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125-787: The First Great Migration occurred during the Habsburg-Ottoman War of 1683–1699 under Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III Crnojević as a result of the Habsburg retreat and the Ottoman reoccupation of southern Serbian regions, which were temporarily held by the Habsburgs between 1688 and 1690. The Second Great Migration took place during the Habsburg-Ottoman War of 1737–1739, under the Serbian Patriarch Arsenije IV Jovanović , also parallel with

250-747: A corpus of rights and freedoms in the Habsburg monarchy . The breakout of the Habsburg-Ottoman War of 1737–1739 triggered the Second Great Migration of the Serbs. In 1737, at the very beginning of the war, Serbian Patriarch Arsenije IV Jovanović sided with Habsburgs and supported the rebellion of Serbs in the region of Raška against Ottomans. During the war, Habsburg armies and the Serbian Militia failed to achieve substantial success, and subsequently were forced to retreat. By 1739,

375-614: A few years of peace, the Ottoman Empire, encouraged by successes in the west of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , attacked the Habsburg monarchy . The Turks almost captured Vienna, but John III Sobieski led a Christian alliance that defeated them in the Battle of Vienna (1683), stalling the Ottoman Empire's hegemony in south-eastern Europe. A new Holy League was initiated by Pope Innocent XI and encompassed

500-550: A grandson of Louis XIV, all hopes of a peaceable settlement vanished. Under the guidance of William III a powerful league, a renewed Grand Alliance, was formed against France; of this the emperor was a prominent member, and in 1703 he transferred his claim on the Spanish monarchy to his second son, Archduke Charles . The early course of the war was not favorable to the Imperialists, but the tide of defeat had been rolled back by

625-502: A lasting rivalry with France and its king, Louis XIV . The latter's dominant personality and power completely overshadowed Leopold, even to this day, but Leopold was no less a warrior-king given the greater part of his public life was directed towards the arrangement and furtherance of wars. Leopold's first war was the Second Northern War (1655–1660), in which King Charles X of Sweden tried to become King of Poland with

750-493: A merely supporting role. He grew to manhood without the military ambition that characterized most of his fellow monarchs. From the beginning, his reign was defensive and profoundly conservative." Elected king of Hungary in 1655, he followed suit in 1656 and 1657 in Bohemia and Croatia respectively. In July 1658, more than a year after his father's death, Leopold was elected Holy Roman Emperor at Frankfurt in opposition to

875-635: A notable victory at Saint Gotthard . By the Peace of Vasvár the Emperor made a twenty years' truce with the Sultan, granting more generous terms than his recent victory seemed to render necessary. French expansion increasingly threatened the empire, especially the seizure of the strategic Duchy of Lorraine in 1670, followed by the 1672 Franco-Dutch War . By mid-June, the Dutch Republic teetered at

1000-580: A political defeat for the Habsburgs. It ended the idea that Europe was a single Roman Catholic empire; governed spiritually by the Pope and temporally by the Holy Roman Emperor . Moreover, the treaty was devoted to parceling out land and influence to the "winners", the anti-Habsburg alliance led by France and Sweden. However, the Habsburgs did gain some benefits out of the Thirty Years' War ;

1125-735: A protector of Catholics in the Ottoman domains. Initially, Louis XIV took advantage of the start of the war to extend France's eastern borders in the War of the Reunions , taking Luxembourg and Strasbourg in the Truce of Ratisbon . However, as the Holy League made gains against the Ottoman Empire, capturing Belgrade by 1688, the French began to worry that their Habsburg rivals would grow too powerful and eventually turn on France. The Glorious Revolution

1250-554: A result, the Maniots remained uncommitted when, on 25 June 1685, the Venetian army, 8,100 men strong, landed outside the former Venetian fort of Koroni and laid siege to it. The castle surrendered after 49 days, on 11 August, and the garrison was massacred. After this success, Morosini embarked his troops towards the town of Kalamata , in order to encourage the Maniots to revolt. The Venetian army, reinforced by 3,300 Saxons and under

1375-613: A significant part of the population before 1690 and that an Albanian majority was not achieved until the mid-19th century, a mass exodus of Serbs out of Kosovo in 1690 seems unlikely. In 1689 in Kosovo, both Muslim Albanians and Serbs rose up against the Ottoman Empire led by the Albanian Archbishop Pjeter Bogdani and Toma Raspasani . It was after the migration of 1690, that the Ottomans first encouraged

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1500-524: A sudden mass exodus of Serbs out of Kosovo in 1690. If the Serb population was depleted in 1690, it looks as if it must have been replaced by inflows of Serbs from other areas. Such flows did happen and from many different areas. There was also a migration of Albanians from the Malsi but these were slow, long-term processes rather than involving sudden urge of population into a vacuum. Considering that Albanians were

1625-572: A vital tool for consolidation of Habsburg power under Leopold. In 1692, the Duke of Hanover was raised to the rank of an elector, becoming the ninth member of the electoral college. In 1700, Leopold, greatly in need of help for the impending war with France, granted the title of King in Prussia to the Elector of Brandenburg . The net result of these and similar changes was to weaken the authority of

1750-423: Is also said to have been open with close associates. Coxe described Leopold in the following manner: "His gait was stately, slow and deliberate; his air pensive, his address awkward, his manner uncouth, his disposition cold and phlegmatic." Spielman argues that his long-expected career in the clergy caused Leopold to have "early adopted the intense Catholic piety expected of him and the gentle manners appropriate to

1875-793: The Balkans in March 1686 and spent the next years promoting resistance to the armies of the Ottoman Empire, in particular in his native Kosovo . He and his vicar Toma Raspasani played a leading role in the pro-Austrian movement in Kosovo during the Great Turkish War. He contributed a force of 6,000 Albanian soldiers to the Austrian army which had arrived in Pristina and accompanied it to capture Prizren . There, however, he and much of his army were met by another equally formidable adversary,

