The Apulia Carbonate Platform in Apulia , Italy , was a major palaeogeographic element of the southern margin of the Mesozoic Tethys Ocean . It is one of the so-called peri- Adriatic platforms, which are comparable to the Bahama Banks in their carbonate facies , shape, size, and subsidence rate and, also, in the internal architecture.
127-654: The Apulia Platform, which is part of the stable and relatively undeformed foreland of the Apennine thrust belt , is bounded on both sides by basinal deposits; westward the margin is buried under the Apennine thrust sheets, to the east the adjacent paleogeographic domains are the vast Ionian Basin to the south and the Umbria - Marche Basin to the north. To the west, the Apulia Platform plunges downfaulted underneath
254-514: A cultural sense and the Greek language did not become extinct on the island, facilitating its re-hellenisation much later under the Byzantines. The once prosperous and contented island went into sharp decline when Verres became governor of Sicily (73 to 71 BC). In 70 BC noted figure Cicero condemned the misgovernment of Verres in his oration In Verrem . Various groups used the island as
381-548: A derivation with which they all agree. Wilhelm Deecke said: "[…] its etymology is doubtful but some derive it from the Ligurian-Celtish Pen or Ben , which means mountain peak." A large number of place names seem to reflect pen : Penarrig, Penbrynn, Pencoid, Penmon, Pentir, etc. or ben : Beanach, Benmore, Benabuird, Benan, Bencruachan, etc. In one derivation Pen/Ben is cognate with Old Irish cenn , 'head', but an original *kwen- would be required, which
508-628: A geographical perspective, also forming a part of Sicily is the Maltese Archipelago, the islands home to the republic of Malta . The autonomous region also includes several neighbouring islands: the Aegadian Islands , the Aeolian Islands, Pantelleria and Lampedusa . The mountains of Sicily form a significant part of the island's diverse landscape, with Mount Etna , one of the world's most active volcanoes, being
635-544: A picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of twenty men from the Ravenna fleet. Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a considerable number of good mineral springs , some of which are thermal (such as Bagni di Lucca , Montecatini , Monsummano , Porretta, Telese), while others are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini , Cinciano),
762-614: A power base at different times: slave insurgents occupied it during the First (135−132 BC) and Second (104−100 BC) Servile Wars . Sextus Pompey had his headquarters there during the Sicilian revolt of 44 to 36 BC. Christianity first appeared in Sicily during the years following AD 200; between this time and AD 313, when Emperor Constantine the Great lifted the prohibition on Christianity,
889-715: A series of tunnels have been constructed to conduct "the Bologna-Florence rail line", which is neither a single line nor a single tunnel. The Porrettana Line went into service in 1864, the Direttissima in 1934 and the High Speed in 1996. A few dozen tunnels support the three of them, the longest on the High-Speed Line being the Voglia Tunnel at 16.757 km (10.412 mi). The longest is on
1016-833: A significant number of Sicilians had become martyrs , including Agatha , Christina , Lucy , and Euplius . Christianity grew rapidly in Sicily over the next two centuries. Sicily remained a Roman province for around 700 years. The Western Roman Empire began falling apart after the invasion of Vandals , Alans, and Sueves across the Rhine on the last day of 406. Eventually the Vandals, after roaming about western and southern Hispania (present-day Iberia ) for 20 years, moved to North Africa in 429 and occupied Carthage in 439. The Franks moved south from present-day Belgium. The Visigoths moved west and eventually settled in Aquitaine in 418;
1143-465: A singular with plural meaning; Italian : Appennini [appenˈniːni] ) are a mountain range consisting of parallel smaller chains extending c. 1,200 km (750 mi) the length of peninsular Italy . In the northwest they join the Ligurian Alps at Altare . In the southwest they end at Reggio di Calabria , the coastal city at the tip of the peninsula. Since 2000
1270-701: A stone marks the top of the pass. In the vicinity are fragments of the old road and three ruins of former fortifications. At Carcare , the main roads connect with the upper Bormida valley (Bormida di Mallare) before turning west. The Scrivia , the Trebbia and the Taro , tributaries of the Po River , drain the northeast slopes. The range contains dozens of peaks. Toward the southern end the Aveto Natural Regional Park includes Monte Penna . Nearby
1397-543: A thick pile (3000–3500 m) of Jurassic and Cretaceous shallow-water carbonates. A small outcrop of Upper Triassic evaporite (Anidriti di Burano ) and black limestone is present on the northern seashore (Punta delle Pietre Nere). These rocks have been encountered also by wells Gargano-1 (G.1 - Conoco ) and Foresta Umbra -1 (F.U. - AGIP). The outcropping succession comprises Upper Jurassic to Eocene carbonate rocks representing platform-to-basin settings. Minor scattered outcrops of Miocene sediments, unconformably overlying
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#17327755395351524-405: A volcanic complex. The three volcanoes of Vulcano , Stromboli and Lipari are also active, although the last is usually dormant. Off the southern coast of Sicily, the underwater volcano of Ferdinandea , which is part of the larger Empedocles volcano , last erupted in 1831. It is located between the coast of Agrigento and the island of Pantelleria (which itself is a dormant volcano). From
1651-523: Is Mount Etna , the tallest active volcano in Europe, and one of the most active in the world, currently 3,357 m (11,014 ft) high. The island has a typical Mediterranean climate . It is separated from Calabria by the Strait of Messina . It is one of the five Italian autonomous regions and is generally considered part of Southern Italy . The earliest archaeological record of human activity on
1778-606: Is at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft), leaving the Apennines below it, except for the one remaining glacier. Snow may fall from October to May. Rainfall increases with latitude. The range's climates, depending on elevation and latitude, are the Oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate . The mammal fauna is mainly composed of Italian wolves (endemic), Corsican hare , badgers , weasels , foxes , marmots , Etruscan shrew , Crested porcupine , European snow vole and Apennine shrews (endemic), Marsican brown bears (endemic),
1905-629: Is deep and separates the Apennines on the left bank from a lesser range, the Tuscan Anti-Apennines (Sub-Apennines) on its right. The Apennine System forms an irregular arc with centers of curvature located in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The northern and southern segments comprise parallel chains that can be viewed as single overall mountain ridges, such as the Ligurian Mountains. The center, being thicker and more complex,
