Gidaya ( Harari : ጊዳየ Gidayä ; Somali : Gidaaya), also known as Gedaya or Jidaya was a historical Muslim state located around present-day eastern Ethiopia . The state was positioned on the Harar plateau and a district of Adal region alongside Hargaya and Hubat polities. It neighbored other states in the medieval era including Ifat , Mora , Hadiya , Fatagar , Biqulzar , Fedis and Kwelgora .
146-666: According to Dr. Lapiso Delebo, Gidaya was one of the Islamic states that had developed in the Horn of Africa from the ninth to fourteenth centuries. The people of Gidaya were reportedly a sub clan of the Harla people . The earliest mention of Gidaya state is during its conflict with the Makhzumi dynasty in 1266. In the thirteenth century the Arab writer al-Mufaḍḍal mentions the king of Gidaya
292-587: A referendum was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also reports of widespread vote rigging , with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining
438-553: A series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office. The Dervish existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. The Turks named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories
584-726: A European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel , who had just inherited the throne from his father. This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the Adal Sultanate General and Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called " Gurey " or " Grañ ", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule. This Ethiopian–Adal War
730-552: A Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour. During this period, Adal emerged as a centre of Muslim resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom. Adal would thereafter govern all of
876-539: A T-shaped symbol. Additionally, archaeological excavations at Tiya have yielded tombs. As of 1997, 118 stelae were reported in the area. Along with the stelae in the Hadiya Zone , the structures are identified by local residents as Yegragn Dingay or "Gran's stone", in reference to Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"), ruler of the Adal Sultanate . Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi
1022-648: A UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER ) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War . From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura situated in modern-day Djibouti was called Obock and
1168-460: A colony of Italy . In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a province of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland . By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians. The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941, and took over
1314-561: A customs house and galleys patrolling the Bab-el-Mandeb . By the 17th century, when the Ottomans were compelled to retire from Zeyla, the town and its environs such as Tadjoura fell under the control of the rulers of Mocha and Sana'a , who had leased the territory to a Sana'a merchant called Sayyid Al-Barr. Zeyla was subsequently ruled by an Emir, whom Mordechai Abir suggested had "some vague claim to authority over all of
1460-607: A national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change. Zenawi died in 2012, but his Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains
1606-739: A number of lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among these are Lake Asale (116 m below sea level) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression . The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho, Dabbahu , Afdera and Erta Ale . In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to 43 °C (82 to 109 °F), except at higher elevations along
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#17327731316721752-715: A one-party communist state , which was called the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia . In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the Somalia government of Siad Barre sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia . By September 1977, the Somali army controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from
1898-412: A power-sharing agreement in 2000 between the ruling party and the opposition. Djibouti is a multi-ethnic nation with a population of 1,066,809 at the census held on 20 May 2024 ( the smallest in mainland Africa). French and Arabic are its two official languages; Afar and Somali are national languages. About 94% of Djiboutians adhere to Islam , which is the official religion and has been predominant in
2044-605: A primary crossing point for early hominins following a southern coastal route from East Africa to South and Southeast Asia . The Djibouti area has been inhabited since the Neolithic . According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic -speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley , or the Near East . Other scholars propose that
2190-550: A region of geopolitical and strategic importance, since it is situated along the southern boundary of the Red Sea ; extending hundreds of kilometres into the Gulf of Aden , Guardafui Channel , and Indian Ocean , it also shares a maritime border with the Arabian Peninsula . This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to
2336-579: A settlement at Sagallo in 1889 was promptly thwarted by French forces after just one month. In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region French Somaliland . The construction of the Imperial Ethiopian Railway west into Ethiopia turned the port of Djibouti into a boomtown of 15,000 at a time when Harar was the only city in Ethiopia to exceed that. Although
2482-582: A succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia . At its height, the Adal kingdom controlled large parts of modern-day Djibouti, Somaliland , Eritrea and Ethiopia. Between Djibouti City and Loyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae . The structures are associated with graves of rectangular shape flanked by vertical slabs, as also found in Tiya , central Ethiopia . The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with
2628-540: A united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later under suspicious circumstances. In 1966, France rejected the United Nations ' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence. In August of the same year, an official visit to the territory by then French President Charles de Gaulle ,
2774-482: A united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977. Hassan Gouled Aptidon , a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999). In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in