2000-563: The Battle of Podhajce in 1698), the League won the war in 1699 and forced the Ottoman Empire to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz . The Ottomans ceded most of Hungary , Transylvania and Slavonia , as well as parts of Croatia , to the Habsburg monarchy while Podolia returned to Poland. Most of Dalmatia passed to Venice, along with the Morea, which the Ottomans reconquered in 1715 and regained in

2125-644: The Fourth Crusade . However, with the rise of the Ottomans, during the 16th and early 17th centuries, they lost most of these, such as Cyprus and Euboea ( Negropont ) to the Turks. Between 1645 and 1669, the Venetians and the Ottomans fought a long and costly war over Crete , the last major Venetian possession in the Aegean. During this war, the Venetian commander, Francesco Morosini , came into contact with

2250-688: The Holy Roman Empire (headed by the Habsburg monarchy), the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Venetian Republic in 1684, joined by Russia in 1686. Holy League's troops besieged and conquered Buda in 1686 what was under Ottoman's rule since 1541. The second Battle of Mohács (1687) was a crushing defeat for the Sultan. The Turks were more successful on the Polish front and were able to retain Podolia during their battles with

2375-591: The House of Hapsburg . He was both a composer and considerable patron of music. Leopold's reign is known for conflicts with the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War (1683–1699) and rivalry with Louis XIV , a contemporary and first cousin (on the maternal side; fourth cousin on the paternal side), in the west. After more than a decade of warfare, Leopold emerged victorious in the east thanks to

2500-525: The Ottoman Empire besieged Vienna , but was routed by an allied army that included the Holy Roman Empire led by the Habsburgs . The imperial forces, among whom Prince Eugene of Savoy was rapidly becoming prominent, followed up the victory with others, notably one near Mohács in 1687 and another at Zenta in 1697, and in January 1699, the sultan signed the treaty of Karlowitz by which he admitted

2625-535: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , as well as in part of the western Balkans . The war was significant also for being the first instance of Russia joining an alliance with Western Europe . Historians have labeled the war as the Fourteenth Crusade launched against the Turks by the papacy. The French did not join the Holy League, as France had agreed to reviving an informal Franco-Ottoman alliance in 1673, in exchange for Louis XIV being recognized as

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2750-429: The Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718. After allied Christian forces had captured Buda from the Ottoman Empire in 1686 during the Great Turkish War, Serbs from Pannonian Plain (present-day Hungary , Slavonia region in present-day Croatia , Bačka and Banat regions in present-day Serbia ) joined the troops of the Habsburg monarchy as separate units known as Serbian Militia . Serbs, as volunteers, massively joined

2875-713: The Viennese Jewish community, which used to live in an area called "Im Werd" across the Danube Canal. After the expulsion of the Jewish population, with popular support, the area was renamed Leopoldstadt as a thanksgiving. But Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg , issued an edict in 1677, in which he announced his special protection for 50 families of these expelled Jews. In governing his own lands Leopold found his chief difficulties in Hungary, where unrest

3000-425: The War of the Holy League (1683–1699) , when thousands of refugees found shelter on the new Habsburg border. Malcolm suggests that most of the Serb refugees did not come from Kosovo and that Arsenije never led an exodus from Kosovo as his departure had been extremely hasty. He notes that Toma Raspasani , who had barely escaped the Turks from Western Kosovo during the Austrian retreat, wrote himself later that "Nobody

3125-468: The fortress of Navarino . A relief force under Ismail Pasha was defeated on June 16, and the next day the fort surrendered. The garrison and the Muslim population were transported to Tripoli . Methoni (Modon) followed on 7 July, after an effective bombardment destroyed the fort's walls, and its inhabitants were also transferred to Tripoli. The Venetians then advanced towards Argos and Nafplion , which

3250-543: The victory title " Peloponnesiacus ", and a bronze bust of his was displayed in the Great Hall, something never before done for a living citizen. The Venetians followed up this success with the reduction of the last Ottoman bastions in the Peloponnese, including Corinth, which was occupied on 7 August, and Mystra , which surrendered later in the month. The Peloponnese was under complete Venetian control, and only

3375-659: The 18th century, but to smaller extent also in the town of Komárom ) and Croatia . The large Serb migrations from Balkans to the Pannonian plain started in the 14th century and lasted until the end of the 18th century. The great migrations from 1690 and 1737–1739 were the largest ones and were important reason for issuing the privileges that regulated the status of Serbs within Habsburg Monarchy. The Serbs that in these migrations settled in Vojvodina, Slavonia and

3500-735: The Albanians, were willing to move away in search of better economic opportunities, which helped demographic changes in the territory of Kosovo throughout the centuries. Habsburg-Ottoman War (1683%E2%80%931699) The Habsburg monarchy wins lands in Hungary, the Principality of Transylvania and the Balkans Mediterranean The Great Turkish War ( German : Großer Türkenkrieg ) or The Last Crusade , also called in Ottoman sources as The Disaster Years ( Turkish : Felaket Seneleri ),

3625-546: The Battle of Zenta was fought just south of the Ottoman ruled town of Zenta . During the battle, Habsburg Imperial forces routed the Ottoman forces while the Ottomans were crossing the Tisa River near the town. This resulted in the Habsburg forces killing over 30,000 Ottomans and dispersing the rest. This crippling defeat was the ultimate factor of the Ottoman Empire signing the Treaty of Karlowitz on January 22, 1699, ending

3750-530: The Catholic Albanian tribe Klimente , which settled in three villages in Syrmia. Sources provide different data regarding the number of people in the first migration, referring to the group led by Patriarch Arsenije III: Serbs from these migrations settled in the southern parts of Hungary (though as far in the north as the town of Szentendre , in which they formed the majority of the population in

3875-582: The Emperor Leopold I resulted in the addition of the Polish hussars to the already existing allied army. The command of the forces of European allies was entrusted to the Polish king, who had under his command 70,000–80,000 soldiers facing a Turkish army of 150,000. Sobieski's courage and remarkable aptitude for command were already known in Europe. During early September, the experienced 5,000 Ottoman sappers had repeatedly blown up large portions of

