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203-561: The Gregorian mission or Augustinian mission was a Christian mission sent by Pope Gregory the Great in 596 to convert Britain's Anglo-Saxons . The mission was headed by Augustine of Canterbury . By the time of the death of the last missionary in 653, the mission had established Christianity among the southern Anglo-Saxons. Along with the Irish and Frankish missions it converted Anglo-Saxons in other parts of Britain as well and influenced

406-467: A priest fleeing from persecutors and sheltered him in his house for a number of days. The priest, who later came to be called Amphibalus , meaning "cloak" in Latin, prayed and "kept watch" day and night, and Alban was so impressed with the priest's faith and piety that he found himself emulating him and soon converted to Christianity. Eventually, it came to the ears of an unnamed "impious prince" that Alban

609-611: A 10th-century Life by Gozwin of 1060–2 However, Hippolyte Delehaye suggested that he very probably represents, in origin, a localised version of the British martyr since his feast date was recorded as 21 June in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum (just a day before that of the British one, who actually appears on the 21st and 22nd in early recensions). The story in Raban Maur associates Alban of Mainz with

812-644: A beautifully-illustrated Life of St Alban in the 13th century, which is in French verse adapted from a Latin Life of St Alban by William of St Albans , c. 1178. It is now at the Trinity College Library in Dublin . The date of Alban's execution has never been firmly established. Original sources and modern historians indicate a range of dates between 209 and 313. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle lists

1015-489: A bishop if needed. Another consideration was that cooperation would be more easily obtained from the Frankish royal courts if they no longer had their own bishop and agent in place. Higham theorises that Gregory believed that the end of the world was imminent, and that he was destined to be a major part of God's plan for the apocalypse . His belief was rooted in the idea that the world would go through six ages , and that he

1218-403: A bishop to York . Gregory's plan was that there would be two metropolitan sees, one at York and one at London, with twelve suffragan bishops under each archbishop. Augustine was also instructed to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury, which never happened, perhaps because London was not part of Æthelberht's domain. Also, London remained a stronghold of paganism, as events after

1421-476: A bishop, and Honorius sent Felix of Burgundy , who was already a consecrated bishop; Felix succeeded in converting the East Angles. The Gregorian missionaries focused their efforts in areas where Roman settlement had been concentrated. It is possible that Gregory, when he sent the missionaries, was attempting to restore a form of Roman civilisation to England, modelling the church's organisation after that of

1624-578: A church in Canterbury that dated to Roman times, possibly the present-day St Martin's Church . Æthelberht was at that time a pagan but he allowed his wife freedom of worship. Liudhard does not appear to have made many converts among the Anglo-Saxons, and if not for the discovery of a gold coin, the Liudhard medalet , bearing the inscription Leudardus Eps ( Eps is an abbreviation of Episcopus ,

1827-697: A coffin, aware that 80% of them would die within two years. Missionary activity in China was undertaken by the Protestant churches, as well as the French Catholic Church. According to John K. Fairbank : The opening of the country in the 1860s facilitated the great effort to Christianize China. Building on old foundations, the Roman Catholic establishment totaled by 1894 some 750 European missionaries, 400 native priests, and over half

2030-756: A fast-flowing river that could not be crossed (believed to be the River Ver ). There was a bridge, but a mob of curious townspeople who wished to watch the execution had so clogged the bridge that the execution party could not cross. Filled with an ardent desire to arrive quickly at martyrdom, Alban raised his eyes to heaven, and the river dried up, allowing Alban and his captors to cross over on dry land. The astonished executioner cast down his sword and fell at Alban's feet, moved by divine inspiration and praying that he might either suffer with Alban or be executed for him. The other executioners hesitated to pick up his sword, and meanwhile, Alban and they went about 500 paces to

2233-491: A friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings. The mission consisted of about forty missionaries, some of whom were monks. Soon after leaving Rome, the missionaries halted, daunted by the nature of the task before them. They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return, which Gregory refused, and instead sending Augustine back with letters to encourage

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2436-414: A gently sloping hill, completely covered with all kinds of wildflowers, and overlooking a beautiful plain. (Bede observes that it was a fittingly beautiful place to be enriched and sanctified by a martyr's blood.) When Alban reached the summit of the hill, he began to thirst and prayed God would give him water. A spring immediately sprang up at his feet. It was there that his head was struck off, as well as

2639-606: A history of the British Church, relates that Gregory saw fair-haired Anglo-Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people. Supposedly Gregory inquired about the identity of the slaves, and was told that they were Angles from the island of Great Britain. Gregory replied that they were not Angles, but Angels. The earliest version of this story is from an anonymous Life of Gregory written at Whitby Abbey about 705. Bede, as well as

2842-493: A leader of a key missionary agency focused on Muslims claimed that the world is living in a "day of salvation for Muslims everywhere." Theologically conservative evangelical, Pentecostal, Adventist and Mormon missionaries typically avoid cultural imperialism , and focus on spreading the gospel and translating the Bible. In the process of translating local languages, missionaries have often been vital in preserving and documenting

3045-530: A letter to Mellitus , the Epistola ad Mellitum of July 601, in which the pope took a different tack in regards to pagan shrines, suggesting that they be cleansed of idols and converted to Christian use rather than destroyed; the pope compared the Anglo-Saxons to the ancient Israelites , a recurring theme in Gregory's writings. He also suggested that the Anglo-Saxons build small huts much like those built during

3248-424: A major trading language in which most native leaders are likely to be fluent. In some cases, the materials can be adapted for oral use. Saint Alban Saint Alban ( / ˈ ɔː l b ən , ˈ æ l -/ ; Latin : Albanus ) is venerated as the first-recorded British Christian martyr , for which reason he is considered to be the British protomartyr . Along with fellow Saints Julius and Aaron , Alban

3451-564: A martyred bishop, Aureus of Mainz and two other martyrs, Ursus and Theonestus the latter of whom is said to have originated on the Greek island of Naxos , together with Alban. A Saint Alban of Burano (near Altino, Italy), meanwhile was associated with one Domenicus in a legendary tale reminiscent of one told about Dionysus. Alban is remembered in the Church of England with a Lesser Festival on 22 June and he continues to be venerated in

3654-457: A million communicants. By 1894 the newer Protestant mission effort supported over 1300 missionaries, mainly British and American, and maintained some 500 stations-each with a church, residences, street chapels, and usually a small school and possibly a hospital or dispensary-in about 350 different cities and towns. Yet they had made fewer than 60,000 Chinese Christian converts. There was limited success in terms of converts and establishing schools in

3857-599: A mission trip to India, but his legacy among Methodists – his passion for missions – continues. Missionary organizations favored the development of the Baptist movement on all continents. In England , there was the founding of the Baptist Missionary Society in 1792 at Kettering, England . William Carey write a pamphlet in 1792, "An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to use Means for

4060-693: A model for the early Christians is unclear; see Circumcision controversy in early Christianity#Background for details. Soon, the expansion of the Christian mission beyond Judaism to those who were not Jewish became a contested issue, notably at the Council of Jerusalem . The Apostle Paul was an early proponent of this expansion, and contextualized the Christian message for the Greek and Roman cultures, allowing it to reach beyond its Hebrew and Jewish roots. From Late Antiquity onward, much missionary activity