2920-702: A warning to the Mamluk ruler that if he did not stop the persecution of Christians in Egypt, he would retaliate against Muslims under his rule and would starve the peoples of Egypt by diverting the course of the Nile. According to Pankhurst, of the two threats, the diversion of Nile was an idle threat and the Egyptian sultan dismissed it because he likely realized this to be so. The fear that the Ethiopians might tamper with
3066-596: A worldwide figure and 1935's Time magazine Man of the Year . Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia during the East African Campaign in 1941. Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta , the Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam , deposed him, and established
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#17327731316723212-571: Is named for its capital, the City of Djibouti . The etymology of the name is disputed. There are several theories and legends about its origin, varying based on ethnicity. One theory derives it from the Afar word gabouti , meaning "plate", possibly referring to the area's geographical features. Another connects it to gabood , meaning "upland/plateau". Djibouti could also mean "Land of Tehuti " or "Land of Thoth ( Egyptian : Djehuti / Djehuty )", after
3358-411: Is sometimes used to be inclusive of neighbouring southeast African countries to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of the Horn of Africa from narrower peninsular definitions. The name Horn of Africa is sometimes shortened to HoA . Quite commonly it is referred to simply as "the Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially termed Horn Africans or Horners . Regional studies on
3504-806: Is the Aden Ridge along the coast of Saudi Arabia . The eastern boundary is the Central Indian Ridge , the northern portion of which is also known as the Carlsberg Ridge . The southern boundary is the Southwest Indian Ridge . Extensive glaciers once covered the Simien and Bale Mountains but melted at the beginning of the Holocene . The mountains descend in a huge escarpment to the Red Sea and more steadily to
3650-416: Is usually sunny and dry, but the short ( belg ) rains occur from February to April and the big ( meher ) rains from mid-June to mid-September. The Danakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has
3796-905: The Barbara civilization . The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam" and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. During the Middle Ages , several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the Adal Sultanate , the Ajuran Sultanate , the Ethiopian Empire , the Zagwe dynasty , and the Sultanate of the Geledi . The Sultanate of Showa , established in 896,
3942-594: The Ancient Egyptians , Phoenicians , Mycenaeans , Babylonians and Romans . The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as Regio Aromatica . In the classical era , several flourishing Somali city-states such as Opone , Mosylon and Malao also competed with the Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the rich Indo - Greco-Roman trade. The birth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on
4088-529: The Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu , Berbera , Zeila , Barawa and Merka , which were part of
4234-792: The Banu Hashim clan, in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia . The sultanate was governed by the Reer Guled branch of the Eidagale sub-clan established by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi . The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Somaliland . According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo,
4380-662: The Egyptian moon god. Under French administration, from 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura was called " Obock ". While 1897 to 1967 the area was known as French Somaliland (French: Côte française des Somalis ), and from 1967 to 1977 as the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas (French: Territoire français des Afars et des Issas ). The Bab-el-Mandeb region has often been considered
4526-669: The Ethiopian Empire . In 1270, the Amhara nobleman Yekuno Amlak , who claimed descent from the last Aksumite king and ultimately the Queen of Sheba , overthrew the Agaw Zagwe dynasty at the Battle of Ansata , ushering his reign as Emperor of Ethiopia . While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the empire managed to expand significantly during the crusades of Amda Seyon I (1314–1344) and his successors, becoming
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4672-634: The Ethiopian-Adal war . Ulrich Braukamper states Gidaya may be associated with Giri clan of the Somali mentioned in the Futuh al Habasha who today live around Jigjiga , the presumed location of Gidaya state. Towns within Gidaya were reportedly surrounded by ramparts by the late sixteenth century. The name Gidaya still exists as a surname in Harar , and according to researcher Mahdi Gadid, Gidaya state
4818-453: The Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a British military administration . Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, a trusteeship of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular referendum ,
4964-562: The Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live. The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on
5110-677: The Herto skull (from ca. 160,000 ago) have been found in the region, both in Ethiopia. The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift dated to more than 279,000 years ago "in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate East Africa as a source of modern cultures and biology." According to the Southern Dispersal scenario,
5256-589: The House of Gareen , also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances. The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the Cushitic -speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled
5402-719: The Indian Ocean . Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 km (1,400 sq mi) and it is a territory of Yemen. The lowlands of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical monsoons that give seasonal rains to the Sahel and the Sudan blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and northern part of Somalia, with
5548-501: The Red Sea coast of Eritrea and Sudan is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. Dʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia , which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital probably at Yeha , the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows , grew millet , and made iron tools and weapons. After
5694-418: The Sahil , but whose real authority did not extend very far beyond the walls of the town." Assisted by cannons and a few mercenaries armed with matchlocks , the governor succeeded in fending off incursions by both the disunited nomads of the interior, who had penetrated the area, as well as brigands in the Gulf of Aden. Although Tadjoura claimed complete independence, it was considered subordinate to Zeyla as