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4000-700: The English embassy in Constantinople on 19 January 1690. It reported that the "Germans" in Kosovo had made contact with 20,000 Albanians who had turned their weapons against the Turks. The Republic of Venice had held several islands in the Aegean and the Ionian seas, together with strategically positioned forts along the coast of the Greek mainland since the carving up of the Byzantine Empire after

4125-719: The French Cardinal Mazarin , who sought to place the Imperial Crown on the head of Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria or some other non-Habsburg prince. To conciliate France , which had considerable influence in German affairs thanks to the League of the Rhine , the newly elected emperor promised not to assist Spain, then at war with France . This marked the beginning of a nearly 47-year reign characterized by

4250-598: The Great Migrations of the Serbs, at least western and central Kosovo were treated as part of Ottoman Albania, and had a large Albanian population. Thus, the Albanian tribesmen that moved from turbulent mountains of Shkodra to western and central Kosovo after 1670, merely moved to other parts of Ottoman Albania. István Deák from the University of Columbia states that Serbs, who were somewhat better educated than

4375-471: The Great Turkish War. This treaty resulted in the transfer of most of Ottoman Hungary to the Habsburgs, and after further losses in the Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718) , prompted the Ottomans to adopt a more defensive military policy in the following century. Emperor Leopold I Leopold I (Leopold Ignaz Joseph Balthasar Franz Felician; Hungarian : I. Lipót ; 9 June 1640 – 5 May 1705)

4500-596: The Habsburg side. In the first half of 1688, the Habsburg army, together with units of Serbian Militia, captured Gyula , Lippa (today Lipova, Romania) and Borosjenő (today Ienu, Romania) from the Ottoman Empire. After the capture of Belgrade from the Ottomans in 1688, Serbs from the territories in the south of the Sava and Danube rivers began to join Serbian Militia units. Kosovo Albanian Roman Catholic Bishop and philosopher Pjetër Bogdani returned to

4625-540: The Habsburg withdrawal from Serbian regions; between 1718 and 1739, these regions were known as the Kingdom of Serbia . The masses of earlier migrations from the Ottoman Empire are considered ethnically Serb, and those of the First Great Migration nationally Serb. The First Great Migration brought about the definitive indicator of Serbianness, Orthodox Christianity and its leader, the patriarch. In 1683,

4750-529: The Habsburgs as emperors but strengthen them in their own lands. Leopold was the first to realize this altered state of affairs and act in accordance with it. The reign of Leopold saw some important changes made in the constitution of the Empire. In 1663 the Imperial Diet entered upon the last stage of its existence, and became a body permanently in session at Regensburg. This perpetual diet would become

4875-617: The Imperial States had on average 88,100 men fighting the Turks, while from 1688 to 1697, they had on average 127,410 fighting the French. Following Bohdan Khmelnytsky 's rebellion , the Tsardom of Russia in 1654 acquired territories from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (currently parts of eastern Ukraine), while some Cossacks stayed in the southeastern part of the Commonwealth. Their leader, Petro Doroshenko , sought

5000-406: The Ottoman Empire's protection and in 1667 attacked Polish commander John Sobieski . Sultan Mehmed IV , who knew that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was weakened by internal conflicts, in August 1672 attacked Kamenets Podolski , a large city on the border of the Commonwealth. The small Polish force resisted the siege of Kamenets for two weeks but was then forced to surrender. The Polish army

5125-477: The Ottoman period, and it has been suggested that a part of the Albanian population there were present as Illyrians before the Slavs came to Southeastern Europe . It is likely that Albanians in Kosovo before the Ottoman period were, if not the majority, an important minority. At the time of King Lazar in the 14th century, and at the beginning of the Ottoman period in 1455, the region had "an overwhelming Slavic (Serbian) majority", but significant Albanian migration in

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5250-417: The Peloponnese, where the Greeks, especially the Maniots, had begun showing signs of revolt and communicated with Morosini, promising to rise up in his aid. Ismail Pasha, the new military commander of Morea, learned of this and invaded the Mani Peninsula with 10,000 men, reinforcing the three forts that the Ottomans already garrisoned, and compelled the Maniots to give up hostages to secure their loyalty. As

5375-407: The Poles won the Battle of Khotyn (1673) . After the death of King Michael in 1673, Sobieski was elected king of Poland. He tried to defeat the Ottomans for four years, with no success. The war ended on 17 October 1676 with the Treaty of Żurawno in which the Turks retained control over only Kamenets-Podolski. This Turkish attack also led in 1676 to the beginning of the Russo-Turkish Wars . After

5500-430: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia's involvement marked the first time the country formally joined an alliance of European powers. This was the beginning of a series of Russo-Turkish Wars , the last of which was World War I. As a result of the Crimean campaigns and Azov campaigns , Russia captured the key Ottoman fortress of Azov . Following the decisive Battle of Zenta in 1697 and lesser skirmishes (such as

5625-449: The Pope. Also, the Habsburgs and Poles agreed that the Polish government would pay for its own troops while still in Poland, but that they would be paid by the Emperor once they had crossed into Imperial territory. However, the Emperor had to recognise Sobieski's claim to first rights of plunder of the enemy camp in the event of a victory. Kara Mustafa Pasha was less effective at ensuring his forces' motivation and loyalty, and preparing for

5750-418: The Protestant aristocracy in Habsburg territories had been decimated, and the ties between Vienna and the Habsburg domains in Bohemia and elsewhere were greatly strengthened. These changes would allow Leopold to initiate necessary political and institutional reforms during his reign to develop somewhat of an absolutist state along French lines. The most important consequences of the war was in retrospect to weaken

5875-423: The Turks. As a result, the advance made by the Holy League stalled, allowing the Ottomans to retake Belgrade in 1690. The war then fell into a stalemate, and peace was concluded in 1699 which began following the Battle of Zenta in 1697 when an Ottoman attempt to retake their lost possessions in Hungary was crushed by the Holy League. The war largely overlapped with the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), which took up