2032-619: Is due to Sicily being geographically on the northern edge of the African Plate . Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and casts black ash over the island with its recurrent eruptions. It stands 3,403 metres (11,165 ft) high as of September 2024. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps . Etna covers an area of 1,190 km (459 sq mi) with a basal circumference of 140 km (87 mi). This makes it
2159-607: Is exposed on land. In the Gargano area this transition has been investigated extensively in the last decade. Since the mid-1960s AGIP geologists and the Italian Geological Survey recognized that the western part of the promontory is part of the shallow-water Apulia Platform, whereas the eastern part is characterized by slope and basinal deposits. The backbone of the Gargano Promontory consists of
2286-663: Is geologically divided into an inner and an outer arc with regard to the centers of curvature. The geologic definition, however, is not the same as the geographic. Based on rock type and orogenic incidents, the northern segment of the arc is divided into the Outer Northern Apennines (ONA) and the Inner Northern Apennines (INA). The Central Apennines are divided into the Umbrian–Marchean ( Appennino umbro-marchigiano ) or Roman Apennines in
2413-470: Is mainly grasslands of the Montane grasslands and shrublands biome; with Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, and Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub below it. The tree line in the Apennines can be found in the range 1,600 m (5,200 ft) to 2,000 m (6,600 ft). About 5% of the map area covered by the Apennines is at or above the tree line—or in the treeline ecotone. The snow line
2540-598: Is one of the 20 regions of Italy . With 4.8 million inhabitants, including 1.3 million in and around the capital city of Palermo , it is the most populous island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is named after the Sicels , who inhabited the eastern part of the island during the Iron Age . Sicily has a rich and unique culture in arts , music , literature , cuisine , and architecture . Its most prominent landmark
2667-544: Is part of the Monti Sibillini , incorporated into Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini . Further north is the parco naturale regionale della Gola della Rossa e di Frasassi [ it ] , in which are the Gola della Rossa ("Red Gorge") and Frasassi Caves . Still further north is Parco Sasso Simone e Simoncello. The Italian Park Service calls it the "green heart" of Italy. The region is heavily forested , such as
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#17327755395352794-566: Is the Bocca Serriola Pass in northern Umbria , which links Fano and Città di Castello . The Tiber River at Rome flows from Monte Fumaiolo in the Tuscan-Romagnol Apennine from northeast to southwest, projecting into the Tyrrhenian Sea at right angles to the shore. The upper Tiber, however, flows from northwest to southeast, gradually turning through one right angle clockwise. The northern Tiber Valley
2921-834: Is the Italian sparrow . The reasons for this choice are related to the fact that the Italian wolf, which inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps , features prominently in Latin and Italian cultures, such as in the legend of the founding of Rome . In Italy the transhumance took place mainly starting from the Abruzzi Apennines, moving both towards the Tuscan and Lazio Maremma and above all towards
3048-421: Is the highest point of Ligurian Apennines, Monte Maggiorasca at 1,800 m (5,900 ft). The main and only feasible overland route connecting the coastal plain of Liguria to the north Italian plain runs through Bocchetta di Altare. It has always been of strategic importance. Defenders of north Italy have had to control it since ancient times, as the various fortifications placed there testify. Trenitalia ,
3175-816: Is the largest protected natural area of Sicily; it contains the largest forest in Sicily, the Caronia . The Hundred Horse Chestnut ( Castagno dei Cento Cavalli ), in Sant'Alfio , on the eastern slopes of Mount Etna, is the largest and oldest known chestnut tree in the world at 2,000–4,000 years old. Sicily has a wide variety of fauna. Species include the European wildcat , red fox , least weasel , pine marten , fallow deer , wild boar , crested porcupine , European hedgehog , common toad , Vipera aspis , golden eagle , peregrine falcon , Eurasian hoopoe and black-winged stilt . Roe deer were driven to extinction on
3302-479: Is typologically not found in languages that feature labio-velars . Windisch and Brugmann reconstructed Indo-European *kwi- , deriving also the Greek Pindus Mountains from the same root, but *kwen- < *kwi- is not explained by any rule. By some, English pin , as well as pen and Latin pinna or penna , 'feather' (in the sense of the horn of the quill), have been connected to
3429-665: The Alcantara flows through the province of Messina and enters the sea at Giardini Naxos , and the Simeto , which flows into the Ionian Sea south of Catania . Other important rivers on the island are the Belice and Platani in the southwest. Sicily has for the most part a typical Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ) with mild and wet winters and hot, dry summers with changeable intermediate seasons. On
3556-515: The Alpine system . Prior to the explosion of data on the topic from about the year 2000, many authors took the approach that the Apennines had the same origin as the Alps. Even today, some authors use the term Alpine-Apennine system. They are not, however, the same system and did not have the same origin. The Alps were millions of years old before the Apennines rose from the sea. The northward movement of
3683-628: The Aterno from the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and so is the Sangro . The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome to Pescara via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte to Terni (and thence to Foligno ) follows the Nera valley; while from Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the central chain to Aquila, whence it follows
3810-630: The Elymians and the Sicels . The most prominent and by far the earliest of these were the Sicani , who ( Thucydides writes) arrived from the Iberian Peninsula (perhaps Catalonia ). Some modern scholars, however, suggest classifying the Sicani as possibly an Illyrian tribe. Important historical evidence has been discovered in the form of cave drawings by the Sicani, dated from the end of