4263-480: A nation of about 400 million people , but there was escalating anger at the threat of cultural imperialism. The main result was the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), in which missions were attacked and thousands of Chinese Christians were massacred in order to destroy Western influences. Some Europeans were killed and many others threatened, Britain joined the other powers in a military invasion that suppressed

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4466-611: A northern archbishopric at York, following Gregory the Great's plan for two archdioceses in Britain. Both Edwin and Eadbald sent to Rome to request a pallium for Paulinus, which was sent in July 634. Many of the East Angles, whose king, Eorpwald appears to have converted to Christianity, were also converted by the missionaries. Following Edwin's death in battle, in either 633 or 634, Paulinus returned to Kent with Edwin's widow and daughter. Only one member of Paulinus' group stayed behind, James

4669-456: A number of other Northumbrians. When Edwin died, in about 633, his widow and Paulinus were forced to flee back to Kent. Although the missionaries could not remain in all of the places they had evangelised, by the time the last of them died in 653, they had established Christianity in Kent and the surrounding countryside and contributed a Roman tradition to the practice of Christianity in Britain. By

4872-528: A part, as influencing the emerging power of the Kentish Kingdom under Æthelberht could have had some bearing on the choice of location. Also, the mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards . At the time of the mission Britain was the only part of the former Roman Empire which remained in pagan hands and the historian Eric John argues that Gregory desired to bring

5075-401: A preexisting translation of the Bible and higher pastoral education are already available, perhaps left over from earlier, less effective missions. One strategy is to let indigenous cultural groups decide to adopt Christian doctrines and benefits, when (as in most cultures) such major decisions are normally made by groups. In this way, opinion leaders in the groups can persuade much or most of

5278-426: A public role, especially in promoting sanitation and public health. Many were trained as physicians, or took special courses in public health and tropical medicine at Livingstone College, London. By the 1870s, Protestant missions around the world generally acknowledged the long-term material goal was the formation of independent, self-governing, self-supporting, self-propagating churches. The rise of nationalism in

5481-534: A report of his success along with questions about the mission. Bede records the letter and Gregory's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum . Augustine asked for Gregory's advice on some issues, including how to organise the church, the punishment for church robbers, guidance on who was allowed to marry whom, and

5684-539: A story that Laurence was preparing to join Mellitus and Justus in Francia when he had a dream in which Saint Peter appeared and whipped Laurence as a rebuke for his plans to leave his mission. When Laurence woke whip marks had miraculously appeared on his body. He showed these to the new Kentish king, who promptly was converted and recalled the exiled bishops. The historian N. J. Higham sees political factors at work in

5887-438: A synod being held at London. Boniface says that the synod legislated on marriage, which he discussed with Pope Gregory III in 742. Higham argues that because Augustine had asked for clarifications on the subject of marriage from Gregory the Great, it is likely that he could have held a synod to deliberate on the issue. Nicholas Brooks , another historian, is not so sure that there was such a synod, but does not completely rule out

6090-560: A well sprang up where it stopped. Upon hearing of the miracles, the astonished judge ordered further persecutions to cease, and he began to honour the saint's death. St Albans Cathedral now stands near the believed site of his execution, and a well is at the bottom of the hill, Holywell Hill. The earliest mention of Alban's martyrdom is believed to be in Victricius 's De Laude Sanctorum (The Praise of Saints), c. 396. Victricius had just returned from settling an unnamed dispute among

6293-730: Is also St Alban's, West Leigh near Havant in Hampshire , and the St Alban the Martyr Parish Church of Highgate, Birmingham (including Ark St Alban's Academy ). and St Alban the Martyr Church, Cowley , Oxford. Finally, a church is dedicated to Saint Alban at Earsdon Village, Northumberland, which is the nearest one to Bede's Holy Island . There is also a St Albans parish and church in Splott , Cardiff. St Alban

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6496-575: Is also possible that his martyrdom is referenced in the Acta Martyrum . Another early source for Saint Alban is the Martyrologium Hieronymianum , or the so-called 'Martyrology of Saint Jerome' in which the entry In Britannia Albani martyris probably occurred originally under 22 June. In fact, in the extant versions, Alban has acquired numerous companions because of confusion/conflation with other entries. The martyrology

6699-610: Is certain that the cult devoted to Saint Alban was established in Verulamium, and his martyrdom was also alleged to have taken place there, the sources are unclear about where he was actually executed. Neither Victricius's De Laude Sanctorum nor the Passio Albani mentions where he was martyred other than that it was in Britain. In the Vita Germani , Germanus visits Alban's tomb and touches droplets of his blood still on

6902-472: Is credited with providing smooth sailing for the voyage back to the continent. Gildas gives a short account of Alban's martyrdom in his De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (c. 570), and Bede gives a much fuller account in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (c. 730). Gildas calls Alban a martyr of Verulamium but says he crossed the river Thames prior to his execution, during

7105-543: Is designed "to form a viable indigenous church -planting and world changing movement." This definition is motivated by a theologically imperative theme of the Bible to make God known, as outlined in the Great Commission . The definition is claimed to summarize the acts of Jesus ' ministry, which is taken as a model motivation for all ministries. This Christian missionary movement seeks to implement churches after

7308-493: Is generally believed to have been based on oral traditions brought to northern England from either Canterbury or Rome, and was completed at Whitby Abbey between 704 and 714. This view has been challenged by the historian Alan Thacker, who argues that the Life derives from earlier written works; Thacker suggests that much of the information it contains comes from a work written in Rome shortly after Gregory's death. Gregory's entry in

7511-498: Is identified with the British martyr. Saint Pantaleon's Church, Cologne holds relics said to be those of the British martyr Alban (as noted above). In fact, although identified with the British martyr, he was locally known as Albinus . His relics were said to have been brought from Rome by Empress Theophanu and placed in St Pantaleon's church in about 984: the relics were miraculously saved from destruction in an accident on

7714-523: Is little evidence of specific events. According to Bede, further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601. They brought a pallium for Augustine, gifts of sacred vessels, vestments , relics , and books. The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status, and signified that Augustine was in union with the Roman papacy . Along with the pallium, a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain twelve suffragan bishops as soon as possible, and to send

7917-404: Is mainly from the north and the east of Britain. The western areas, where the native clergy was strongest, was an area little covered by Bede's informants. In addition, although Bede presents the native church as one entity, in reality the native British were divided into a number of small political units, which makes Bede's generalisations suspect. The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of

8120-503: Is most often thought to have been Verulamium , now St Albans. That is on the basis of what is in fact the earliest mention of the martyr Alban in an indigenous British source, in the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae probably written in the second quarter of the fifth century, by the British author Gildas . As part of his brief historical account, he describes the persecution of Christians in Britain, which he identifies as part of

8323-612: Is one of three named martyrs recorded at an early date from Roman Britain (" Amphibalus " was the name given much later to the priest he was said to have been protecting). He is traditionally believed to have been beheaded in Verulamium (modern St Albans ) sometime during the 3rd or 4th century, and has been celebrated there since ancient times. Alban lived in Roman Britain , but little is known about his religious affiliations, socioeconomic status, or citizenship. According to

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8526-481: Is only the much smaller River Ver ), which some have taken as an indication that the actual martyrdom (or the more original version of the story about it) was located in Londinium . The hilltop located outside Verulamium eventually became the centre of the cult devoted to Alban. It has been claimed (but doubted by some) that a memoria over the execution point and holding the remains of St Alban may have existed at