5840-453: The Somali Peninsula , is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa . Located on the easternmost part of the African mainland, it is the fourth largest peninsula in the world. It is composed of Somalia (including the de facto independent Somaliland and Puntland ), Djibouti , Ethiopia , and Eritrea . Although not common, broader definitions include parts or all of Kenya and Sudan . It has been described as
5986-521: The Somali wild ass , the desert warthog , the hamadryas baboon , the Somali pygmy gerbil , the ammodile , and the Speke's pectinator . The Grevy's zebra is the unique wild equid of the region. There are predators such as spotted hyena , striped hyena and African leopard . The endangered painted hunting dog had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region. Some important bird species of
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6132-470: The USSR , Cuba , South Yemen , East Germany and North Korea , including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by
6278-414: The Yejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo. The Sultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier Ibrahim Adeer , who had defeated various vassals of the Ajuran Empire and established the House of Gobroon . The dynasty reached its apex under
6424-410: The constitution drafted in 1960 was ratified. Due to its longstanding ties with the Arab world , the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of the Arab League . During the same year, the nation's former socialist administration also chaired the Organization of African Unity , the predecessor of the African Union . In 1991, the Somali Civil War broke out, which saw the dissolving of
6570-408: The continent , was another factor that compelled observers to doubt that the French would attempt to hold on to the territory. A third independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977. The previous referendums were held in 1958 and 1967 , which rejected independence . This referendum backed independence from France . A landslide 98.8% of
6716-463: The 2,434 riflemen deployed, 517 were killed and 1,200 wounded in Europe. After the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s, constant border skirmishes occurred between French forces in French Somaliland and Italian forces in Italian East Africa . In June 1940, during the early stages of World War II , France fell and the colony was then ruled by the pro- Axis Vichy (French) government . British and Commonwealth forces fought
6862-453: The Afars largely opting to remain associated with France. The referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities. Shortly after the plebiscite was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas . Announcement of the plebiscite results sparked civil unrest, including several deaths. France also increased its military force along
7008-502: The Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. Cut stones dated about 3 million years old have been collected in the area of Lake Abbe . In the Gobaad plain (between Dikhil and Lake Abbe), the remains of the extinct elephant Palaeoloxodon recki were also discovered, visibly butchered using basalt tools found nearby. These remains would date from 1.4 million years BCE. Subsequently, other similar sites were identified as probably
7154-409: The Commander of the patrol sloop L'Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura . Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with Great Britain to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces from Ethiopia and
7300-439: The Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of aerial bombardment . As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a protectorate of Britain. Italy faced similar opposition from Somali Sultans and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until
7446-415: The Egyptian garrison at Sagallo to retire to Zeila . The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed. French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent in Aden , Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests in Zeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction. On 14 April 1884
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#17327731316727592-466: The Emperor. According to Mordechai Abir, Sa'ad ad-Din II raids against the Ethiopian empire were largely hit-and-run type, which hardened the resolve of the Christian ruler to end the Muslim rule in their east. In the early 15th century, the Ethiopian Emperor who was likely Dawit I collected a large army to respond. He branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and invaded Ifat. After much war, Ifat's troops were defeated in 1403 on
7738-402: The Ethiopians. The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I , who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the Second Italo-Abyssinian War , after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to Italian East Africa . Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the League of Nations , delivering an address that made him
7884-420: The Fleuriot de Langle to colonize the south of the Gulf of Tadjoura . On March 26, 1885, the French signed another treaty with the Issas where the latter would become a protectorate under the French. It was established between 1883 and 1887, after the ruling Somalis and Afar sultans each signed a treaty with the French . An attempt by Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov , a Russian adventurer, to establish
8030-401: The French Ambassador to Somalia, Jean Guery, to be exchanged against two activists of FLCS members who were both serving life terms in mainland France . He was exchanged for the two FLCS members in Aden , South Yemen . The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which participated in its financing. The FLCS evolved its demands between
8176-421: The Gendarmerie Nationale Intervention Group over a bus hijacking en route to Loyada . This event, by showing the difficulties of maintaining the French colonial presence in Djibouti, was an important step in the independence of the territory . The likelihood of a third referendum appearing successful for the French had grown even dimmer. The prohibitive cost of maintaining the colony , France's last outpost on
8322-461: The Gobaad Plain. The site's ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Ma'layba in Southern Arabia . Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle were present by around 3,500 years ago. Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho . Handoga , dated to