6000-405: The Venetian army, especially among the German contingents. In April 1686, the Venetians helped repulse an Ottoman attack that threatened to overrun Mani, and were reinforced from the Papal States and Tuscany . The Swedish marshal Otto Wilhelm Königsmarck was appointed head of the land forces, while Morosini retained command of the fleet. On 3 June Königsmarck took Pylos and proceeded to lay siege

6125-414: The Venetians not only for reasons of morale, but because they secured their communications with Venice, denied to the Ottomans the possibility of threatening the Ionian Islands or of ferrying troops via western Greece to the Peloponnese, and because these successes encouraged the Greeks to cooperate with them against the Ottomans. Having secured his rear during the previous year, Morosini set his sights upon

6250-408: The affairs of Transylvania, always an unruly state, and this interference brought on a war with the Holy Roman Empire , which after some desultory operations really began in 1663. By a personal appeal to the diet at Regensburg Leopold induced the princes to send assistance for the campaign; troops were also sent by France, and in August 1664, the great Imperial general Raimondo Montecuccoli gained

6375-446: The aid of allies including György II Rákóczi , Prince of Transylvania . Leopold's predecessor, Ferdinand III , had allied with King John II Casimir Vasa of Poland in 1656. In 1657, Leopold expanded this alliance to include Austrian troops (paid by Poland). These troops helped defeat the Transylvanian army, and campaigned as far as Denmark. The war ended with the Treaty of Oliwa in 1660. The Ottoman Empire often interfered in

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6500-429: The allies, and in September 1697, England, Spain and the United Provinces made peace with France at the Treaty of Rijswijk . Leopold refused to assent to the treaty, as he considered that his allies had somewhat neglected his interests, but in the following month he came to terms and a number of places were transferred from France to the Holy Roman Empire. The peace with France lasted for about four years and then Europe

6625-417: The arrival of new German mercenary corps from Hanover in spring 1687. Thus strengthened, he was able to move against the last major Ottoman bastion in the Peloponnese, the town of Patras and the fort of Rion , which along with its twin at Antirrion controlled the entrance to the Corinthian Gulf (the "Little Dardanelles "). On 22 July 1687, Morosini, with a force of 14,000, landed outside Patras, where

6750-405: The battlefield. The cavalry headed straight for the Ottoman camps and Kara Mustafa's headquarters, while the remaining Viennese garrison sallied out of its defences to join in the assault. The Ottoman troops were tired and dispirited following the failure of both the attempt at sapping and the assault on the city and the advance of the Holy League infantry on the Turkenschanz. The cavalry charge

6875-550: The borderlands . In 1691, Sobieski undertook another expedition to Moldavia, with slightly better results, but still with no decisive victories. The last battle of the campaign was the Battle of Podhajce in 1698, where a Polish hetman named Feliks Kazimierz Potocki defeated the Ottoman incursion into the Commonwealth. The League won the war in 1699 and forced the Ottoman Empire to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz. The Ottomans thereby lost much of their European possessions, with Podolia (including Kamenets) returned to Poland. During

7000-420: The brink of destruction, which led Leopold to agree to an alliance with Brandenburg-Prussia and the Republic on 25 June. However, he was also facing a revolt in Hungary and viewed French conquests in the Rhineland a higher priority than helping the Dutch. His commander, Raimondo Montecuccoli , was ordered to remain on the defensive and avoid a direct conflict. Chaotic logistics made it impossible to maintain

7125-451: The castle up, leaving it in ruins. They fled as supposedly Hungarian rebel troops under the command of Imre Thököly, cooperating with the Turks, and sacked the city of Bielsko in 1682. In 1692, Leopold gave up his rights to the property, giving his rights by donation to Theresia Keglević . Espousing the cause of the rebels Sultan Mehmed IV sent an enormous army into Austria early in 1683; this advanced almost unchecked to Vienna , which

7250-414: The command of general Hannibal von Degenfeld , defeated a Turkish force of ca. 10,000 outside Kalamata on 14 September, and by the end of the month, all of Mani and much of Messenia were under Venetian control. In October 1685, the Venetian army retreated to the Ionian Islands for winter quarters, where a plague broke out, something which would occur regularly in the next years, and take a great toll on

7375-405: The conclusion of peace Louis renewed his aggressions on the German frontier through the Réunions policy . Engaged in a serious struggle with the Ottoman Empire, the emperor was again slow to move, and although he joined the Association League against France in 1682 he was glad to make a truce at Regensburg two years later. The whole European position was now bound up with events in England , and

7500-401: The conclusion of the war, however, Leopold had taken measures to strengthen his hold upon this country. In 1687, the Diet of Hungary in Pressburg (now Bratislava) changed the constitution; the right of the Habsburgs to succeed to the throne without election was admitted and the emperor's elder son Joseph I was crowned hereditary King of Hungary. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 had been

7625-450: The conclusion of the war, however, Leopold had taken measures to strengthen his hold upon this country. In 1687, the Hungarian diet in Pressburg (now Bratislava) changed the constitution, the right of the Habsburgs to succeed to the throne without election was admitted and the emperor's elder son Joseph I was crowned hereditary king of Hungary. Some Serbian historians , citing a document issued by Emperor Leopold I in 1690, claim that

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7750-442: The defeat of the relief army, Nafplion was forced to surrender on September 3. News of this major victory were greeted in Venice with joy and celebration. Nafplion became the Venetians' major base, while Ismail Pasha withdrew to Achaea after strengthening the garrisons at Corinth, which controlled the passage to central Greece. Despite losses to the plague during the autumn and winter of 1686, Morosini's forces were replenished by

7875-407: The early sixteenth century resulted by the middle of the century in a sizable Albanian population in parts of western Kosovo. According to Malcolm, a major part of the Albanian demographic growth was the expansion of an indigenous Albanian population within Kosovo itself. Ottoman official documents and reports by Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century show that before the Habsburg invasion of 1689–1690 and

8000-401: The emperor over the princes of the empire and to compel him to rely more and more upon his position as ruler of the Austrian archduchies and of Hungary and Bohemia. Leopold was a man of industry and education, and during his later years, he showed some political ability. Regarding himself as an absolute sovereign, he was extremely tenacious of his rights. Greatly influenced by the Jesuits , he