3937-531: The Emirate of Sicily began to fragment as intra-dynastic quarreling fractured the Muslim government. In 1038, seventy years after losing their last cities in Sicily, the Byzantines under the Greek general George Maniakes invaded the island together with their Varangian and Norman mercenaries. Maniakes was killed in a Byzantine civil war in 1043 before completing a reconquest and the Byzantines withdrew. Later
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4064-673: The Eurasian eagle-owl There are also numerous amphibians such as the Apennine yellow-bellied toad (endemic), the Italian cave salamander (endemic), the Italian newt (endemic), the Italian stream frog (endemic) and the Spectacled salamander (endemic), the Italian tree frog (endemic), the Agile frog , the Italian edible frog (endemic), the Common toad , the Balearic green toad ,
4191-629: The European fallow deer , the European mouflon and the Pyrenean chamois . There are also numerous birds such as the golden eagle , the Bonelli's eagle , the Eurasian goshawk , the hoopoe , the hawk , the European roller , the White-backed woodpecker , the European green woodpecker , the Alpine chough , the Egyptian vulture , the European nightjar , the Italian sparrow (endemic) and
4318-949: The First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) and won, making Sicily–with the exception of Syracuse–the first Roman province outside of the Italian Peninsula by 242 BC. In the Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC), the Carthaginians attempted to recapture Sicily. Some of the Greek cities on the island who were loyal to Rome switched sides to help the Carthaginians, prompting a Roman military response. Archimedes , who lived in Syracuse, helped defend his city from Roman invasion; Roman troops killed him after they captured Syracuse in 213 BC. The Carthaginian attempt failed, and Rome became more unrelenting in its annihilation of
4445-643: The Kingdom of England . The court of Roger II became the most luminous centre of culture in the Mediterranean, both from Europe and the Middle East, like the multi-ethnic Caliphate of Córdoba , then only just eclipsed. This attracted scholars, scientists, poets, artists, and artisans of all kinds. Laws were issued in the language of the community to whom they were addressed in Norman Sicily, at
4572-575: The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . From the 1282 Sicilian Vespers until the 1860 Expedition of the Thousand , Sicily was ruled by Aragon and then Spain , either in personal union with the crown or by a cadet branch , with the exception of a period of Savoy and then Habsburg rule in 1713–1735. The island became part of the newly unified Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of
4699-414: The Ligurian Sea in the Gulf of Genoa , from about Savona below the upper Bormida River valley to about La Spezia ( La Cisa pass ) below the upper Magra River valley. The range follows the Gulf of Genoa separating it from the upper Po Valley . The northwestern border follows the line of the Bormida River to Acqui Terme . There the river continues northeast to Alessandria in the Po Valley , but
4826-401: The Majella Massif. Among them are two national parks: Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park and Majella National Park ; and the Regional Park of the Monti Simbruini. Gran Sasso contains Corno Grande , the highest peak of the Apennines (2912 m). Other features between the western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti , the valley of the Salto, and the Lago Fucino ; while between
4953-399: The Northern spectacled salamander (endemic), the Fire salamander , the Smooth newt , the Alpine newt , and the Italian crested newt . The reptile fauna is mainly composed of suc as the Italian Aesculapian snake (endemic), the Dice snake , the Green whip snake , the Aesculapian snake , the Smooth snake , the Vipera ursinii , the Vipera aspis , the Italian wall lizard (endemic),
5080-431: The Pleistocene epoch around 8000 BC. The Elymians , thought to have come from the area of the Aegean Sea , became the next tribe to join the Sicanians on Sicily. No evidence survives of warring between tribes, but the Sicanians moved eastwards when the Elymians settled in the northwest corner of the island. The Sicels are thought to have originated in Liguria ; they arrived from mainland Italy in 1200 BC and forced
5207-421: The Po Valley in northern Italy. Compressional forces have been acting from north to south in the Alps and from south to north in the Apennines, but instead of being squeezed into mountains the valley has been subsiding at 1 to 4 mm (0.16 in) per year since about 25 mya , before the Apennines existed. It is now known to be not an erosional feature, but is a filled portion of the Adriatic Trench, called
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5334-407: The Podarcis muralis , the European green lizard . Notable Apennine freshwater fishes are the Brook lamprey (endemic), Lombardy lamprey , Italian bleak (endemic), Horse barbel (endemic), Eurasian carp , Scardola scardafa (endemic), European perch , Chubius Chub , Tench and Northern pike . The Italian wolf is the national animal of Italy, while the national bird of the country
5461-403: The Pollino National Park , the Vesuvius National Park , the Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni National Park , the Appennino Lucano - Val d'Agri - Lagonegrese National Park , the Sila National Park , the Aspromonte National Park . Important rivers originate from the Apennines are the Panaro , the Secchia , the Reno , the Marecchia , the Rubicon , the Metauro , the Arno , the Tiber ,
5588-404: The Qanat to improve irrigation systems for agriculture. Around 1050, the western half of Sicily was ethnically and culturally distinct from central and eastern Sicily. During this time, there was also a small Jewish presence in Sicily, evidence seen in the catacombs discovered on the island. Palermo was initially ruled by the Aghlabids ; later it was the centre of the Emirate of Sicily, which
5715-425: The Savio , the Nera , the Velino , the Tronto , the Aterno-Pescara , the Aniene , the Liri , the Sangro and the Volturno . Among the lakes of glacial origin of the Alpine type is Lago di Pilato . The Apennines were created in the Apennine orogeny beginning in the early Neogene (about 20 mya , the middle Miocene ) and continuing today. Geographically they are partially (or appear to be) continuous with
5842-399: The Tavoliere delle Puglie . The Apennines are to some extent covered with forests, though these were probably more extensive in classical times ( Pliny mentions especially pine , oak and beech woods, Hist. Nat . xvi. 177); they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at reforestation have been made by
5969-409: The orogeny . These extend in a northwest–southeast direction from the River Tronto to the River Sangro , which drain into the Adriatic . The coastal hills of the east extend between San Benedetto del Tronto in the north and Torino di Sangro in the south. The eastern chain consists mainly of the southern part of the Monti Sibillini , the Monti della Laga , the Gran Sasso d'Italia Massif and