8729-402: Is preserved in a 9th-century copy but was probably composed in something close to its present form around 600, with the surviving recension showing some signs of being based on a recension compiled at Auxerre (significantly, the hometown of Saint Germanus) For Thornhill (see above), the date given for Alban's martyrdom is striking for its closeness to the summer solstice (on which some variants of

8932-536: Is recorded in the Berne recension of the Martyrologium Hieronymianum of circa 800: " Basilea civitate sancti Albani martyris ", where he would appear to be an independent local figure, being celebrated on 24 August but later identified with the Saint Alban of Mainz. St Alban of Mainz is recorded from 756. He was regarded as a separate figure in sources from Raban Maur's early 9th-century martyrology, including

9135-470: Is selection and training of leadership. Classically, leadership training required an expensive stay at a seminary, a Bible college. Modern church planters deprecate this because it substantially slows the growth of the church without much immediate benefit. Modern mission doctrines replace the seminary with programmed curricula or (even less expensive) books of discussion questions, and access to real theological books. The materials are usually made available in

9338-405: Is slight, but the church of St Pancras in Canterbury has a Roman building at its core, although it is unclear whether that older building was a church during the Roman era. Another possible site is Lullingstone, in Kent, where a religious site dating to 300 was found underneath an abandoned church. Soon after his arrival, Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul , to the east of

9541-536: Is some evidence, including Gregory's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission, that some of the Franks felt they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time. The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship, if Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish Church and not merely as a spiritual adviser to

9744-517: Is the famous "three-self" formula formulated by Henry Venn of the London Church Missionary Society in the 19th century. Cross-cultural missionaries are persons who accept church-planting duties to evangelize people outside their culture, as Christ commanded in the Great Commission ( Matthew 28:18–20 , Mark 16:15–18 ). The objective of these missionaries is to give an understandable presentation of their beliefs with

9947-484: Is unclear; some historians argue for 625, the traditional date, whereas others believe that it was closer to 619. Higham argues that the marriage alliance was part of an attempt by Eadbald, brother of the bride, to capitalise on the death of Rædwald in about 624, in an attempt to regain the overkingship his father had once enjoyed. According to Higham, Rædwald's death also removed one of the political factors keeping Eadbald from converting, and Higham dates Eadbald's baptism to

10150-541: The Liber Pontificalis is short and of little use, but he himself was a writer whose work sheds light on the mission. In addition, over 850 of Gregory's letters survive. A few later writings, such as letters from Boniface, an 8th-century Anglo-Saxon missionary, and royal letters to the papacy from the late 8th century, add additional detail. Some of these letters are only preserved in Bede's work. Bede represented

10353-597: The Vita Germani , or Life of St Germanus of Auxerre , written about 480 by Constantius of Lyon . The text only very briefly mentions Alban but is an important text concerning his nascent cult . According to the Vita , Germanus visited Alban's grave shortly after defeating the Pelagian heresy in Britain and asked Alban to give thanks to God on his behalf. They once again called on him during their voyage home, and Alban

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10556-673: The American Methodists , was "the Father of Methodist Missions". After spending time in the newly formed United States of America strengthening the infant Methodist Church alongside Episcopal colleague Francis Asbury , the British-born Coke left for mission work. During his time in America, Coke worked vigorously to increase Methodist support of Christian missions and of raising up mission workers. Coke died while on

10759-611: The American War of Independence , colonial officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all British colonies, including British North America . Missionary societies funded their own operations that were not supervised or directed by the Colonial Office. Tensions emerged between the missionaries and the colonial officials. The latter feared that missionaries might stir up trouble or encourage

10962-543: The Anglican , Roman Catholic , and Eastern Orthodox Communions . The Fellowship of Saint Alban and Saint Sergius is also named in part after Alban. Every year, during the weekend closest to his feast day, St Albans Cathedral hosts the "Alban Pilgrimage", with huge puppets re-enacting the events of Alban's martyrdom around the city of St Albans . Besides his abbey, churches in England dedicated to Saint Alban include

11165-835: The Guarani Reductions , a theocratic semi-independent region established by the Jesuits in the region of the future Paraguay between the early 17th century and 1767. From 1732 onwards the Moravian Church began sending out missionaries. In the United States, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was chartered in 1812. Protestant missionaries from the Anglican, Lutheran and Presbyterian traditions starting arriving in what

11368-682: The Hiberno-Scottish missions to continental Europe. When the Roman Empire recalled its legions from the province of Britannia in 410, parts of the island had already been settled by pagan Germanic tribes who, later in the century, appear to have taken control of Kent and other coastal regions no longer defended by the Roman Empire. In the late 6th century Pope Gregory sent a group of missionaries to Kent to convert Æthelberht , King of Kent, whose wife, Bertha of Kent ,

11571-473: The Hieronymianum actually place the saint's day). Being the day when the sun is at its brightest in midsummer, that might suggest that there is indeed some significance in the literal meaning of the name Albanus (or at least the root albho- on which it is based) as 'white' or 'bright'. Matthew Paris , the celebrated medieval English chronicler and most famous of St Alban's Abbey's monks, produced

11774-542: The High Middle Ages , St Albans was ranked as the premier abbey in England. The abbey church now serves as the cathedral of the Diocese of St Albans , established in 1877. In a chapel east of the crossing and high altar are remains of the 14th-century marble shrine of St Alban. In June 2002 a scapula (shoulder blade), believed to be a relic of St Alban, was presented to St Albans Cathedral and placed inside

11977-518: The Jewish festival of Sukkot , to be used during the annual autumn slaughter festivals so as to gradually change the Anglo-Saxon pagan festivals into Christian ones. The historian R. A. Markus suggests that the reason for the conflicting advice is that the letter to Æthelberht was written first, and sent off with the returning missionaries. Markus argues that the pope, after thinking further about

12180-481: The Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism, but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity. Besides the text of the Libellus contained within Bede's work, other versions of the letter circulated, some of which included a question omitted from Bede's version. Wood argues that

12383-538: The Passio relates, he deposits in the tomb of Saint Alban while removing some bloodstained earth to take back to Gaul, he must have known from the start that he would make a visit to the cult-centre of Saint Alban, as part of his campaign against the Pelagian heresy. On this basis he states: "This would make good sense in terms of his mission, claiming Britain's most famous cult for Catholicism". He therefore argues against

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12586-436: The Third World provoked challenges from critics who complained that the missionaries were teaching Western ways, and ignoring the indigenous culture. The Boxer Rebellion in China in 1899–1901 involved bloody attacks on Christian missions and especially their converts. The First World War diverted resources, and pulled most Germans out of missionary work when that country lost its empire. The worldwide Great Depression of

12789-739: The Timeline of Christian missions . Major nations not only send and fund missionaries abroad, but also receive them from other countries. In 2010, the United States sent out 127,000 missionaries, while 32,400 came to the United States. Brazil was second, sending out 34,000, and receiving 20,000. France sent out 21,000 and received 10,000. Britain sent out 15,000 and received 10,000. India sent out 10,000 and received 8000. Other major exporters included Spain at 21,000 sent out, Italy at 20,000, South Korea at 20,000, Germany at 14,000, and Canada at 8,500. Large recipient nations included Russia, receiving 20,000; Congo receiving 15,000; South Africa, 12,000; Argentina, 10,000; and Chile, 8,500. The largest sending agency in

