolution of the term "humanism," see Humanism ), this background debate

8343-493: The new studies, they dared to stand up and to rise to full stature. In 1417, for example, Poggio Bracciolini discovered the manuscript of Lucretius , De rerum natura , which had been lost for centuries and which contained an explanation of Epicurean doctrine , though at the time this was not commented on much by Renaissance scholars, who confined themselves to remarks about Lucretius's grammar and syntax . Only in 1564 did French commentator Denys Lambin (1519–72) announce in

8446-638: The noble families. The main city square or piazza of the city is the Piazza del Plebiscito . Its construction was begun by the Bonapartist king Joachim Murat and finished by the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV . The piazza is bounded on the east by the Royal Palace and on the west by the church of San Francesco di Paola , with the colonnades extending on both sides. Nearby is the Teatro di San Carlo , which

8549-660: The original humanities , and later by the retronym Renaissance humanism to distinguish it from later humanist developments. During the Renaissance period most humanists were Christians , so their concern was to "purify and renew Christianity ", not to do away with it. Their vision was to return ad fontes ("to the pure sources") to the Gospels , the New Testament and the Church Fathers , bypassing

8652-609: The peninsula. The city underwent extensive reconstruction work after the war. Since the late 20th century, Naples has had significant economic growth, helped by the construction of the Centro Direzionale business district and an advanced transportation network, which includes the Alta Velocità high-speed rail link to Rome and Salerno and an expanded subway network . Naples is the third-largest urban economy in Italy by GDP, after Milan and Rome. The Port of Naples

8755-480: The preface to the work that "he regarded Lucretius's Epicurean ideas as 'fanciful, absurd, and opposed to Christianity'." Lambin's preface remained standard until the nineteenth century. Epicurus's unacceptable doctrine that pleasure was the highest good "ensured the unpopularity of his philosophy". Lorenzo Valla , however, puts a defense of epicureanism in the mouth of one of the interlocutors of one of his dialogues. Charles Trinkhaus regards Valla's "epicureanism" as

8858-422: The pressure of Pope Celestine III . In 1194 Henry started his second campaign upon the death of Tancred, but this time Aligerno surrendered without resistance, and finally, Henry conquered Sicily, putting it under the rule of Hohenstaufens. The University of Naples , the first university in Europe dedicated to training secular administrators, was founded by Frederick II , making Naples the intellectual centre of

8961-440: The prison for Empress Constance between 1191 and 1192 after her being captured by Sicilians, and Conradin and Giovanna I of Naples before their executions. Castel Nuovo , also known as Maschio Angioino , is one of the city's top landmarks; it was built during the time of Charles I , the first king of Naples . Castel Nuovo has seen many notable historical events: for example, in 1294, Pope Celestine V resigned as pope in

9064-479: The promenade, the creation of Galleria Umberto I and Galleria Principe and the construction of Corso Umberto. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II . Though Neapolitans did not rebel under Italian Fascism , Naples was the first Italian city to rise up against German military occupation ; for the first time in Europe, the Nazis, whose leader in this case was Colonel Scholl, negotiated

9167-484: The rebuilding of the church of Santa Chiara , which had been destroyed in a United States Army Air Corps bombing raid. Special funding from the Italian government's Fund for the South was provided from 1950 to 1984, helping the Neapolitan economy to improve somewhat, with city landmarks such as the Piazza del Plebiscito being renovated. However, high unemployment continues to affect Naples. Italian media attributed

9270-410: The ruling classes with the moral attitudes of said ancients—a project James Hankins calls one of "virtue politics." But what this studia humanitatis actually constituted is a subject of much debate. According to one scholar of the movement, Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical traditions of the Middle Ages, not merely provided the old Trivium with

9373-624: The sixth World Urban Forum in September 2012 and the 63rd International Astronautical Congress in October 2012. In 2013, it was the host of the Universal Forum of Cultures and the host for the 2019 Summer Universiade . Naples' 2,800-year history has left it with a wealth of historical buildings and monuments, from medieval castles to classical ruins, and a wide range of culturally and historically significant sites nearby, including