6096-419: The terrigenous sediments of the Apennine foredeep; to the southeast, the Jurassic – Early Cretaceous margin lies 20–30 km offshore from the present Apulia coastline. The Gargano Promontory is an area of the Apulia Platform. The Gargano Promontory and the Maiella Mountain, which now is part of the external Apennine thrust belt, are the only areas where the transition from platform facies to basin facies
6223-444: The 455 sack of Rome, at Agrigento, but were defeated decisively by Ricimir in a naval victory off Corsica in 456. The island remained under Roman rule until 469. The Vandals lost possession of the island 8 years later in 477 to the East Germanic tribe of the Ostrogoths , who then controlled Italy and Dalmatia. The island was returned to the Ostrogoths by payment of tribute to their king Odoacer . He ruled Italy from 476 to 488 in
6350-426: The 5th century AD. Sicily was ruled during the Early Middle Ages by the Vandals , the Ostrogoths , the Byzantine Empire , and the Emirate of Sicily . The Norman conquest of southern Italy led to the creation of the County of Sicily in 1071, that was succeeded by Kingdom of Sicily , a state that existed from 1130 until 1816 under various dynasties, and in 1816 it was unified with the Kingdom of Naples into
6477-399: The Adriatic foredeep after its function as a subduction zone was discovered. Sicily Sicily ( Italian : Sicilia , Italian: [siˈtʃiːlja] ; Sicilian : Sicilia , Sicilian: [sɪˈ(t)ʃiːlja] ; officially Regione Siciliana ) is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea , south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and
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#17327755395356604-421: The African Plate and its collision with the European Plate then caused the Alpine Orogeny , beginning in the late Mesozoic. The band of mountains created extends from Spain to Turkey in a roughly east–west direction and includes the Alps. The Apennines are much younger, extend from northwest to southeast, and are not a displacement of the Alpine chain. The key evidence of the difference is the geologic behavior of
6731-538: The Apennine range, and so are Cilento hills on the west. On the converse the promontory of Mount Gargano , on the east, is completely isolated, and so are the Campanian volcanic arc near Naples . The district is traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to Benevento and on to Avellino , and from south-west to northeast by the railways from Caianello via Isernia to Campobasso and Termoli, from Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera Inferiore and Avellino to Rocchetta Sant'Antonio,
6858-408: The Arabs failed to make permanent gains. They returned to Syria with their booty. Raids seeking loot continued until the mid-8th century. The Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II moved from Constantinople to Syracuse in 660. The following year he launched an assault from Sicily against the Lombard Duchy of Benevento , which occupied most of southern Italy. Rumors that the capital of the empire
6985-494: The Athenian army and their ships, selling most of the survivors into slavery . The Greek kingdom of Syracuse controlled most of eastern Sicily while Carthage controlled the western side. The two cultures began to clash, leading to the Greek-Punic wars (between 580 and 265 BC). The Greek states had begun to make peace with the Roman Republic in 262 BC, before the Romans sought to annex Sicily as their republic's first province . Rome attacked Carthage's holdings in Sicily in
7112-409: The Burgundians settled in present-day Savoy in 443. The Vandals found themselves in a position to threaten Sicily – only 100 miles away from their North African bases. After taking Carthage, the Vandals, personally led by King Gaiseric , laid siege to Palermo in 440 as the opening act in an attempt to wrest the island from Roman rule. The Vandals made another attempt to take the island one year after
7239-435: The Calabrian southern Apennine Mountains extend along the northern coast of Sicily (the Sicilian Apennines, Italian Appennino siculo )— Pizzo Carbonara (6,493 feet (1,979 m)) being the highest peak. The number of vascular plant species in the Apennines has been estimated at 5,599. Of these, 728 (23.6%) are in the treeline ecotone . Hemicryptophytes predominate in the entire Apennine chain. The tree line ecotone
7366-565: The Cretaceous and Jurassic platform, are present in many parts of the promontory, mainly along the lowland border zones ( Cagnano Varano , Sannicandro , Apricena , Manfredonia ), and also one site inland near San Giovanni Rotondo . On the basis of physical stratigraphic relationships and of the presence of evident bounding surfaces, the Jurassic-Eocene succession can be subdivided into six major packages of sediments, which can be classified as second-order depositional sequences. The lower three sequences ( Callovian to Albian ) are represented by
7493-434: The Direttissima, the Great Apennine Tunnel, which at 18.5 kilometres (11.5 miles) is the longest entirely within Italy, although the Simplon Tunnel , which connects Italy and Switzerland, is longer. Automobile traffic is carried by the Autostrada del Sole, Route A1, which goes through numerous shorter tunnels, bypassing an old road, originally Roman, through Futa Pass. In December 2015, a new Route A1 called Variante di Valico
7620-429: The Environment Ministry of Italy, following the recommendations of the Apennines Park of Europe Project, has defined the Apennines System to include the mountains of north Sicily , a total distance of 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) . The system forms an arc enclosing the east of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas. The Apennines conserve some intact ecosystems that have survived human intervention. In these are some of
7747-434: The Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding. The railway from South Eufemia to Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian Peninsula , culminating in the Aspromonte (1,960 metres (6,420 ft)) to the east of Reggio di Calabria . In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant. Finally,
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#17327755395357874-411: The Late Bronze Age as it is defined in Greece and the Aegean. The people of the Apennine culture were alpine cattle herdsmen grazing their animals over the meadows and groves of mountainous central Italy. They lived in small hamlets located in defensible places. On the move between summer pastures they built temporary camps or lived in caves and rock shelters. Their range was not necessarily confined to