12992-441: The Treaty of Tordesillas , the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade and colonization. The proselytization of Asia became linked to Portuguese colonial policy . From 1499 onward, Portuguese trade with Asia rapidly proved profitable. As Jesuits arrived in India around 1540 the colonial government in Goa supported the mission with incentives for baptized Christians. Beginning in 1552,

13195-422: The dating of Easter . He also urged them to help with the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. After some discussion, the local bishops stated that they needed to consult with their own people before agreeing to Augustine's requests, and left the meeting. Bede relates that a group of native bishops consulted an old hermit who said they should obey Augustine if, when they next met with him, Augustine rose when he greeted

13398-413: The "Doctrine of Love" professed by many missions) permit the provision of aid without requiring religious conversion. Nonetheless, the provision of help has always been closely tied to evangelization efforts. The earliest Christian mission, the Great Commission and Dispersion of the Apostles , was active within Second Temple Judaism . Whether a Jewish proselytism existed or not that would have served as

13601-428: The 'E' and later versions That is very possible but, of course, quite unprovable, but it seems clear that the Passio originates with the circle of Germanus at Auxerre. As time went on, more and more details and wondrous events were added to the account, reaching its most detailed version in Bede's 8th century Ecclesiastical History of the English People . The location of the tomb of Saint Alban that Germanus visited

13804-497: The 15th-century chronicler Thomas Elmham , gives the date of the king's conversion as Whit Sunday , or 2 June 597; there is no reason to doubt this date, but there is no other evidence for it. A letter of Gregory's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598 mentions the number of converts made, but does not mention any baptism of the king in 597, although it is clear that by 601 he had been converted. The royal baptism probably took place at Canterbury but Bede does not mention

14007-559: The 1930s was a major blow to funding mission activities. In 1910, the Edinburgh Missionary Conference was presided over by active SVM and YMCA leader John R. Mott , an American Methodist layperson, the conference reviewed the state of evangelism, Bible translation, mobilization of church support, and the training of indigenous leadership. Looking to the future, conferees worked on strategies for worldwide evangelism and cooperation. The conference not only established greater ecumenical cooperation in missions, but also essentially launched

14210-432: The 21st century there were more Anglicans in Nigeria than in England. Christian missions in Australia played a part in both indoctrinating Aboriginal Australians into Christianity, and in controlling their movements and removing children from families, leading to the Stolen Generations . German missionaries ran Lutheran and other mission stations and schools, from the earliest days of colonisation of Australia . One of

14413-417: The 4th century the Roman province of Britannia was converted to Christianity and had even produced its own heretic in Pelagius . Britain sent three bishops to the Synod of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters. Lead baptismal basins and other artefacts bearing Christian symbols testify to a growing Christian presence at least until about 360. After

14616-479: The Anglo-Saxons must be brought up to the equivalent of Jewish practices, then after that stage was reached they could be brought completely up to Christian practices. Bede relates that after the mission's arrival in Kent and conversion of the king, they were allowed to restore and rebuild old Roman churches for their use. One such was Christ Church, Canterbury, which became Augustine's cathedral church. Archaeological evidence for other Roman churches having been rebuilt

14819-479: The Bible into native languages. McGavran concentrated on finding bridges to cross the class and cultural barriers in places like India, which has upwards of 4,600 peoples, separated by a combination of language, culture, and caste . Despite democratic reforms, caste and class differences are still fundamental in many cultures. An equally important dimension of missions strategy is the indigenous method of nationals reaching their own people. In Asia this wave of missions

15022-745: The Boxers. In the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century, missionaries based in Britain saw the British Empire as a fertile field for proselytizing for Christianity. All the main denominations were involved, including the Church of England , Scottish Presbyterian, and Nonconformists. Much of the enthusiasm emerged from the Evangelical revival. Within the Church of England, the Church Mission Society (CMS) originated in 1799 and went on to undertake activity all around

15225-584: The Church sent Jesuits to China and to other countries in Asia. During the time of the Holland (Batavia) Mission (1592–1853), when the Roman Catholic church in the country was suppressed, there were neither parishes nor dioceses, and the country effectively became a mission area in which congregations were called "stations" ( staties ) . Statie , usually called a clandestine church in English, refers to both

15428-786: The Continent from an early date such as in Mainz, Cologne and Basel on the Rhine as well as a number of other localities in Switzerland and Italy and a notable concentration in the French Alpine regions and the Rhone Valley. Sometimes, the 'Saint Alban' concerned is regarded as a separate figure, other times, he is alternatively called Albinus (and often identified with 6th c. bishop, Saint Albinus of Angers ), and at other times he

15631-535: The Conversion of Heathen" and was the first missionary of the Baptist Missionary Society . He went to Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1793. Far from a dry book of theology, Carey's work used the best available geographic and ethnographic data to map and count the number of people who had never heard the Gospel. He has been referred to as the "father of modern missions", and as "India's first cultural anthropologist." In

15834-610: The Deacon . After Justus' departure from Northumbria, a new king, Oswald , invited missionaries from the Irish monastery of Iona , who worked to convert the kingdom. About the time that Edwin died in 633, a member of the East Anglian royal family, Sigeberht , returned to Britain after his conversion while in exile in Francia. He asked Honorius , one of the Gregorian missionaries who was then Archbishop of Canterbury, to send him

16037-505: The English People . For this work Bede solicited help and information from many people including his contemporary abbot at Canterbury as well as a future Archbishop of Canterbury , Nothhelm , who forwarded Bede copies of papal letters and documents from Rome. Other sources are biographies of Pope Gregory, including one written in Northern England around 700 as well as a 9th-century life by a Roman writer. The early Life of Gregory

16240-529: The Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and were asked to allow some Frankish priests to accompany the mission. By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops, Gregory helped to ensure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent, as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which enjoyed the evident support of his wife's relatives and people. The Franks at that time were attempting to extend their influence in Kent, and assisting Augustine's mission furthered that goal. Chlothar, in particular, needed

16443-673: The Gaulish and the Hiberno-British strands already present. Although it is often suggested that the Gregorian missionaries introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into England, there is no supporting evidence. The early archbishops at Canterbury claimed supremacy over all the bishops in the British Isles, but their claim was not acknowledged by most of the rest of the bishops. The Gregorian missionaries appear to have played no part in

16646-405: The Gregorian missionaries was the ongoing conflict between the natives and the Anglo-Saxons, who still were encroaching upon British lands at the time of the mission. The British were unwilling to preach to the invaders of their country, and the invaders saw the natives as second-class citizens, and would have been unwilling to listen to any conversion efforts. There was also a political dimension, as

16849-507: The Latin word for bishop) his existence may have been doubted. One of Bertha's biographers states that, influenced by his wife, Æthelberht requested Pope Gregory to send missionaries. The historian Ian Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen. Most historians take the view that Gregory initiated the mission, although exactly why remains unclear. A famous story recorded by Bede, an 8th-century monk who wrote

17052-850: The Near and Far East. Their travels took them as far as China in an attempt to convert the advancing Mongols , especially the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire (related to Medieval Roman Catholic Missions in China). In the later part of the fifteenth century, Portuguese missionaries had success in spreading Christianity to the Kingdom of Kongo in West Africa. In 1491, King João I of Kongo converted to Christianity and his nobility and peasants followed suit. The Kongo kingdom remained Christian for