8468-433: The Harar plateau, Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din subsequently fled to Zeila where Ethiopian soldiers pursued him. Al-Maqrizi narrates: the Amhara pursued Sa'd al-Din as far as the peninsula of Zeila , in the ocean, where he took refuge. The Amhara besieged him there, and deprived him of water; at last one of the impious showed them a way by which they could reach him. When they came upon him a battle ensued; and after three days
8614-462: The Horn are the black boubou , the golden-winged grosbeak , the Warsangli linnet , and the Djibouti spurfowl . Djibouti Djibouti , officially the Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa , bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the east. The country has an area of 23,200 km (8,958 sq mi). In antiquity,
8760-413: The Horn of Africa are carried out in fields of Ethiopian studies and Somali studies . This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. Some of the earliest Homo sapiens fossils, the Omo remains (from ca. 233,000 years ago) and
8906-481: The Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker " M35 / 215 " Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the Afrasian language family with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago. The area comprising Somalia , Djibouti ,
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#17327731316729052-585: The Imam, each year at the time of the fairs, a perpetual annuity which the governor of Zeyla would be responsible for extracting. Tadjourah's vizier Mahammed Mahammed renewed it for the benefit of the Turkish pasha of Al-Hodeida although the Ottoman Empire never exercised political right over Tadjoura. Mohammed Al-Barr would later be succeeded as governor of Zeila and its dependencies( Sahil ) by Sharmake Ali Salih . Muhammad Ali , Pasha of Egypt , came to control Yemen , Harar , Gulf of Tadjoura with Zeila and Berbera included. The Governor Abou Baker ordered
9198-494: The Muslim territories in the Horn of Africa in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to consolidate the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period. In 1320 a conflict between the Christian monarch and Muslim Ifat leaders began. The conflict was precipitated by Al-Nasir Muhammad of Egypt . The Mamluk ruler Al-Nasir Muhammad was persecuting Christian Copts and destroying Coptic churches. The Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I sent an envoy with
9344-441: The Nile, states Pankhurst, was nevertheless to remain with Egyptians for many centuries. Sabr ad-Din's rebellion was not an attempt to achieve independence, but to become emperor of a Muslim Ethiopia. Amda Seyon's royal chronicle states that Sabr ad-Din proclaimed: In fact, after his first incursion, Sabr ad-Din appointed governors for nearby and neighboring provinces such as Fatagar and Alamalé, as well as far-off provinces in
9490-435: The Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the territory known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt (or Ta Netjeru , meaning "God's Land"). The first mention of the Land of Punt dates to the 25th century BC. The Puntites were a nation of people who had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the reign of the 5th dynasty Pharaoh Sahure and the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut . According to
9636-417: The Red Sea in order to obtain bitumen , copper, carved amulets, naptha and other goods transported overland and down the Dead Sea to Elat at the head of the gulf of Aqaba where they were joined with frankincense and myrrh coming north both by sea and overland along trade routes through the mountains running north along the east coast of the Red Sea. Together with northern Ethiopia, Somaliland, Eritrea and
9782-443: The Rift Valley. Geologically, the Horn and Yemen once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the Gulf of Aden rifted and separated the Horn region from the Arabian Peninsula . The Somali Plate is bounded on the west by the East African Rift, which stretches south from the triple junction in the Afar Depression , and an undersea continuation of the rift extending southward offshore. The northern boundary
9928-398: The Somaliland littoral. The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from Tadjoura . Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop to Tadjoura the following night. The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti state were established as the first French establishment in the Horn of Africa during the Scramble for Africa . The March 11, 1862, agreement the Afar sultan , Raieta Dini Ahmet, signed in Paris
10074-481: The Southern route of the Out of Africa migration occurred in the Horn of Africa through the Bab el Mandeb . Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea, indicating
10220-425: The ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy . Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers, including a lot of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family,
10366-435: The area at the bottom of Goubet (Dankalélo, not far from Devil's Island), circular stone structures and fragments of painted pottery have also been discovered. Previous investigators have also reported a fragmentary maxilla, attributed to an older form of Homo sapiens and dated to c. 250 Ka, from the valley of the Dagadlé Wadi. Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma , an inland lake area on
10512-434: The area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950. The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1962 . This
10658-1012: The aromatic plants found there, or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. In ancient and medieval times, the Horn of Africa was referred to as the Bilad al Barbar ("Land of the Berbers"). It is also known as the Somali Peninsula, or in the Somali language as Geeska Afrika or Jasiiradda Soomaali . In other local languages it is called "Horn of Africa" or the "African Horn", in Amharic የአፍሪካ ቀንድ yäafrika qänd, in Arabic القرن الأفريقي al-qarn al-'afrīqī , in Oromo Gaanfaa Afrikaa , and in Tigrinya ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ q'ärnī afīrīqa . The Horn of Africa Region consists of
10804-714: The battalion's companies were awarded the Croix de Guerre, and the RICM flag received the Legion of Honor. Reorganized as a combat unit by December 1916, the battalion fought at Chemin des Dames in May 1917 and later in significant battles such as Malmaison, the 3rd Battle of the Aisne, and the 2nd Battle of the Marne, earning multiple citations and the right to wear the Croix de Guerre fourragère. Of