8001-414: The Ligurian Apennines are in Liguria . The etymology most frequently repeated, because of its semantic appropriateness, is that it derives from the Celtic penn , 'mountain', 'summit': A-penn-inus , which could have been assigned during the Celtic domination of north Italy in the 4th century BC or before. The name originally applied to the north Apennines. However historical linguists have never found
8128-410: The Normans invaded in 1061 and after taking Apulia and Calabria , Roger I occupied Messina with an army of 700 knights. In 1068, Roger I was victorious at Misilmeri . Most crucial was the siege of Palermo, whose fall in 1071 eventually resulted in all Sicily coming under Norman control. The conquest was completed in 1091 when they captured Noto the last Arab stronghold. Palermo continued to be
8255-487: The Riserva Naturale Statale Gola del Furlo, where Furlo Pass on the Via Flaminia is located. Both the Etruscans and the Romans constructed tunnels here. The Abruzzi Apennines, located in Abruzzo , Molise and southeastern Lazio , contain the highest peaks and most rugged terrain of the Apennines. They are known in history as the territory of the Italic peoples first defeated by the city of Rome . Coincidentally they exist in three parallel folds or chains surviving from
8382-410: The Romans used the Via Flaminia between Rome and Rimini . The montane distance between Florence in Tuscany and Bologna in Emilia-Romagna is shorter, but exploitation of it required the conquest of more rugged terrain, which was not feasible for the ancients. Railway lines were constructed over the mountains in the early 19th century but they were of low capacity and unimprovable. Since 1856,
8509-411: The Sele—joined by the Negro and Calore—on the west, and the Bradano , Basento , Agri, Sinni on the east, which flow into the gulf of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some 64 kilometres (40 mi). The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending
8636-497: The Sicanians to move back across Sicily and to settle in the middle of the island. Other minor Italic groups who settled in Sicily included the Ausones ( Aeolian Islands , Milazzo ) and the Morgetes of Morgantina . The Phoenician settlements in the western part of the island predate the arrival of Greek colonists. From about 750 BC, the Greeks began to live in Sicily ( Ancient Greek : Σικελία – Sikelia ), establishing many significant settlements. The most important colony
8763-453: The Thousand, an invasion led by Giuseppe Garibaldi , and a plebiscite. Sicily was given special status as an autonomous administrative division on 15 May 1946, 18 days before the 1946 Italian institutional referendum . Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria . To the north-east, it is separated from Calabria and the rest of the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina , about 3 km (1.9 mi) wide in
8890-439: The Tuscan Apennines. They extend to the upper Tiber River . The highest point is Monte Cimone at 2,165 m (7,103 ft). A separate branch, the Apuan Alps , goes southwest, bordering the coast south of La Spezia . Whether they are to be considered part of the Apennines is a matter of opinion; certainly, they are part of the Apennine System. Topographically only the valley of the River Serchio , which running parallel to
9017-504: The age of seven or eight until 17 or 18 Theodoric had become a Byzantine hostage; he resided in the great palace of Constantinople, was favored by Emperor Leo I ( r. 457–474 ) and learned to read, write and do arithmetic. After taking areas occupied by the Vandals in North Africa, Justinian I retook Italy as an ambitious attempt to recover the lost provinces in the West. The re-conquests marked an end to over 150 years of accommodating policies with tribal invaders. His first target
9144-511: The best examples of unspoiled coastal wilderness in Sicily. Marine Life of the Straits of Messina includes varieties of birds and marine life, including larger species such as greater flamingo and fin whale . The name Sicilia was given to the Roman province in 241 BC. It is named after the Sicels , who inhabited the eastern part of the island during the Iron Age . The ancient name of
9271-454: The best-preserved forests and montane grasslands in Europe, now protected by national parks and, within them, a high diversity of flora and fauna. These mountains are one of the last refuges of the big European predators such as the Italian wolf and the Marsican brown bear , now extinct in the rest of Central Europe . The mountains lend their name to the Apennine peninsula that forms
9398-541: The capital under the Normans . The Normans formed a small but violent ruling class. They destroyed many of the Arab towns in Sicily, and very few physical remains survive from the Arab era. The Norman Hauteville family appreciated and admired the rich and layered culture in which they now found themselves. They also introduced into Sicily their own culture, customs, and politics from Normandy . Many Normans in Sicily adopted
9525-775: The central and eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona . The chief rivers on the west are the Nera , with its tributaries the Velino and Salto, and the Aniene , both of which fall into the Tiber. On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow into the Adriatic , from which the highest points of the chain are some 20 km distant, such as the Tronto , Tordino, Vomano and others. The Pescara , which receives
9652-543: The church of Rome to that of Constantinople, placing the island within the eastern branch of the Church. In 826 Euphemius , the Byzantine commander in Sicily, having apparently killed his wife, forced a nun to marry him. Emperor Michael II caught wind of the matter and ordered general Constantine to end the marriage and cut off Euphemius' head. Euphemius rose up, killed Constantine, and then occupied Syracuse; he, in turn,
9779-716: The coast turns and exits into the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Pisa , separates the Apuan Alps from the Apennines; geologically the rock is of a slightly different composition, marble . The Roman marble industry was centered at Luna , and is now active in Carrara . As the Tuscan Apennines divide the peninsula between the Po Valley and the plains and hills of Tuscany and Lazio , transportation over them has been used to achieve political and economic unity. Historically
9906-461: The coasts, especially in the southwest, the climate is affected by the African currents and summers can be hot. Snow falls above 900 metres, but it can fall in the hills. The interior mountains, especially Nebrodi , Madonie , and Etna , enjoy a mountain climate, with heavy snowfalls during winter. The summit of Mount Etna is usually snow-capped from October to May. In the summer, the sirocco –