8125-431: The end of the 18th century. The topic of the Great Migrations is a source of disputes between some Serbian and Albanian historians, with each side having its viewpoint, including doubtful Serbian claims of no prior Albanian presence, and doubtful Albanian claims of a larger prior presence. Additionally, Albanians claim descent from the Illyrians , who had inhabited ancient Dardania . Albanians were present in Kosovo before

8250-487: The entire Spanish inheritance, disregarding the will of the late Charles II . Leopold started a war that soon engulfed much of Europe. The early years of the war went fairly well for Austria , with victories at Schellenberg and Blenheim , but the war would drag on until 1714, nine years after Leopold's death, which barely had an effect on the warring states. When peace returned with the Treaty of Rastatt , Austria could not be said to have emerged as triumphant as it had from

8375-409: The entire territory of the Habsburg Kingdom of Serbia was lost to the Ottomans. During the war, large portion of the Christian population from the region of Raška and other Serbian lands migrated towards the north, following the retreat of Habsburg armies and the Serbian Militia. They settled mainly in Syrmia and neighbouring regions, within the borders of the Habsburg monarchy . Among them were also

8500-411: The expected relief-army attack. He had entrusted defence of the rear to the Khan of Crimea and his light cavalry force, which numbered about 30,000–40,000. There is doubt as to how far the Tatars participated in the final battle before Vienna. The Ottomans could not rely on their Wallachian and Moldavian allies. George Ducas , Prince of Moldavia , was captured, while Șerban Cantacuzino 's forces joined

8625-438: The expulsion of the Serb population and supposedly took over the control of the territory, thus replaying of a "second Battle of Kosovo ", and continual struggle for freedom. Frederick Anscombe further concludes that there is no evidence for this, and that western and parts of central Kosovo were treated as Ottoman Albania before the Habsburg invasion in 1690. Malcolm and Elsie state that various migrations took place because of

8750-413: The fort of Monemvasia (Malvasia) in the southeast continued to resist, holding out until 1690. After a few years of peace, the Ottoman Empire attacked the Habsburg monarchy again. The Turks almost captured Vienna, but King John III Sobieski of Poland led a Christian alliance that defeated them in the Battle of Vienna, which shook the Ottoman Empire's hegemony in south-eastern Europe. A new Holy League

8875-530: The forwarding of ammunition, cannon and other resources from all over the Ottoman Empire to these centres and into the Balkans. Since 1679, the Great Plague had been ravaging Vienna. The main Ottoman army finally laid siege to Vienna on 14 July 1683. On the same day, Kara Mustafa Pasha sent the traditional demand for surrender to the city. Ernst Rüdiger Graf von Starhemberg , leader of the garrison of 15,000 troops and 8,700 volunteers with 370 cannon, refused to capitulate. Only days before, he had received news of

9000-516: The grace of God elected Holy Roman Emperor, forever August, King of Germany, King of Hungary, King of Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Rama, Serbia, Galicia, Lodomeria, Cumania, Bulgaria, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxemburg, of the Upper and Lower Silesia, of Württemberg and Teck, Prince of Swabia, Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg and Gorizia, Landgrave of Alsace, Marquess of

9125-461: The great victory of Blenheim before Leopold died on 5 May 1705. The emperor himself defined the guidelines of the politics. Johann Weikhard of Auersperg was dismissed in 1669 as the leading minister. He was followed by Wenzel Eusebius, Prince of Lobkowicz . Both had arranged some connections to France without the knowledge of the emperor. In 1674 Lobkowicz also lost his appointment. He also expelled Jewish communities from his realm, for example

9250-699: The head of the newly established Orthodox Church in the Monarchy. The patriarchal right of succession was secured by the May Assembly of the Serbian people in Karlovci in 1848, following the proclamation of Serbian Vojvodina during the Serbian Revolution in Habsburg lands (1848–1849). Serbs received privileges from the Emperor, which guaranteed them national and religious singularity, as well as

9375-474: The hills, the largest cavalry charge in history . Sobieski led the charge at the head of 3,000 Polish heavy lancers, the famed "Winged Hussars". The Lipka Tatars who fought on the Polish side wore a sprig of straw in their helmets to distinguish themselves from the Tatars fighting on the Ottoman side. The charge easily broke the lines of the Ottomans, who were exhausted and demoralised and soon started to flee

9500-568: The influence of Bertali and Viennese composers in general (in oratorios and other dramatic works), and of Johann Heinrich Schmelzer (in ballets and German comedies). His sacred music is perhaps his most successful, particularly Missa angeli custodis , a Requiem Mass for his first wife, and Three Lections , composed for the burial of his second wife. Much of Leopold's music was published with works by his father, and described as "works of exceeding high merit." The full titulature of Leopold after he had become emperor went as follows: "Leopold I, by

9625-459: The inner city. The relief army had to act quickly to save the city and so prevent another long siege. Despite the binational composition of the army and the short space of only six days, an effective leadership structure was established, centred on the Polish king and his Hussars . The Holy League settled the issues of payment by using all available funds from the government, loans from several wealthy bankers and noblemen and large sums of money from

9750-494: The local Orthodox Christian population was exposed to brutal reprisals of Tatars and Bosnian Muslims in Ottoman forces which indiscriminately burned villages and randomly killed or enslaved people irrespective of age, class or gender. As a result of the lost rebellion and suppression, Serbian Christians and their church leaders, headed by Serbian Patriarch Arsenije III sided with the Austrians in 1689. They settled mainly in

9875-718: The mass slaughter at Perchtoldsdorf , a town south of Vienna, where the citizens had handed over the keys of the city after having been given a similar choice. Siege operations started on 17 July. On 6 September, the Poles under John III Sobieski crossed the Danube 30 km north-west of Vienna at Tulln to unite with the Imperial troops and the additional forces from Saxony, Bavaria , Baden , Franconia , and Swabia . Louis XIV of France declined to help his Habsburg rival , having just annexed Alsace . An alliance between Sobieski and