10950-517: The century. The earliest reference to Adal was following the collapse of the Makhzumi dynasty in July 1288 when 'Ali Baziyu led a campaign in Adal and Mora which was concluded by the killing of the lords of Adal and Mora , the victorious Sultan then annexed Adal and Mora to his Kingdom. Adal is also mentioned by Marco Polo in 1295 as a state continuously in conflict with Abyssinia. According to fourteenth century Arab historian Al Umari , Adal
11096-714: The city. A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of France in 1944. In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to remain with France or to be an independent country. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident French. There were also allegations of widespread vote rigging . The majority of those who had voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining
11242-426: The climate was already beginning to change, with sources of fresh water becoming more scarce. Engravings show dromedaries (animal of arid zones), some of which are ridden by armed warriors. The sedentary people now returned to a nomadic life. Stone tumuli of various shapes and sheltering graves dating from this period have been unearthed all over the territory. The earliest recorded ancient Egyptian expedition to Punt
11388-506: The coast of Somalia . Districts within Adal included Hubat , Gidaya and Hargaya . It also occasionally included the Hadiya Sultanate . The region was mostly located in modern day Awdal and had Zeila as a capital city but also controlled other interior towns like Abasa or Dakkar extending into the Harar plateau to the south-east and modern day Djibouti in the west. The Walashma dynasty are regarded by scholars as
11534-532: The commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India , Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency . The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula , eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom . Under Ezana (fl. 320–360),
11680-434: The diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing . Ethiopian and Eritrean agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass teff ( Poa abyssinica ) between 4000 and 1000 BCE. Teff is used to make the flatbread injera /taita. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage. Historian Christopher Ehret , cited genetic evidence which had identified
11826-565: The domestic front. Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous Puntland region in northern Somalia. The Sultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid . Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and
11972-559: The dominant force in East Africa . In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives. In 1428, the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon , who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip. The first continuous relations with
12118-465: The earliest cities in the world to embrace Islam , shortly after the hijra . Zeila 's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi , an Arab Muslim scholar and traveler, wrote that the Kingdom of Adal was a small wealthy kingdom and that Zeila served as the headquarters for the kingdom, which dated back to the beginning of
12264-510: The early 1990s, tensions over government representation led to armed conflict between Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress (PRP) party and the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD) opposition group. The impasse ended in a power-sharing agreement in 2000. In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh , the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977,
12410-475: The eastern coast, a strong upwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2.0 in). The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At Addis Ababa , which ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 m (7,218 to 8,530 ft), maximum temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and minimum 4 °C (39.2 °F). The weather
12556-669: The eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and the Shabele , both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands . About 220 mammals are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened species of the region, there are several antelopes such as the beira , the dibatag , the silver dikdik and the Speke's gazelle . Other remarkable species include
12702-600: The eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II , would return to Adal from his exile in Arabia to restore his father's throne. He would proclaim himself "king of Adal" after his return from Yemen to the Harar plateau and established his new capital at Dakkar . Sabr ad-Din III and his brothers would defeat an army of 20,000 men led by an unnamed commander hoping to restore the "lost Amhara rule". The victorious king then returned to his capital, but gave
12848-479: The eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq 's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ( Somali : Boqor Haaruun ) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar ( Somali : Dhuux Baraar ) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst
12994-670: The electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence . Hassan Gouled Aptidon , an Issa (ethnic Somali) politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999). During its first year, Djibouti joined the Organization of African Unity (now the African Union ), the Arab League , and the United Nations. In 1986,
13140-618: The fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the Aksumite Kingdom , which was able to reunite the area. The Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the Eritrea and Ethiopian highlands , which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in
13286-534: The formation of multiple rump states such as Aussa , Tadjourah and Rahayto. Mamluk Egypt being conquered by the Ottomans alarmed the Arabian merchants, who were afraid of these new Turkish conquerors hence they chose to travel towards Adal's shores. This was also followed by Indian merchants fleeing from the same enemy. The Ottomans noticing this sudden mass movement, hastidly occupied Zeyla and established
13432-490: The founders of the Ifat Sultanate. Ifat first emerged when Umar Ibn Dunyā-ḥawaz, later to be known as Sultan Umar Walasma , carved out his own kingdom and conquered the Sultanate of Shewa located in northern Hararghe . In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully imposed his rule on Hubat , Zeila and other Muslim states in the region. Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Walashma's military acts as an effort to consolidate