10033-628: The entire spectrum of sediments from platform to slope and basin, and the younger ones ( Cenomanian to Lutetian ) largely by slope and basin deposits. Probably the most typical and significant feature of the Gargano slope and basin setting is the presence of huge mega breccia bodies which, in terms of sequence stratigraphic terminology, can be interpreted as typical lowstand wedges. Apennine Mountains The Apennines or Apennine Mountains ( / ˈ æ p ə n aɪ n / AP -ə-nyne ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀπέννινα ὄρη or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; Latin : Appenninus or Apenninus Mons –
10160-529: The government, much remains to be done. They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the Abruzzi : Pliny ( Hist. Nat . xi. 240) praises the cheese of the Apennines. In the forests Italian wolves were frequent, and still are found, the flocks being protected against them by large sheep-dogs; Marsican brown bears , however, which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely disappeared. Nor are
10287-472: The growth of smallholdings , undermining the dominance of the latifundia . The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. The language spoken in Sicily under Arab rule was Siculo-Arabic and Arabic influence is present in some Sicilian words today. Although long extinct in Sicily, the language has developed into what is now the Maltese language on the islands of Malta today. A description of Palermo
10414-406: The habits and comportment of Muslim rulers and their Byzantine subjects in dress, language, literature, even to the extent of having palace eunuchs and, according to some accounts, a harem. While Roger I died in 1101, his wife Adelaide ruled until 1112 when their son Roger II of Sicily came of age. Having succeeded his brother Simon as Count of Sicily, Roger II was ultimately able to raise
10541-453: The highest and most notable peak. Other important mountain ranges include the Nebrodi , Madonie and Peloritani mountains ranges. Several rivers drain the island, most of which flow through the central area and enter the sea at the south of the island. The Salso flows through parts of Enna and Caltanissetta before entering the Mediterranean Sea at the port of Licata . To the east,
10668-544: The hills; their pottery has been found on the Capitoline Hill in Rome as well as on the islands mentioned above. The Apennines are divided into three sectors: northern ( Appennino settentrionale ), central ( Appennino centrale ), and southern ( Appennino meridionale ). A number of long hiking trails wind through the Apennines. Of note is European walking route E1 coming from northern Europe and traversing
10795-600: The invaders; Roman consul M. Valerian told the Roman Senate in 210 BC that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily". As the Roman Republic's granary , Sicily ranked as an important province, divided into two quaestorships : Syracuse to the east and Lilybaeum to the west. Roman rule introduced the Latin language to the island, which underwent a slow process of latinisation but Sicily remained largely Greek in
10922-524: The island (dating to the second half of the third millennium BC) seem to offer new insights into the culture of primitive Sicily. The impact of at least two influences is clear: the European one coming from the Northwest, and the Mediterranean influence of an eastern heritage. The original classical-era inhabitants of Sicily comprised three defined groups of the ancient peoples of Italy : the Sicani ,
11049-561: The island is Trinacria (Greek Τρινακρία "having three headlands") for its triangular shape, likely a re-interpretation of earlier ( Homeric ) Thrinacia . The Greek name was rendered as Trīnācrĭa in classical Latin ( Virgil , Ovid ). Humans first colonized Sicily towards the end of the Late Pleistocene , around 16,000 years ago, by people associated with the Epigravettian culture. Discoveries of dolmens on
11176-532: The island is from around 14,000 BC. By around 750 BC, Sicily had three Phoenician and a dozen Greek colonies along its coasts, becoming one of the centers of Magna Graecia . The Sicilian Wars of 580–265 BC were fought between the Carthaginians and Greeks, and the Punic Wars of 264–146 BC were fought between Rome and Carthage. The Roman province of Sicilia ended with the fall of the Roman Empire in
11303-609: The island was turned into an agricultural region. This gradually dried the climate, leading to a decline in rainfall and the drying of rivers. The central and southwest provinces are practically devoid of forest. In Northern Sicily, there are three important forests; near Mount Etna, in the Nebrodi Mountains and in the Bosco della Ficuzza Natural Reserve near Palermo . The Nebrodi Mountains Regional Park, established on 4 August 1993 and covering 86,000 hectares (210,000 acres),
11430-403: The island. The Sicilian wolf ( Canis lupus cristaldii ) was an endemic wolf subspecies that was driven to extinction in the 20th century. During the Late Pleistocene , a species of dwarf elephant , Palaeoloxodon mnaidriensis inhabited the island, with its latest records on Sicily dating to around 20,000 years ago. The Riserva naturale dello Zingaro (Zingaro Natural Reserve) is one of
11557-624: The island. Linguistically, the island shifted from being one-third Greek- and two-thirds Arabic-speaking at the time of the Norman conquest to becoming fully Latinised . In terms of religion the island became completely Roman Catholic (bearing in mind that until 1054 the Churches owing allegiance to the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople belonged to one Church); Sicily before the Norman conquest
11684-645: The junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta, Bari, and Taranto ) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as the railways: the Via Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi , while the Via Traiana ran nearly to Troia (near Foggia) and thence to Bari. The valley of the Ofanto , which runs into the Adriatic close to Barletta , marks
11811-524: The largest city, Syracuse, held out until 878 and the Greek city of Taormina fell in 962. It was not until 965 that all of Sicily was conquered by the Arabs . In the 11th-century Byzantine armies carried out a partial reconquest of the island under George Maniakes , but it was their Norman mercenaries who would eventually complete the island's reconquest at the end of the century. The Arabs initiated land reforms , which increased productivity and encouraged
11938-473: The largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy , being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius . In Greek mythology , the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus , the god of the sky. Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea , to the northeast of mainland Sicily form
12065-579: The lengths of the northern and central Apennines. The Grand Italian Trail begins in Trieste and after winding through the Alpine arc traverses the entire Apennine system, Sicily and Sardinia. The northern Apennines consist of three subchains : the Ligurian ( Appennino ligure ), Tuscan-Emilian ( Appennino tosco-emiliano ), and Umbrian Apennines ( Appennino umbro ). The Ligurian Apennines border