17255-474: The Roman Church. Although Gregory had intended for the southern archiepiscopal see to be located at London, that never happened. A later tradition, dating from 797, when an attempt was made to move the archbishopric from Canterbury to London by King Coenwulf of Mercia , stated that on the death of Augustine, the "wise men" of the Anglo-Saxons met and decided that the see should remain at Canterbury, for that

17458-464: The Roman legions withdrew from Britannia in 410 the natives of Great Britain were left to defend themselves, and non-Christian Angles , Saxons , and Jutes —generally referred to collectively as Anglo-Saxons —settled the southern parts of the island. Though most of Britain remained Christian, isolation from Rome bred a number of distinct practices— Celtic Christianity —including emphasis on monasteries instead of bishoprics, differences in calculation of

17661-551: The Southern Baptist foreign missionary operation (the International Mission Board) has operated at a deficit, and it is cutting operations by 15 percent. It is encouraging older missionaries to retire and return to the United States. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, birthed a movement that supports evangelical mission among non-Christians and nominal Christians. It regards "mission" as that which

17864-403: The T version, states (in the translation of Sharpe): but interpolated at this point in only the T version is after which the T version essentially follows the E version again: It is possible to deduce from the interpolated passage that the name of the martyr was unknown before being revealed to Germanus, either in a vision he had of the martyr during his sea journey or in the dream he had in

18067-433: The United States is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints who, at this date 2019, has 67,000 full time proselytizing young missionaries all over the world with many more elder missionaries serving in similar circumstances. The Southern Baptist Convention, has 4,800 missionaries, plus 450 support staff working inside the United States. The annual budget is about $ 50,000 per year per missionary. In recent years, however,

18270-607: The United States, " Hard Shell Baptists ", " Anti-Mission Baptists ", or " Old School Baptists " adhering to strict Calvinism rejected all mission boards, Bible tract societies, and temperance societies as nonbiblical. This faction was strongest in the American South. The mainstream of the Baptist denomination, however, supported missionary work, by the founding of International Ministries in 1814 and International Mission Board in 1845. A wave of missions, starting in

18473-496: The Whitby Life of Gregory , records that Gregory himself had attempted to go on a missionary journey to Britain before becoming pope. In 595 Gregory wrote to one of the papal estate managers in southern Gaul, asking that he buy English slave boys so that they might be educated in monasteries. Some historians have seen this as a sign that Gregory was already planning the mission to Britain at that time, and that he intended to send

18676-525: The abbot of Sts Peter and Paul Abbey in Canterbury, to the Council of Paris in 614, probably with Æthelbertht's support. Æthelbertht also promulgated a code of laws, which was probably influenced by the missionaries. A pagan reaction set in following Æthelbert's death in 616; Mellitus was expelled from London never to return, and Justus was expelled from Rochester, although he eventually managed to return after spending some time with Mellitus in Gaul. Bede relates

18879-553: The basilica. It is also possible to deduce that it was simply the acta , or 'story of the martyrdom', of an already well-known figure that was revealed to Germanus. The acta were then written down in tituli (translated above as 'placards'): that is possibly engraved in the walls of a church with illustrations. This might have been either in a church in Auxerre (Germanus's home town in Gaul) as argued by Sharpe and Wood, or in Britain. If

19082-606: The bishop's clergy. Most modern historians have noted how the Gregorian missionaries come across in Bede's account as colourless and boring, compared to the Irish missionaries in Northumbria, and this is related directly to the way Bede gathered his information. The historian Henry Mayr-Harting argues that in addition, most of the Gregorian missionaries were concerned with the Roman virtue of gravitas , or personal dignity not given to emotional displays, and this would have limited

19285-425: The bishops of Britain. He does not mention Alban by name, but includes an unnamed martyr, who, "in the hands of the executioners told rivers to draw back, lest he should be delayed in his haste." The account closely resembles Alban's martyrdom, and many historians have concluded that this may be a reference to Alban, making it the earliest surviving reference to a British saint. There can be no certainty, however, that

19488-483: The boundaries of the old Roman Empire. In the seventh century Gregory the Great sent missionaries, including Augustine of Canterbury , into England, and in the eight century English Christians, notably Saint Boniface , spread Christianity into Germany. The Hiberno-Scottish mission began in 563. In the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, Franciscans such as William of Rubruck , John of Montecorvino , and Giovanni ed' Magnolia were sent as missionaries to

19691-425: The church in Francia at that time. Another aspect of the mission was how little of it was based on monasticism. One monastery was established at Canterbury, which later became St Augustine's Abbey, but although Augustine and some of his missionaries had been monks, they do not appear to have lived as monks at Canterbury. Instead, they lived more as secular clergy serving a cathedral church, and it appears likely that

19894-559: The circumstances of the mission in Britain, then sent a follow-up letter, the Epistolae ad Mellitum , to Mellitus, then en route to Canterbury, which contained new instructions. Markus sees this as a turning point in missionary history, in that forcible conversion gave way to persuasion. This traditional view that the Epistola represents a contradiction of the letter to Æthelberht has been challenged by George Demacopoulos who argues that

20097-496: The city, just outside the walls, on land donated by the king. After Augustine's death, it was renamed St Augustine's Abbey . This foundation has often been claimed as the first Benedictine abbey outside Italy, and that by founding it Augustine introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into England, but there is no evidence that the abbey followed the Benedictine Rule at the time of its foundation. Gregory had ordered that

20300-502: The colourful stories available about them. One reason for the mission's success was that it worked by example. Also important was Gregory's flexibility and willingness to allow the missionaries to adjust their liturgies and behaviour. Another reason was the willingness of Æthelberht to be baptised by a non-Frank. The king would have been wary of allowing the Frankish bishop Liudhard to convert him, as that might open Kent up to Frankish claims of overlordship. But being converted by an agent of

20503-448: The conclusion of Woods and Garcia that the martyr Alban was unknown before being invented by Germanus. Key to the argument is a passage in the T version of the Passio that Sharpe has convincingly argued represents an 'interpolation' to the more original E text. All extant versions of the Passio mention (after describing the story of the saint's martyrdom) Germanus's visit to the tomb of Saint Alban. The E version, followed essentially by

20706-526: The congregation's church and its seat or location. The Reformation unfolded in Europe in the early 16th century. For over a hundred years, occupied by their struggle with the Catholic Church, the early Protestant churches as a body were not strongly focused on missions to "heathen" lands. Instead, the focus was initially more on Christian lands in the hope to spread the Protestant faith, identifying

20909-470: The consecration of bishops. Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul, childbirth and baptism, and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass. Other than the trip by Laurence, little is known of the activities of the missionaries in the period from their arrival until 601. Gregory mentions the mass conversions, and there is mention of Augustine working miracles that helped win converts, but there

21112-522: The conversion of Jews. Also pagans in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica were the subject of letters to officials, urging their conversion. Some scholars suggest that Gregory's main motivation was to increase the number of Christians; others wonder if more political matters such as extending the primacy of the papacy to additional provinces and the recruitment of new Christians looking to Rome for leadership were also involved. Such considerations may have also played