13578-428: The fourth millennium BCE, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths and plain ceramics used by early nomadic pastoralists with domesticated cattle. The site of Wakrita is a small Neolithic establishment located on a wadi in the tectonic depression of Gobaad in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa . The 2005 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of this region , which
13724-625: The frontier. During the 1960s, the struggle for independence was led by the Front for the Liberation of the Somali Coast (FLCS), who waged an armed struggle for independence with much of its violence aimed at French personnel. FLCS used to initiate few mounting cross-border operations into French Somaliland from Somalia and Ethiopia to attacks on French targets. On March 24, 1975, the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis kidnapped
13870-434: The historic cities in the region, such as Amud , Maduna , Abasa , Berbera , Zeila and Harar , flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous courtyard houses , mosques , shrines and walled enclosures . Under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II , Mansur ad-Din , Jamal ad-Din II , Shams ad-Din , General Mahfuz and Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi , Adalite armies continued
14016-476: The internationally recognized countries of Djibouti , Eritrea , Ethiopia , and Somalia . Geographically the protruding shape that resembles a "Horn" consists of the "Somali peninsula" and eastern part of Ethiopia. But the region encompasses also the rest of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. Broader definitions include Kenya and Sudan . The term Greater Horn Region (GHR) can additionally include South Sudan and Uganda . The term Greater Horn of Africa
14162-453: The island, revealing it as the "Land of the Gods, a region far to the east in the direction of the sunrise, blessed with products for religious purposes", where traders returned with gold, ivory, ebony , incense , aromatic resins, animal skins, live animals, eye-makeup cosmetics, fragrant woods, and cinnamon. During the reign of Queen Hatshepsut in the 15th century BC, ships regularly crossed
14308-430: The kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity , and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with Persia , Rome and China . Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense , myrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to
14454-623: The medieval historian al-Makrizi , Emperor Dawit I in 1403 pursued the Sultan of Adal , Sa'ad ad-Din II , to Zeila, where he killed the Sultan and sacked the city of Zeila . However, another contemporary source dates the death of Sa'ad ad-Din II to 1410, and credits Emperor Yeshaq with the slaying. His children and the remainder of the Walashma dynasty would flee to Yemen where they would live in exile until 1415. In 1415, Sabr ad-Din III ,
14600-519: The mysterious land of Punt. In the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt , Hatshepsut built a Red Sea fleet to facilitate trade between the head of the Gulf of Aqaba and points south as far as Punt to bring mortuary goods to Karnak in exchange for Nubian gold. Hatshepsut personally made the most famous ancient Egyptian expedition that sailed to Punt. Her artists revealing much about the royals, inhabitants, habitation and variety of trees on
14746-549: The nascent republic was also among the founding members of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development regional development organization. During the Ogaden War , influential Issa politicians envisioned a Greater Djibouti or "Issa-land", where Djibouti's borders would extend from the Red Sea to Dire Dawa . That dream was dashed towards the end of the war as Somali forces were routed from Ethiopia. In
14892-755: The neighboring Italians during the East African Campaign . In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse. In response, the British blockaded the port of Djibouti City but it could not prevent local French from providing information on the passing ship convoys. In 1942, about 4,000 British troops occupied
15038-509: The north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by Emperor Menelik II and Ras Gobena . From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.' He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to
15184-593: The north like Damot , Amhara , Angot , Inderta , Begemder , and Gojjam . He also threatened to plant khat at the capital, a stimulant used by Muslims but forbidden to Ethiopian Orthodox Christians . In 1376, Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din Abdul Muhammad , also called Sa'ad ad-Din II, succeeded his brother and came to power, who continued to attack the Abyssinian Christian army. He attacked regional chiefs such as at Zalan and Hadeya, who supported
15330-606: The oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region. Up to 4000 years BCE, the region benefited from a climate very different from the one it knows today and probably close to the Mediterranean climate . The water resources were numerous with lakes in Gobaad, lakes Assal and Abbé larger and resembling real bodies of water. The humans therefore lived by gathering, fishing and hunting. The region
15476-666: The order to his many followers to continue and extend the war against the Christians. The Emperor of Ethiopia Tewodros I was soon killed by the Adal Sultanate upon the return of Sa'ad ad-Din's heirs to the Horn of Africa. Sabr ad-Din III died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother Mansur ad-Din who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor Dawit I to Yedaya where according to al-Maqrizi , Sultan Mansur destroyed
15622-549: The population fell after the completion of the railwayline to Dire Dawa and the original company failed and required a government bail-out, the rail link allowed the territory to quickly supersede the caravan-based trade carried on at Zeila (then in the British area of Somaliland ) and become the premier port for coffee and other goods leaving southern Ethiopia and the Ogaden through Harar . The 6th Somali Marching Battalion
15768-509: The port for southern Ethiopia and the Ogaden . It was renamed the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967. A decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence . This officially marked the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti , named after its capital city . The new state joined the United Nations in its first year. In the early 1990s, tensions over government representation led to armed conflict , which ended in
15914-513: The principal maritime port for imports from and exports to neighboring Ethiopia . A burgeoning commercial hub, the nation is the site of various foreign military bases. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) regional body also has its headquarters in Djibouti City. Djibouti is officially known as the Republic of Djibouti . In local languages it is known as Gabuuti (in Afar ) and Jabuuti (in Somali ). The country