10000-606: The masses were "invited" to come to Hungary. The original text in Latin shows that Serbs were actually advised to rise up against the Ottomans and "not to desert" their ancestral lands. During the Austro-Turkish war of 1683–1699, relations between Muslims and Christians in the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire were extremely radicalized. Following the decisive Ottoman victory in 1690 Kačanik battle in modern-day Kosovo,

10125-404: The migration of Albanians into Kosovo. The larger, eastern part of Kosovo remained overwhelmingly Serb Orthodox, with a Catholic Albanian, and later Muslim Albanian, presence growing from the west by the 16th century. The urban economy began to decline along with the output from the mines, yet Albanian highlander stockbreeders continued to migrate such that Kosovo would attain an Albanian majority by

10250-609: The military talents of Prince Eugene of Savoy . By the Treaty of Karlowitz , Leopold recovered almost all of the Kingdom of Hungary , which had fallen under Turkish power in the years after the 1526 Battle of Mohács . Leopold fought three wars against France: the Franco-Dutch War , the Nine Years' War , and the War of the Spanish Succession . In this last, Leopold sought to give his younger son Charles

10375-400: The most favored language at his court. Likewise he had received comprehensive ecclesiastical training as he had originally been selected for a career in the higher clergy. This plan, though, was dropped upon the 1654 death of his older brother, Ferdinand IV , when Leopold became heir apparent. Nonetheless, Leopold's spiritual education had had a manifest impact on him. Leopold remained under

10500-442: The name of Vojvodina is related to the fact that patriarch Arsenije III and subsequent religious leaders of Serbs in the Habsburg monarchy had jurisdiction over all Serbs in the Habsburg Monarchy, including Serbs of Vojvodina, and that Serbs of Vojvodina accepted the idea of a separate Serbian voivodeship in this area, which they managed to create in 1848). In 1694, Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor appointed Arsenije III Čarnojević as

10625-631: The new Ottoman commander, Mehmed Pasha, had established himself. Mehmed, with an army of roughly equal size, attacked the Venetian force immediately after it landed, but was defeated and forced to retreat. At this point panic spread among the Ottoman forces, and the Venetians were able, within a few days, to capture the citadel of Patras, and the forts of Rion, Antirrion, and Nafpaktos (Lepanto) without any opposition, as their garrisons abandoned them. This new success caused great joy in Venice, and honours were heaped on Morosini and his officers. Morosini received

10750-451: The other hand, his piety and education may have caused in him a fatalistic strain which inclined him to reject all compromise on denominational questions, which is not always considered a positive characteristic of a ruler. Leopold was said to have typical Habsburg physical attributes, such as the prominent Habsburg lower jaw . Short, thin, and of sick constitution, Leopold was cold and reserved in public and socially inept. However, he

10875-488: The overland (Eastern Mediterranean to Germany) trade routes. During the years preceding this second siege ( the first had taken place in 1529), under the auspices of Grand viziers from the influential Köprülü family , the Ottoman Empire undertook extensive logistical preparations, including the repair and establishment of roads and bridges leading into the Holy Roman Empire and its logistical centres, as well as

11000-524: The parts belonging to the Military Frontier increased (partly) the existing Serb population in these regions and made the Serbs an important political factor in the Habsburg monarchy over time. The masses of earlier migrations from the Ottoman Empire are considered ethnically Serb, while those of the First Great Migration nationally Serb. The First Great Migration brought the definitive indicator of Serbianness, Orthodox Christianity and its leader,

11125-577: The patriarch. The narrative about the migration is part of the Serbian identity narratives. It is a national-religious myth with a heroic theme. Frederic Anscombe suggests that it, "together with other narratives of the Kosovo myth, form the basis of Serbian nationalism and have fueled the conflicts". According to Anscombe, the Great Migration reconciles romantic national history with late modern reality, portraying Albanians of Kosovo as descendants of Ottoman-sponsored transplants who settled after

11250-523: The plague. Bogdani returned to Pristina but succumbed to the disease there on 6 December 1689. His nephew, Gjergj Bogdani, reported in 1698 that his uncle's remains were later exhumed by Turkish and Tatar soldiers and fed to the dogs in the middle of the square in Pristina. Among the papers of Ludwig von Baden in Karlsruhe , there is a copy of an intercepted letter, in French, written by a secretary of

11375-527: The rebellious Maniots , for a joint campaign in the Morea. In 1659, Morosini landed in the Morea , and together with the Maniots, he took Kalamata . However, he was soon after forced to return to Crete, and the Peloponnesian venture failed. In 1683, a new war broke out between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottomans, with a large Ottoman army advancing towards Vienna. In response to this, a Holy League

11500-523: The refugees gathered on the banks of the Sava and Danube in Belgrade to cross the rivers and settle in the Habsburg Monarchy. He recognized Patriarch Arsenije III Čarnojević as their spiritual leader. The Emperor had recognized the Patriarch as deputy- voivode (civil leader of the migrants), which over time developed into the etymology of the northern Serbian province of Vojvodina (this origin of

11625-402: The relief army succeeded in taking Argos and forcing the pasha to retreat to Corinth , but for two weeks, from 16 August, Königsmarck's forces were forced to continuously repulse attacks from Ismail Pasha's forces, fight off the sorties of the besieged Ottoman garrison and cope with a new outbreak of plague. On 29 August 1686 Ismail Pasha attacked the Venetian camp, but was heavily defeated. With

11750-509: The retreat after Sobieski's cavalry charge. The confederated troops signalled their arrival on the Kahlenberg above Vienna with bonfires. Before the battle a Mass was celebrated for the King of Poland and his nobles. At around 6:00 pm, the Polish king ordered the cavalry to attack in four groups, three Polish and one from the Holy Roman Empire. Eighteen thousand horsemen charged down

11875-456: The smaller Polish front, after the battles of 1683 (Vienna and Parkany), Sobieski, after his proposal for the League to start a major coordinated offensive, undertook a rather unsuccessful offensive in Moldavia in 1686, with the Ottomans refusing a major engagement and harassing the army. For the next four years Poland would blockade the key fortress at Kamenets , and Ottoman Tatars would raid