21315-613: The conversion of the West Saxons , who were converted by Birinus , a missionary sent directly by Pope Honorius I . Neither did they have much lasting influence in Northumbria, where after Edwin's death the conversion of the Northumbrians was achieved by missionaries from Iona, not Canterbury. An important by-product of the Gregorian mission was the close relationship it fostered between the Anglo-Saxon Church and

21518-428: The conversions taking place. The exact date of Æthelberht's conversion is unknown but it occurred before 601. A second group of monks and clergy was dispatched in 601 bearing books and other items for the new foundation. Gregory intended Augustine to be the metropolitan archbishop of the southern part of the British Isles, and gave him power over the clergy of the native Britons, but in a series of meetings with Augustine

21721-446: The culture of the peoples among whom they live. The word "mission" was historically often applied to the building, the " mission station " in which the missionary lives or works. In some colonies, these mission stations became a focus of settlement of displaced or formerly nomadic people. Particularly in rural Australia, mission stations (known as missions) became home to many Indigenous Australians . Additional events can be found at

21924-404: The date of Easter , and a modified clerical tonsure . Evidence for the continued existence of Christianity in eastern Britain at this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence of eccles —from the Latin for church —in place names. There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxon newcomers. The Anglo-Saxon invasions coincided with

22127-518: The death of Æthelberht revealed. London at that time was part of the Kingdom of Essex , which was ruled by Æthelberht's nephew Sæbert of Essex , who converted to Christianity in 604. The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London, and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after Æthelberht's death that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see, contradicting Bede's version of events. The choice of London as Gregory's proposed southern archbishopric

22330-490: The decline of urban Roman culture in Britain. The net effect was that when Augustine arrived in 597 the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had little continuity with the preceding Roman civilisation. In the words of the historian John Blair, "Augustine of Canterbury began his mission with an almost clean slate." Most of the information available on the Gregorian mission comes from the medieval writer Bede , especially his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , or Ecclesiastical History of

22533-408: The disappearance of most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Anglo-Saxons, including the economic and religious structures. Whether this was a result of the invasions themselves, as the early medieval writer Gildas argued, or mere coincidence is unclear. The archaeological evidence suggests much variation in the way that the tribes established themselves in Britain concurrently with

22736-568: The distant Roman pontiff was not only safer, it allowed the added prestige of accepting baptism from the central source of the Latin Church. As the Roman Church was considered part of the Roman Empire in Constantinople, this also would gain Æthelberht acknowledgement from the emperor. Other historians have attributed the success of the mission to the substantial resources Gregory invested in its success; he sent over forty missionaries in

22939-418: The early 1850s, targeted inland areas, led by a Briton Hudson Taylor (1832–1905) with his China Inland Mission (1865– ). Taylor was later supported by Henry Grattan Guinness (1835–1910) who founded (1883) Cliff College , which continues as of 2014 to train and equip for local and global mission. The missions inspired by Taylor and Guinness have collectively been called " faith missions " and owe much to

23142-526: The early British martyrs. This suggests there was at least a shrine but quite possibly a church to him at Verulamium by then. Certainly, Bede (c. 720) mentions a church there, dedicated to him. Offa of Mercia established a Benedictine Abbey and monastery at the site c. 793, but the abbey was probably sacked and destroyed by the Danes c. 890. It was rebuilt by the Normans, with construction beginning in 1077. By

23345-608: The eighth century. The T manuscript is located in Turin , the P manuscript is found in Paris and the E manuscripts (of which there are 4) are at The British Library and Gray's Inn , both in London, and Autun (France) and Einsiedeln (Switzerland). The Passio is very likely the source text of the more well-known accounts found in Gildas and Bede. Another early text to mention Alban is

23548-461: The expulsion of Mellitus, as it was Sæberht's sons who banished Mellitus. Bede said that the sons had never been converted, and after Æthelberht's death they attempted to force Mellitus to give them the Eucharist without ever becoming Christians, seeing the Eucharist as magical. Although Bede does not give details of any political factors surrounding the event, it is likely that by expelling Mellitus

23751-485: The fact that the topography of the Passio can be broadly, if not quite exactly, matched to that of Verulamium , and Bede describes an important cult of Saint Alban there, by the early eighth century at least. Some doubt, however, is encouraged by the fact that in his account of Albans's martyrdom Gildas ( De Excidio 11) describes the martyr as crossing the Thames to his place of execution (at Verulamium /St Alban's there

23954-407: The factions then contending in Gaul. Another consideration may have been that new methods of administration often followed conversion, whether directly from the newly introduced church or indirectly from other Christian kingdoms. Evidence from Bede suggests that, although Æthelberht encouraged conversion, he could not compel his subjects to become Christians. The historian R. A. Markus feels that this

24157-463: The first group, with more joining them later, a quite significant number. The last of Gregory's missionaries, Archbishop Honorius, died on 30 September 653. He was succeeded as archbishop by Deusdedit , a native Englishman. The missionaries were forced to proceed slowly, and could not do much about eliminating pagan practices, or destroying temples or other sacred sites, unlike the missionary efforts that had taken place in Gaul under St Martin . There

24360-1040: The former St Alban, Wood Street in the City of London , St Alban's Church at Holborn in central London , ones in the London suburbs of Teddington , Croydon , Cheam and Ilford , one in Westcliff-on-Sea in Essex , others in Hull and Withernwick in the East Riding of Yorkshire , one in Swaythling, Southampton , one in Northampton , one in a Norwich suburb, one in Bristol , one in Tattenhall , Cheshire and another in Macclesfield , Cheshire. There

24563-476: The ground, but the text does not name the location of the tomb. It is not until Gildas that Alban was connected with Verulamium. Little is known about the real Alban (estimated to have died c. 209 – 305 AD, depending on interpretations), as there are no contemporaneous accounts of his martyrdom and the major sources on his life were written hundreds of years after his death, containing wondrous embellishments, which may or may not refer to real events. Saint Alban

24766-560: The groups to convert. When combined with training in discipleship, church planting and other modern missionary doctrine , the result is an accelerating, self-propelled conversion of large portions of the culture. A typical modern mission is a co-operative effort by many different ministries, often including several coordinating ministries, such as the Faith2Share network, often with separate funding sources. One typical effort proceeded as follows: The most crucial part of church planting

24969-405: The head of the first Roman soldier who was miraculously converted and refused to execute him. However, immediately after delivering the fatal stroke, the eyes of the second executioner popped out of his head and dropped to the ground, along with Alban's head, so that this second executioner could not rejoice over Alban's death. In later legends, Alban's head rolled downhill after his execution, and

25172-531: The heresy of Pelagianism in Britain, visited the tomb of Saint Alban: The martyr Alban is also mentioned, one more time, in the context of Germanus's return journey, by sea: The Vita Germani was long regarded as the earliest source for the martyr Alban, but recent research by Richard Sharpe has suggested the earliest version of the Passio Albani (the official story of the saint's martyrdom) may be even earlier (see below and Sources). Wood's argument

25375-496: The historian Ian Wood proposed that Alban was an 'invention' of Germanus of Auxerre. Germanus visited Britain in 429, as is known from the nearly-contemporary mention by Prosper of Aquitaine . His chronicle, in the entry for the year 429 (published in 433), states: Meanwhile, it was recorded in the Vita Germani ('Life of St Germanus of Auxerre'), written probably sometime between 450 and 485 by Constantius of Lyons, that he, together with his fellow bishop Lupus, having stamped out