16060-477: The region for more than 1,000 years. The Somalis and Afar make up the two largest ethnic groups, with the former comprising the majority of the population. Both speak a language of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages . Djibouti is near some of the world's busiest shipping lanes, controlling access to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean . It serves as a key refuelling and transshipment center and
16206-666: The request of integration in a possible " Greater Somalia " influenced by the Somali government or the simple independence of the territory. In 1975 the African People's League for the Independence (LPAI) and FLCS met in Kampala , Uganda with several meeting later they finally opted for independence path, causing tensions with Somalia . In 1976, members of the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis which sought Djibouti's independence from France , also clashed with
16352-559: The result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season. In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 mm (79 in) per year, and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm (22 in). This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including Egypt . In the winter, the northeasterly trade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm (20 in). On
16498-666: The ruling political coalition in Ethiopia. The Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer . It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley , a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates . Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from
16644-495: The south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi , and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today. Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy
16790-632: The span of fourteen years the Imam was able to conquer the heartland of the country, wreaking havoc on the Christian nation. The Bahri Negash joined Emperor Gelawdewos and the Portuguese in the decisive Battle of Wayna Daga , where tradition states that Imam Ahmad was shot in the chest by a Portuguese musketeer named João de Castilho, who had charged alone into the Muslim lines and died. The wounded Imam
16936-692: The state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity , and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans. During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by Ali I of Yejju several successive descendants of him and Abba Seru Gwangul ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan
17082-613: The struggle against the Solomonic dynasty , a campaign historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash . Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars . Trading routes dating from
17228-527: The successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim , who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera wars , and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf , who forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute . The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of
17374-486: The sultan would received an annual stipend from the local governor. Abubakr Pasha explained to Vice-Admiral Alphonse Fleuriot de Langle that when the Imam of Sana'a still controlled the Yemeni coast, some soldiers sent to Tadjoura were one day massacred by the inhabitants of the city. The governor of Mocha then dispatched a new detachment to avenge them. Rather than suffer these reprisals, the city preferred to commit to paying
17520-458: The temple murals at Deir el-Bahari , the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati. The Adal (also Awdal , Adl , or Adel ) was centered around Zeila , its capital. It was established by the local Somali clans in the early 9th century. Zeila attracted merchants from around the world, contributing to the wealth of the city. Zeila is an ancient city and it was one of
17666-617: The territory formerly ruled by the Ifat Sultanate, as well as the land further east all the way from the Bab el Mandeb to Cape Guardafui, according to Leo Africanus. Adal is mentioned by name in the 14th century in the context of the battles between the Muslims of the Somali and Afar seaboard and the Abyssinian King Amda Seyon I 's Christian troops. Adal originally had its capital in the port city of Zeila, situated in
17812-563: The territory, together with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somaliland, was part of the Land of Punt . Nearby Zeila , now in Somaliland, was the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates. In the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established after the ruling Dir Somali and Afar sultans signed treaties with the French, and its railroad to Dire Dawa (and later Addis Ababa ) allowed it to quickly supersede Zeila as
17958-475: The union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the Puntland administration in the north. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular , Islamic or customary law , with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A Transitional Federal Government
18104-525: The water failed. Sa'd al Din was wounded in the forehead and fell to the ground, whereupon they pierced him with their swords. But he died happily, falling in God's cause. After Sa'ad ad-Din's death “the strength of the Muslims was abated”, as Maqrizi states, and then the Amhara settled in the country “and from the ravaged mosques and they made churches”. The followers of Islam were said to have been harassed for over twenty years. The sources disagree on which Ethiopian Emperor conducted this campaign. According to
18250-433: The western Awdal region. The polity at the time was an Emirate in the larger Ifat Sultanate ruled by the Walashma dynasty . According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by
18396-405: The work of Homo ergaster . An Acheulean site (from 800,000 to 400,000 years BCE), where stone was cut, was excavated in the 1990s, in Gombourta, between Damerdjog and Loyada , 15 km south of Djibouti City . Finally, in Gobaad, a Homo erectus jaw was found, dating from 100,000 BCE. On Devil's Island , tools dating back 6,000 years have been found, which were used to open shells. In
18542-470: Was re-elected for his fifth term. Djibouti is a unitary presidential republic , with executive power resting in the presidency, which is by turn dominant over the cabinet, and legislative power in both the government and the National Assembly . The president , Ismaïl Omar Guelleh , is the prominent figure in Djiboutian politics—the head of state and commander-in-chief . The president exercises their executive power assisted by their appointee,