12000-479: The southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary . The most important cities and places they settled are Szentendre , Buda , Mohács , Pécs , Szeged , Baja , Tokaj , Oradea , Debrecen , Kecskemét , Szatmár . According to Malcolm, the largest number of refugees were from the Niš region, Morava Valley and Belgrade area. Albanian Catholics and Muslims were also part of the exodus. In 1690, Emperor Leopold I allowed

12125-553: The sovereign rights of the house of Habsburg over nearly the whole of Hungary (including Serbs in Vojvodina ). As the Habsburg forces retreated, they withdrew 37,000 Serb families under Patriarch Arsenije III Čarnojević of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć . In 1690 and 1691 Emperor Leopold I had conceived through a number of edicts (Privileges) the autonomy of Serbs in his Empire, which would last and develop for more than two centuries until its abolition in 1912. Before

12250-421: The spell of his clerical education and Jesuit influence throughout his life. For a monarch he was uncommonly knowledgeable about theology, metaphysics, jurisprudence and the sciences. He also retained his interest in astrology and alchemy which he had developed under Jesuit tutors. A deeply religious and devoted person, Leopold personified the pietas Austriaca , or the loyal Catholic attitude of his house. On

12375-572: The tension lasted until 1688, when William III of Orange won the English crown through the Glorious Revolution and Louis invaded Germany. In May 1689, the Grand Alliance was formed, including the emperor, the kings of England, Spain and Denmark, the Elector of Brandenburg and others, and a fierce struggle against France was waged throughout almost the whole of Western Europe. In general the several campaigns were favourable to

12500-533: The time also included a substantial number of Albanians, Orthodox and Catholics. Emil Saggau states that the modern adaptation and popularisation of the migration retrieves inspiration from Vuk Karadžić and Petar II Petrović-Njegoš 's writings, and that prior to this, it had not yet become a component of Serb national identity. According to Maroš Melichárek, the migration has also been depicted with Serbian national symbolism. The famous painting by Paja Jovanović , commissioned in 1896 by Patriarch Georgije Branković

12625-839: The troops and Brandenburg left the war in June 1673 under the Treaty of Vossem . An anti-French Quadruple Alliance was formed in August, consisting of the Dutch Republic, Spain , Emperor Leopold, and the Duke of Lorraine , while in May 1674, the Imperial Diet declared it an Imperial war . The 1678 Treaty of Nijmegen is generally seen as a French victory, although the Alliance succeeded in limiting their gains. Almost immediately after

12750-418: The vast majority of the Habsburgs' attention while it was active. In 1695, for instance, the Holy Roman Empire states had 280,000 troops in the field, with England, the Dutch Republic, and Spain contributing another 156,000 specifically to the conflict against France. Of those 280,000, only 74,000, or about one quarter, were positioned against the Turks; the rest were fighting France. Overall, from 1683 to 1699,

12875-540: The walls between the Burg bastion , the Löbel bastion and the Burg ravelin , creating gaps of about 12m in width. The Viennese tried to counter this by digging their own tunnels to intercept the depositing of large amounts of gunpowder in caverns. The Ottomans finally managed to occupy the Burg ravelin and the low wall in that area on 8 September. Anticipating a breach in the city walls, the remaining Viennese prepared to fight in

13000-553: The war against the Turks. Born on 9 June 1640 in Vienna , Leopold received the traditional program of education in the liberal arts , history, literature, natural science and astronomy. He was particularly interested in music, as his father Emperor Ferdinand III had been. From an early age Leopold showed an inclination toward learning. He became fluent in Latin , Italian , German , and Spanish . In addition to German, Italian would be

13125-719: The war by securing financial and military aid in men and ships from Hospitaller Malta , the Duchy of Savoy , the Papal States , and the Knights of St. Stephen . In addition, the Venetians enrolled large numbers of mercenaries from Italy and the German states, especially Saxony and Brunswick. In mid-June, the Venetian fleet moved from the Adriatic towards the Ottoman-held Ionian Islands . The first target

13250-613: The war, the Russian army organized the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689 , which both ended in Russian defeats. Despite these setbacks, Russia launched the Azov campaigns in 1695 and 1696, and after laying siege to Azov in 1695 successfully occupied the city in 1696. Capturing Vienna had long been a strategic aspiration of the Ottoman Empire, because of its interlocking control over Danubian (Black Sea to Western Europe) southern Europe, and

13375-454: The whole of Hungary (including Serbs in Vojvodina ) to the Habsburg monarchy . As the Habsburg forces retreated, they withdrew 37,000 Serb families under Patriarch Arsenije III Čarnojević of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć . In 1690 and 1691 Emperor Leopold I had conceived through a number of edicts (Privileges) the autonomy of Serbs in his dominions, which would last and develop for more than two centuries until its abolition in 1912. Before

13500-555: Was Claudia Felicitas of Austria , who died in 1676 at the age of 22. Neither of their two daughters survived: His third wife was Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg . They had the following children: Like his father, Leopold was a patron of music and a composer himself. He continued to enrich the court's musical life by employing and providing support for distinguished composers such as Antonio Bertali , Giovanni Bononcini , Johann Kaspar Kerll , Ferdinand Tobias Richter , Alessandro Poglietti , and Johann Fux . Leopold's surviving works show

13625-409: Was Holy Roman Emperor , King of Hungary , Croatia , and Bohemia . The second son of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor , by his first wife, Maria Anna of Spain , Leopold became heir apparent in 1654 after the death of his elder brother Ferdinand IV . Elected in 1658, Leopold ruled the Holy Roman Empire until his death in 1705, becoming the second longest-ruling emperor (46 years and 9 months) of

13750-577: Was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League consisting of the Holy Roman Empire , Poland-Lithuania , Venice , Russia , and the Kingdom of Hungary . Intensive fighting began in 1683 and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. The war was a resounding defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which for the first time lost substantial territory, in Hungary and