25578-400: The hope that people will choose to following the teaching of Jesus Christ and live their lives as His disciples. As a matter of strategy, many evangelical Christians around the world now focus on what they call the "10/40 window", a band of countries between 10 and 40 degrees north latitude and reaching from western Africa through Asia. Christian missions strategist Luis Bush pinpointed

25781-648: The ideas and example of Anthony Norris Groves (1795–1853). Taylor, a thorough-going nativist , offended the missionaries of his era by wearing Chinese clothing and speaking Chinese at home. His books, speaking, and examples led to the formation of numerous inland missions and of the Student Volunteer Movement (SVM, founded in 1886), which from 1850 to about 1950 sent nearly 10,000 missionaries to inland areas, often at great personal sacrifice. Many early SVM missionaries traveling to areas with endemic tropical diseases left with their belongings packed in

25984-479: The interpreters for the mission came from the Franks. Another reason for the mission was the growing power of the Kentish kingdom. Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592, Æthelberht was the leading Anglo-Saxon ruler; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium , or overlordship, south of the River Humber . Lastly, the proximity of Kent to the Franks allowed for support from a Christian area. There

26187-433: The judge heard that Alban had offered himself up in place of the priest, he became enraged that Alban would shelter a person who "despised and blasphemed the gods," and, as Alban had given himself up in the Christian's place, Alban was sentenced to endure all the punishments that were to be inflicted upon the priest, unless he would comply with the pagan rites of their religion. Alban refused, and declared, "I worship and adore

26390-467: The king of the East Angles , also was converted, but no see was established in his territory. Rædwald had been converted while visiting Æthelberht in Kent, but when he returned to his own court he worshiped pagan gods as well as the Christian god. Bede relates that Rædwald's backsliding was because of his still-pagan wife, but the historian S. D. Church sees political implications of overlordship behind

26593-577: The largest organisations was the United Aborigines Mission , which ran dozens of missionaries and stations in Western Australia , New South Wales and South Australia in the 1900s. Missionaries increasingly came to focus on education, medical help, and long-term modernization of the native personality to inculcate European middle-class values. They established schools and medical clinics. Christian missionaries played

26796-404: The last remaining pagan area of the old empire back under Christian control. The choice of Kent and Æthelberht was almost certainly dictated by a number of factors, including that Æthelberht had allowed his Christian wife to worship freely. Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht's kingdom was well established, and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle as

26999-415: The later part of the 7th century, claimed that the native clerks would not eat with the missionaries, nor would they perform Christian ceremonies with them. Laurence , Augustine's successor, writing to the Irish bishops during his tenure of Canterbury, also stated that an Irish bishop, Dagan , would not share meals with the missionaries. One probable reason for the British clergy's refusal to cooperate with

27202-437: The latter is the case, by being on public display, they might have served to give a definitive version of the saint's martyrdom, which could not be contradicted or reinterpreted (for instance by the addition of 'Pelagian' themes) In any case, it has been argued by Sharpe and Wood that these acta written down in tituli were actually the original, very simple and short, first version of the Passio Albani that has come down in

27405-659: The letter to Æthelberht was mainly meant to encourage the king in spiritual matters, while the Epistola was sent to deal with purely practical matters, and thus the two do not contradict each other. Flora Spiegel, a writer on Anglo-Saxon literature , suggests that the theme of comparing the Anglo-Saxons to the Israelites was part of a conversion strategy involving gradual steps, including an explicitly proto-Jewish one between paganism and Christianity. Spiegel sees this as an extension of Gregory's view of Judaism as halfway between Christianity and paganism. Thus, Gregory felt that first

27608-465: The location. Why Æthelberht chose to convert to Christianity is uncertain. Bede suggests that the king converted strictly for religious reasons, but most modern historians see other motives behind Æthelberht's decision. Certainly, given Kent's close contacts with Gaul, it is possible that Æthelberht sought baptism to smooth his relations with the Merovingian kingdoms, or to align himself with one of

27811-488: The long-established Celtic bishops refused to acknowledge his authority. Before Æthelberht's death in 616, a number of other bishoprics had been established. After that date, a pagan backlash set in and the see , or bishopric, of London was abandoned. Æthelberht's daughter, Æthelburg , married Edwin , the king of the Northumbrians , and by 627 Paulinus , the bishop who accompanied her north, had converted Edwin and

28014-457: The martyr referred to is actually Saint Alban. The foundational text concerning Alban is the Passio Albani , or the Passion of Alban, which relates the tale of Alban's martyrdom, and Germanus of Auxerre 's subsequent visit to the site of Alban's execution. This Passio survives in six manuscripts , with three different recensions , referred to as T, P, and E, the oldest of which dates to

28217-501: The mention of Severus in the Turin version has been shown to be an interpolation into an original text, which mentioned only a iudex or 'judge'. Subsequent scholars ( William Hugh Clifford Frend and Charles Thomas for example) have argued that such a single, localised British martyrdom in 209 would have been unusual, and they have suggested the period of 251–259 (under the persecutors Decius or Valerian ) are more likely. While it

28420-405: The mission and asking that Augustine and his companions be made welcome. Copies of letters to some of these bishops survive in Rome. The pope wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia , as well as their grandmother Brunhilda of Austrasia , seeking aid for the mission. Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine. Besides hospitality,

28623-455: The missionaries could be seen as agents of the invaders; because Augustine was protected by Æthelberht, submitting to Augustine would have been seen as submitting to Æthelberht's authority, which the British bishops would have been unwilling to do. Most of the information on the Gregorian mission comes from Bede's narrative, and this reliance on one source necessarily leaves the picture of native missionary efforts skewed. First, Bede's information

28826-457: The missionaries to persevere. Another reason for the pause may have been the receipt of news of the death of King Childebert II , who had been expected to help the missionaries; Augustine may have returned to Rome to secure new instructions and letters of introduction, as well as to update Gregory on the new political situation in Gaul. Most likely, they halted in the Rhone valley. Gregory also took

29029-430: The model for the later Anglo-Saxon missionaries to Germany. The historian R. A. Markus suggests that the Gregorian mission was a turning point in papal missionary strategy, marking the beginnings of a policy of persuasion rather than coercion. Christian mission Missionaries preach the Christian faith and sometimes administer the sacraments , and provide humanitarian aid or services. Christian doctrines (such as

29232-418: The modern ecumenical movement . The next wave of missions was started by two missionaries, Cameron Townsend and Donald McGavran , around 1935. These men realized that although earlier missionaries had reached geographic areas, there were numerous ethnographic groups that were isolated by language, or class from the groups that missionaries had reached. Cameron formed Wycliffe Bible Translators to translate

29435-464: The most elaborate version of the tale found in Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People , in the 3rd or 4th century (see dating controversy below), Christians began to suffer "cruel persecution", and Alban was living in Verulamium . However, Gildas says he crossed the Thames before his martyrdom, so some authors place his residence and martyrdom in or near London. Both agree that Alban met

29638-527: The most well-known missions in history. While some of these missions were associated with imperialism and oppression, others (notably Matteo Ricci 's Jesuit mission to China) were relatively peaceful and focused on inculturation rather than cultural imperialism . In both Portugal and Spain, religion was an integral part of the state and evangelization was seen as having both secular and spiritual benefits. Wherever these powers attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By