18688-477: Was a military leader of the medieval Adal Sultanate in the northern Horn of Africa. Between 1529 and 1543, he embarked on a campaign referred to as the Futuh Al-Habash , bringing the three-quarters of Christian Abyssinia under the control of the Muslim empire. With an army composed of Afar, Harari (Harla), and Somalis, al-Ghazi's forces came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom, slaughtering any Ethiopian who refused to convert to Islam. Within
18834-404: Was a treaty where the Afars sold lands surrounding in Obock . The French were interested in having a coaling station for steamships , which would become especially important upon the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. (Up to that time French ships had to buy coal at the British port of Aden across the gulf, an unwise dependency in case of war.) Later on, that treaty was used by the captain of
18980-417: Was also identified at the nearby site of Asa Koma . The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close to Lake Abbé , but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices. Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, similar in range to Asa Koma. These two sites represent
19126-427: Was also met with demonstrations and rioting. In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum. In 1967, a second plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France. Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual union with Somalia, and
19272-407: Was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire , and Portugal took sides in the conflict. When Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths. The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor Fasilides , declared
19418-428: Was celebrated in popular literature in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor . In the reign of Mentuhotep III (11th dynasty, ca. 2000 BC), an officer named Hannu organized one or more voyages to Punt, but it is uncertain whether he personally traveled on these expeditions. Trading missions of the 12th dynasty pharaohs Senusret I , Amenemhat II and Amenemhat IV had also successfully navigated their way to and from
19564-617: Was eventually forced into exile in Yemen . A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period. In the period following the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied Eritrea . On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became
19710-409: Was formed in Madagascar on May 11, 1916, with recruits from the French Somali Coast and renamed the 1st Battalion of Somali Tirailleurs upon arrival in France in June. Originally intended as a staging unit, the battalion’s officers responded to the Somalis' desire to fight, leading to their participation alongside the RICM in the October 1916 assault on Fort Douaumont. For their distinguished role,
19856-417: Was named Yûsuf ibn Arsamâyah. In 1285 Walasma dynasty crushed a rebellion led by Gidaya which allied with Shewa to revive the Makhzumi state. In the fourteenth century it was under the Ifat Sultanate and later the Adal Sultanate with its leader known as the Garad . According to sixteenth century Adal writer Arab Faqīh , the people of Gidaya were part of the army of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi during
20002-400: Was one of the founding regions of the Ifat Sultanate alongside Biqulzar , Shewa , Kwelgora , Shimi, Jamme and Laboo. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabitant low land portion east of the Ethiopian Empire . Including north of the Awash River towards Lake Abbe in modern Djibouti–Ethiopia border as well as the territory between Shewa and Zeila on
20148-491: Was one of the oldest local Islamic states. It was centered in the former Shewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the Sultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at Zeila in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate. The Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of
20294-424: Was organized by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (25th century BC), returning with cargoes of antyue and Puntites. However, gold from Punt is recorded as having been in Egypt as early as the time of Pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty . Subsequently, there were more expeditions to Punt in the Sixth , Eleventh , Twelfth and Eighteenth dynasties of Egypt. In the Twelfth Dynasty, trade with Punt
20440-445: Was populated by a very rich fauna: felines , buffaloes , elephants , rhinos , etc., as evidenced, for example, by the bestiary of cave paintings at Balho . In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE, few nomads settled around the lakes and practiced fishing and cattle breeding. The burial of an 18-year-old woman, dating from this period, as well as the bones of hunted animals, bone tools and small jewels have been unearthed. By about 1500 BCE,
20586-404: Was primarily inhabited by Harari people before being assimilated by the Oromo and Somali people . Historian Merid Wolde Aregay deduced that the Gidaya state language was Harari . According to Harari records Gidaya state collapsed due to the Oromo migrations and famine. Aw Gidaya is considered a saint in Harar. Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa ( HoA ), also known as
20732-446: Was ruled by Somali and Afar Sultans , local authorities with whom France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region. In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis ( French Somaliland ), a name which continued until 1967. In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia 's independence in 1960,
20878-444: Was subsequently created in 2004. The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate. It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war. The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government's legislative branch. Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in
21024-456: Was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic , the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following
21170-416: Was then beheaded by an Ethiopian cavalry commander, Azmach Calite. Once the Imam's soldiers learned of his death, they fled the battlefield. This conflict provided an opportunity for the Oromo people to conquer and migrate into the historically Gafat land of Welega south of the Blue Nile and eastward to the walls of Harar , establishing new territories. The collapse of the Adal Sultanate led to
21316-485: Was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians. This conflict erupted in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by
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