12192-462: The mainland Apennines . The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast. In the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains , 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur -producing area throughout the 19th century, but have declined since the 1950s. Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. This
12319-508: The major part of Italy. They are mostly verdant, although one side of the highest peak, Corno Grande , is partially covered by Calderone glacier , the only glacier in the Apennines. The eastern slopes down to the Adriatic Sea are steep, whilst the western slopes form foothills on which most of the towns of peninsular Italy are located. The mountains tend to be named after the province or provinces in which they are located; for example
12446-649: The mountains bend away to the southeast. The upper Bormida can be reached by a number of roads proceeding inland at a right angle to the coast southwest of Savona , the chief one being the Autostrada Torino-Savona. They ascend to the Bocchetta di Altare , sometimes called Colle di Cadibona , 436 m (1,430 ft), the border between the Ligurian Alps along the coast to the west and the Ligurian Apennines. A bronze plaque fixed to
12573-637: The name of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Emperor. The Vandals kept a toehold in Lilybaeum , a port on the west coast. They lost this in 491 after making one last attempt to conquer the island from this port. The Ostrogothic conquest of Sicily (and of Italy as a whole) under Theodoric the Great began in 488. The Byzantine Emperor Zeno had appointed Theodoric as a military commander in Italy. The Goths were Germanic, but Theodoric fostered Roman culture and government and allowed freedom of religion. In 461 from
12700-605: The name. This view has the word originating in Latium inconsistently with the theory of the northern origin. None of these derivations is accepted unquestionably. The Apennine culture is a technology complex in central and southern Italy from the Italian Middle Bronze Age (15th–14th centuries BC). In the mid-20th century the Apennine was divided into Proto-, Early, Middle and Late sub- phases , but now archaeologists prefer to consider as "Apennine" only
12827-512: The new Ostrogoth king Totila counterattacked, moving down the Italian peninsula, plundering and conquering Sicily in 550. Totila was defeated and killed in the Battle of Taginae by Byzantine general Narses in 552 but Italy was in ruins. At the time of the reconquest Greek was still the predominant language spoken on the island. Sicily was invaded by the Arab forces of Caliph Uthman in 652, but
12954-587: The north and the Abruzzi Apennines ( Appennino abruzzese ) in the south. It extends from Bocca Serriola pass in the north to Forlì pass in the south. The west border of the Umbria-Marche Apennines (or Appennino umbro-marchigiano )) runs through Cagli . They extend south to the Tronto River, the south border of the ONA. The highest peak, Monte Vettore , at 2,478 m (8,130 ft),
13081-511: The north, and about 16 km (9.9 mi) wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km (170 mi) long measured as a straight line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km (110 mi); total coast length is estimated at 1,484 km (922 mi). The total area of the island is 25,711 km (9,927 sq mi), while the Autonomous Region of Sicily (which includes
13208-649: The northern termination of the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata ), which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basento (on the east)—which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via Potenza to Metaponto —the second range begins to run due north and south as far as the plain of Sibari . The highest point is the Monte Pollino 2,233 metres (7,325 ft). The chief rivers are
13335-750: The ornamental pottery style of the later phase of Middle Bronze Age (BM3). This phase is preceded by the Grotta Nuova facies (central Italy) and by the Protoapennine B facies (southern Italy) and succeeded by the Subapennine facies of 13th-century ("Bronzo Recente"). Apennine pottery is a burnished ware incised with spirals, meanders and geometrical zones, filled with dots or transverse dashes. It has been found on Ischia island in association with LHII and LHIII pottery and on Lipari in association with LHIIIA pottery, which associations date it to
13462-541: The sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the granite mountains of Calabria begin. The first group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulfs of South Eufemia and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is 1,930 metres (6,330 ft) (the Botte Donato ). The forests which covered it in ancient times supplied
13589-794: The settlers built many temples throughout Sicily, including several in the Valley of the Temples at Agrigento . Politics on the island became intertwined with those of Greece; Syracuse became desired by the Athenians who set out on the Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BC) during the Peloponnesian War . Syracuse gained Sparta and Corinth as allies and, as a result, defeated the Athenian expedition. The victors destroyed
13716-437: The smaller surrounding islands of Lipari , Egadi , Ustica , and Pantelleria ) has an area of 27,708 km (10,698 sq mi). The terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the mountain ranges of Madonie , 2,000 m (6,600 ft), Nebrodi , 1,800 m (5,900 ft), and Peloritani , 1,300 m (4,300 ft), are an extension of
13843-568: The state railway system, highly developed on the coastal plain, now traverses the mountains routinely through a number of railway tunnels, such as the one at Giovi Pass . The southeastern border of the Ligurian Apennines is the Fiume Magra , which projects into the Tyrrhenian Sea south of La Spezia , and the Fiume Taro , which runs in the opposite direction to join the Po. The divide between
13970-622: The status of the island to a kingdom in 1130, along with his other holdings, which included the Maltese Islands and the Duchies of Apulia and Calabria . Roger II appointed the powerful Greek George of Antioch to be his "emir of emirs" and continued the syncretism of his father. During this period, the Kingdom of Sicily was prosperous and politically powerful, becoming one of the wealthiest states in all of Europe—even wealthier than
14097-784: The three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may be named the Matese , the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto 2,050 metres (6,725 ft). The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or Garigliano with its tributary the Sacco, the Volturno , Sebeto, Sarno, on the north the Trigno, Biferno and Fortore . Daunian mountains , in Apulia , are connected with