13875-555: Was a staunch proponent of the Counter-Reformation . In person, he was short, but strong and healthy. Although he had no inclination for a military life, he loved outdoors exercise, such as hunting and riding. He also had a taste and talent for music and composed several Oratorios and Suites of Dances. Perhaps due to inbreeding among his progenitors, the hereditary Habsburg jaw was most prominent in Leopold. Because his jaw

14000-534: Was able to get out". Malcolm contends that Arsenije had been in Montenegro and then fled to Belgrade, a stronghold still under Austrian control, and which became a natural destination for many Serb refugees from all Serb lands. Those who gathered there included people from parts of Kosovo (Mainly Eastern Kosovo) who had been able to escape the Ottoman incursion but most refugees were probably from other areas. The refugees that moved to Austrian-dominated territories at

14125-434: Was already dreaded by the Turks. On 12 September 1683, the allied army fell upon the enemy, who was completely routed, and Vienna was saved. The Imperial forces, among whom Prince Eugene of Savoy was rapidly becoming prominent, followed up the victory with others, notably one near Mohács in 1687 and another at Zenta in 1697, and in January 1699, Sultan Mustafa II signed the Treaty of Karlowitz by which he ceded almost

14250-492: Was also a matter of concern for the French, as William III of Orange-Nassau was being invited by English nobles in the Invitation to William letter to take control of England as king. Therefore, the French besieged Philippsburg on 27 September 1688, breaking the truce and triggering the separate Nine Years' War against the Grand Alliance , which included the Dutch Republic and the Holy Roman Empire . The war relieved

14375-495: Was besieged from July to September, while Leopold took refuge at Passau . Realizing the gravity of the situation somewhat tardily, some of the German princes, among them the electors of Saxony and Bavaria , led their contingents to the Imperial Army , which was commanded by the emperor's brother-in-law, Charles, Duke of Lorraine , but the most redoubtable of Leopold's allies was the King of Poland, John III Sobieski , who

14500-578: Was caused partly by his desire to crush Protestantism and partly by the so-called Magnate conspiracy . A rising was suppressed in 1671 and for some years Hungary was treated with great severity. In 1681, after another rising, some grievances were removed and a less repressive policy was adopted, but this did not deter the Hungarians from revolting again. Austrian forces occupied the castle of Trebišov in 1675, but in 1682 Imre Thököly captured it and then fled from continuous Austrian attacks, so they blew

14625-610: Was compared to the notable painting by Emanuel Leutze , Washington Crossing the Delaware . The depiction and symbolism of the Great Serbian migration is still very strong and up-to-date. Melichárek mentions that other comparisons were made of the Great Migrations, such as to the Great Retreat and a photo of Serbs fleeing from Republika Srpska Krajina . Malcolm believes that the historical evidence does not support

14750-718: Was depicted unusually large on a 1670 silver coin, Leopold was nicknamed "the Hogmouth"; however, most collectors do not believe the coin was an accurate depiction. In 1666, he married Margaret Theresa of Spain (1651–1673), daughter of King Philip IV of Spain , who was both his niece and his first cousin. She was depicted in Diego Velázquez ' paintings sent from the court of Madrid to Leopold as he waited in Vienna for his fiancée to grow up. Leopold and Margaret Theresa had four children, all but one short-lived: His second wife

14875-554: Was formed. After the Ottoman army was defeated in the Battle of Vienna , the Venetians decided to use the opportunity of the weakening of Ottoman power and its distraction in the Danubian front so as to reconquer its lost territories in the Aegean and Dalmatia. On 25 April 1684, the Most Serene Republic declared war on the Ottomans. Aware that she would have to rely on her own strength for success, Venice prepared for

15000-494: Was initiated by Pope Innocent XI and encompassed the Holy Roman Empire (headed by the Habsburg monarchy), joined by the Venetian Republic and Poland in 1684 and the Tsardom of Russia in 1686. The Ottomans suffered three decisive defeats against the Holy Roman Empire after siege of Buda : the second Battle of Mohács in 1687, the Battle of Slankamen in 1691 and the Battle of Zenta a decade later, in 1697. On

15125-555: Was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession . The King of Spain, Charles II , was a Habsburg by descent and was related by marriage to the Austrian branch, while a similar tie bound him to the royal house of France . He was feeble and childless, and attempts had been made by the European powers to arrange for a peaceable division of his extensive kingdom. Leopold refused to consent to any partition, and when in November 1700 Charles died, leaving his crown to Philippe, Duke of Anjou ,

15250-490: Was one last deadly blow. Less than three hours after the cavalry attack, the Christian forces had won the battle and saved Vienna. The first Christian officer who entered Vienna was Margrave Ludwig of Baden , at the head of his dragoons. Afterwards, Sobieski paraphrased Julius Caesar 's famous quotation Veni, vidi, vici in saying " Veni, vidi, Deus vicit " – "I came, I saw, God conquered". On September 11, 1697,

15375-431: Was the island of Lefkada (Santa Maura), which fell, after a brief siege of 16 days, on 6 August 1684. The Venetians, aided by Greek irregulars, then crossed into the mainland and started raiding the opposite shore of Acarnania . Most of the area was soon under Venetian control, and the fall of the forts of Preveza and Vonitsa in late September removed the last Ottoman bastions. These early successes were important for

15500-455: Was then the most important town in the Peloponnese. The Venetian army, ca. 12,000 strong, landed around Nafplion between 30 July and August 4. Königsmarck immediately led an assault upon the hill of Palamidi , then unfortified, which overlooked the town. Despite the Venetians' success in capturing Palamidi, the arrival of a 7,000 strong Ottoman army under Ismail Pasha at Argos rendered their position difficult. The Venetians' initial assault against

15625-463: Was too small to resist the Ottoman invasion and could score only some minor tactical victories. After three months, the Poles were forced to sign the Treaty of Buchach in which they agreed to cede Kamenets, Podolia and to pay tribute to the Ottomans. When the news of the defeat and treaty terms reached Warsaw , the Sejm refused to pay the tribute and organized a large army under Sobieski; subsequently,

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