9476-588: The sixth century BC the city was refounded as Neápolis ( Νεάπολις ), eventually becoming one of the foremost cities of Magna Graecia . The city grew rapidly due to the influence of the powerful Greek city-state of Syracuse , and became an ally of the Roman Republic against Carthage . During the Samnite Wars , the city, now a bustling centre of trade, was captured by the Samnites ; however,

9579-408: The time, insisted in the absence of epidemics between 1878 and 1883. Then in 1884, Naples fell victim to a major cholera epidemic, caused largely by the city's poor sewerage infrastructure. In response to these problems, in 1885, the government prompted a radical transformation of the city called risanamento to improve the sewerage infrastructure and replace the most clustered areas, considered

9682-496: The various Italian city-states as one definition got adopted and spread across the country. Still, it has referred consistently to a mode of learning—formal or not—that results in one's moral edification. Under the influence and inspiration of the classics , Renaissance humanists developed a new rhetoric and new learning. Some scholars also argue that humanism articulated new moral and civic perspectives, and values offering guidance in life to all citizens . Renaissance humanism

9785-693: The works of figures like Nicholas of Kues , Giordano Bruno , Cornelius Agrippa , Campanella and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola sometimes came close to constituting a new religion itself. Of these two, Hermeticism has had great continuing influence in Western thought, while the former mostly dissipated as an intellectual trend, leading to movements in Western esotericism such as Theosophy and New Age thinking. The "Yates thesis" of Frances Yates holds that before falling out of favour, esoteric Renaissance thought introduced several concepts that were useful for

9888-474: The world in terms of the number of places of worship. In 1995, the historic centre of Naples was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site , a United Nations programme which aims to catalogue and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of mankind . Naples is one of the most ancient cities in Europe, whose contemporary urban fabric preserves the elements of its long and eventful history. The rectangular grid layout of

9991-552: The years. Even in the 1960s, historians Philip Jones and Peter Herde found Baron's praise of "republican" humanists naive, arguing that republics were far less liberty-driven than Baron had believed, and were practically as undemocratic as monarchies. James Hankins adds that the disparity in political values between the humanists employed by oligarchies and those employed by princes was not particularly notable, as all of Baron's civic ideals were exemplified by humanists serving various types of government. In so arguing, he asserts that

10094-426: Was a response to what came to be depicted by later whig historians as the "narrow pedantry" associated with medieval scholasticism . In the last years of the 13th century and in the first decades of the 14th century , the cultural climate was changing in some European regions. The rediscovery, study, and renewed interest in authors who had been forgotten, and in the classical world that they represented, inspired

10197-505: Was a significant cultural centre under the Romans. Naples served as the capital of the Duchy of Naples (661–1139), subsequently as the capital of the Kingdom of Naples (1282–1816), and finally as the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies — until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples is also considered a capital of the Baroque , beginning with the artist Caravaggio 's career in

10300-533: Was expanded with elegant Roman villas , aqueducts , and public baths . Landmarks such as the Temple of Dioscures were built, and many emperors chose to holiday in the city, including Claudius and Tiberius . Virgil , the author of Rome's national epic , the Aeneid , received part of his education in the city, and later resided in its environs. It was during this period that Christianity first arrived in Naples;

10403-565: Was expected to keep in contact with the Exarchate of Ravenna , which was the centre of Byzantine power on the Italian Peninsula . After the exarchate fell, a Duchy of Naples was created. Although Naples' Greco-Roman culture endured, it eventually switched allegiance from Constantinople to Rome under Duke Stephen II , putting it under papal suzerainty by 763. The years between 818 and 832 saw tumultuous relations with

10506-442: Was not irrelevant to Kristeller and Garin's ongoing disagreement. Kristeller—who had at one point studied under Heidegger —also discounted (Renaissance) humanism as philosophy, and Garin's Der italienische Humanismus was published alongside Heidegger's response to Sartre—a move that Rubini describes as an attempt "to stage a pre-emptive confrontation between historical humanism and philosophical neo-humanisms." Garin also conceived of

10609-472: Was often patronage of humanists by senior church figures. Much humanist effort went into improving the understanding and translations of Biblical and early Christian texts, both before and after the Reformation, which was greatly influenced by the work of non-Italian, Northern European figures such as Erasmus , Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples , William Grocyn , and Swedish Catholic Archbishop in exile Olaus Magnus . The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy describes

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