14224-475: The time when the culture was still heavily Arab and Greek. Governance was by rule of law which promoted justice. Muslims, Jews, Byzantine Greeks , Lombards, and Normans worked together fairly amicably. During this time many extraordinary buildings were constructed. However this situation changed as the Normans imported immigrants from Normandy , England , Lombardy, Piedmont, Provence and Campania to secure
14351-794: The two upper river valleys is the Cisa Pass . Under it (in two tunnels) runs the Autostrada della Cisa between Spezia and Parma . Starting at Cisa Pass , the mountain chain turns further to the southeast, to cross the peninsula along the border between the Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany regions. They are named the Tuscan–Emilian Apennines west of the Futa Pass and the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines east of it, or just
14478-745: The valley of the Aterno to Sulmona. In ancient times the Via Salaria , Via Caecilia and Via Tiburtina all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast . The volcanic mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini , part of the Volscian chain, by the valleys of the Sacco and Liri . In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley,
14605-417: The valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia, which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia [ it ] , a branch of the Via Traiana , ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum . At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile and Crati flow to
14732-419: The water of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water elsewhere. The Apennines are home to twelve Italian national parks : the Appennino Tosco-Emiliano National Park , the Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park , the Monti Sibillini National Park , the Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park , the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park , the Maiella National Park ,
14859-413: The west; Val Demone in the northeast; and Val di Noto in the southeast. As dhimmis , that is as members of a protected class of approved monotheists, the Eastern Orthodox Christians were allowed freedom of religion , but had to pay a tax, the jizya (in lieu of the obligatory alms tax, the zakat , paid by Muslims), and were restricted from active participation in public affairs. By the 11th century,
14986-404: The wild goats called rotae , spoken of by Marcus Terentius Varro ( Rerum rusticarum II. i. 5), which may have been either Pyrenean chamois or steinbock , to be found. Brigandage appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the more remote parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently. An inscription found near the Furlo pass was set up in AD 246 by an evocatus Augusti (a member of
15113-413: The wind from the Sahara – can be felt. Rainfall is scarce, and in some provinces a water crisis can occur. According to the Regional Agency for Waste and Water, on 10 August 1999, the weather station of Catenanuova (EN) recorded an unofficial maximum temperature of 48.5 °C (119 °F). On 11 August 2021, a new highest temperature record for Europe with a reading of 48.8 °C (119.8 °F)
15240-404: Was Sicily, leading to the Gothic War (535–554) between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire . Justinian's general Belisarius was assigned to the military task. Sicily was used as a base for the Byzantines to conquer the rest of Italy, including Naples , Rome, and Milan . It took five years before the Ostrogoth capital Ravenna fell in 540. However,
15367-444: Was defeated and driven out to North Africa. He offered the rule of Sicily to Ziyadat Allah , the Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia , in return for a position as a general and a place of safety. A Muslim army was then sent to the island consisting of Arabs , Berbers , Cretans , and Persians . The Muslim conquest of Sicily was a see-saw affair and met with fierce resistance. It took over a century for Byzantine Sicily to be conquered;
15494-560: Was given by Ibn Hawqal , an Arab merchant who visited Sicily in 950. A walled suburb, called the Al-Kasr (the palace), is the centre of Palermo to this day, with the great Friday mosque on the site of the later Roman cathedral. The suburb of al-Khalisa (modern Kalsa ) contained the Sultan 's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices, and a private prison. Ibn Hawqal estimated there were 7,000 butchers trading in 150 shops. The Muslim rule introduced lemons, oranges and sugar cane, as well as cotton and mulberries for sericulture, and introduced
15621-524: Was in Syracuse ; others grew up at Akragas , Selinunte , Gela , Himera and Zancle . The native Sicani and Sicel peoples became absorbed into the Hellenic culture with relative ease, and the area became part of Magna Graecia along with the coasts of the south of the Italian peninsula , which the Greeks had also colonised. Sicily had fertile soils, and the successful introduction of olives and grape vines fostered profitable trading. Greek culture significantly centered around Greek religion , and
15748-402: Was opened after many years of construction consisting of major tunnels (the longest being the new 8.6-kilometre (5.3-mile) 'Tunel Base') and new overpasses, shortening the traveling time between Florence and Bologna by road. The Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park is in the southern part of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines. The southern limit of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines
15875-417: Was set near the city of Syracuse . Total precipitation is highly variable, generally increasing with elevation. In general, the southern and southeast coast receives the least rainfall (less than 50 cm (20 in)), and the northern and northeastern highlands the most (over 100 cm (39 in)). Sicily is an often-quoted example of man-made deforestation , which has occurred since Roman times when
16002-403: Was to be moved to Syracuse probably cost Constans his life, as he was assassinated in 668. His son Constantine IV succeeded him. A brief usurpation in Sicily by Mezezius was quickly suppressed by this emperor. Contemporary accounts report that the Greek language was widely spoken on the island during this period. In 740 Emperor Leo III the Isaurian transferred Sicily from the jurisdiction of
16129-445: Was under the nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid Caliphate . During the reign of this dynasty revolts by Byzantine Sicilians continuously occurred especially in the east where Greek-speaking Christians predominated. Parts of the island were re-occupied before revolts were quashed. Under the Arab rule the island was divided in three administrative regions , or "vals", roughly corresponding to the three "points" of Sicily: Val di Mazara in
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