29841-460: The native British church as wicked and sinful. To explain why Britain was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, he drew on the polemic of Gildas and developed it further in his own works. Although he found some native British clergy worthy of praise he nevertheless condemned them for their failure to convert the invaders and for their resistance to Roman ecclesiastical authority. This bias may have resulted in his understating British missionary activity. Bede

30044-461: The native British bishops were to be governed by Augustine and, consequently, Augustine arranged a meeting with some of the native clergy some time between 602 and 604. The meeting took place at a tree later given the name "Augustine's Oak", probably around the present-day boundary between Somerset and Gloucestershire . Augustine apparently argued that the British church should give up any of its customs not in accordance with Roman practices, including

30247-474: The native church would suffer at the hands of the Anglo-Saxons. This prophecy was seen as fulfilled when Æthelfrith of Northumbria supposedly killed 1200 native monks at the Battle of Chester . Bede uses the story of Augustine's two meetings with two groups of British bishops as an example of how the native clergy refused to cooperate with the Gregorian mission. Later, Aldhelm , the abbot of Malmesbury , writing in

30450-639: The native population, including the royalty. In the course of the Spanish colonization of the Americas , the Catholic missionaries learned the languages of the Amerindians and devised writing systems for them. Then they preached to indigenous people in those languages ( Quechua , Guarani , Nahuatl ) instead of Spanish, to keep Indians away from "sinful" whites. An extreme case of segregation occurred in

30653-468: The natives to challenge colonial authority. In general, colonial officials were much more comfortable with working with the established local leadership, including the native religions, rather than introducing the divisive force of Christianity. This proved especially troublesome in India, were very few local elites were attracted to Christianity. In Africa, especially, the missionaries made many converts. As of

30856-412: The natives. But if Augustine failed to stand up when they arrived for the second meeting, they should not submit. When Augustine failed to rise to greet the second delegation of British bishops at the next meeting, Bede says the native bishops refused to submit to Augustine. Bede then has Augustine proclaim a prophecy that because of lack of missionary effort towards the Anglo-Saxons from the British church,

31059-648: The need for a major focus of evangelism in the " 10/40 Window ", a phrase he coined in his presentation at the missionary conference Lausanne 1989 in Manila. Sometimes referred to as the "Resistant Belt", it is an area that includes 35% of the world's land mass, 90% of the world's poorest peoples and 95% of those who have yet to hear anything about Christianity. Modern mission techniques are sufficiently refined that within ten to fifteen years, most indigenous churches are locally pastored, managed, taught, self-supporting and evangelizing. The process can be substantially faster if

31262-536: The next two centuries. One of the main goals of the Christopher Columbus expedition financed by Queen Isabella of Spain was to spread Christianity. During the Age of Discovery , Spain and Portugal established many missions in their American and Asian colonies. The most active orders were the Jesuits , Augustinians , Franciscans and Dominicans . The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. These are some of

31465-454: The north of Britain gained ground when Edwin of Northumbria married Æthelburg, a daughter of Æthelbert, and agreed to allow her to continue to worship as a Christian. He also agreed to allow Paulinus of York to accompany her as a bishop, and for Paulinus to preach to the court. By 627, Paulinus had converted Edwin, and on Easter, 627, Edwin was baptised. Many others were baptised after the king's conversion. The exact date when Paulinus went north

31668-500: The opportunity to name Augustine as abbot of the mission. Augustine then returned to the rest of the missionaries, with new instructions, probably including orders to seek consecration as a bishop on the Continent if the conditions in Kent warranted it. In 597 the mission landed in Kent, and it quickly achieved some initial success: Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury, where they used St Martin's Church for services, and this church became

31871-614: The papacy with the Antichrist . In the centuries that followed, Protestant churches began sending out missionaries in increasing numbers, spreading the proclamation of the Christian message to previously unreached people . In North America, missionaries to the Native Americans included Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758), the well-known preacher of the Great Awakening (c. 1731–1755), who in his later years retired from

32074-463: The pattern of the first century Apostles. The process of forming disciples is necessarily social. "Church" should be understood in the widest sense, as a body of believers of Christ rather than simply a building. In this view, even those who are already culturally Christian must be "evangelized". Church planting by cross-cultural missionaries leads to the establishment of self-governing, self-supporting and self-propagating communities of believers. This

32277-506: The period of the mission, none describes native Christians as active missionaries amongst the Anglo-Saxons. Most of the information about the British church at this time is concerned with the western regions of the island of Great Britain and does not deal with the Gregorian missionaries. Other sources of information include Bede's chronologies, the set of laws issued by Æthelberht in Kent, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , which

32480-561: The persecution of Diocletian . Bede's account is much more detailed but sets the events during the reign of Septimius Severus and in the town of Verulamium , where a shrine devoted to Alban had been established by at least 429 AD, when Germanus of Auxerre is said to have visited the cult centre during his tour of Britain. Alban is also briefly mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (c. 900), and by Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136). It

32683-405: The persecution of Diocletian, adding at the end of a passage about "their graves and the places where they suffered": "I refer to Saint Alban of Verulam ( Verolamiensem ), Aaron and Iulius, citizens of Caerleon ( Legionum Urbis ) and others of both sexes, who in different places, displayed the highest spirit in the battle-line of Christ". ( De Excidio 10) The Verulamium location is supported by

32886-430: The persecutions of Emperor Septimius Severus in 209. Morris bases his claims on the Turin version of the Passio Albani , unknown to Bede, which states, "Alban received a fugitive cleric and put on his garment and his cloak ( habitu et caracalla ) that he was wearing and delivered himself up to be killed instead of the priest… and was delivered immediately to the evil Caesar Severus." According to Morris St Gildas knew

33089-595: The possibility. He suggests it might have been that Boniface was influenced by a recent reading of Bede's work. The rise of Æthelfrith of Northumbria in the north of Britain limited Æthelbertht's ability to expand his kingdom as well as limiting the spread of Christianity. Æthelfrith took over Deira about 604, adding it to his own realm of Bernicia . The Frankish kings in Gaul were increasingly involved in internal power struggles, leaving Æthelbertht free to continue to promote Christianity within his own lands. The Kentish Church sent Justus, then Bishop of Rochester, and Peter,

33292-421: The queen. Archaeological remains support the notion that there were cultural influences from Francia in England at that time. In 595, Gregory chose Augustine, prior of Gregory's own monastery of St Andrew in Rome, to head the mission to Kent. Gregory selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish kings. The pope wrote to a number of Frankish bishops on Augustine's behalf, introducing

33495-487: The question, which dealt with the cult of a native Christian saint, is only understandable if this cult impacted Augustine's mission, which would imply that Augustine had more relations with the local Christians than those related by Bede. In 604, another bishopric was founded, this time at Rochester , where Justus was consecrated as bishop. The king of Essex was converted in the same year, allowing another see to be established at London , with Mellitus as bishop. Rædwald ,

33698-463: The saint's martyrdom seems to have been revealed to, or invented by, Germanus in the context of his anti-Pelagian mission" and in a later article "Alban may, therefore, have been 'discovered' by the bishop of Auxerre". The argument has been accepted by, for instance, Michael Garcia but disputed by, for instance, Professor Nick Higham , who, in an article written in 2014, noted that since Germanus brought relics of continental saints with him, which, so

33901-468: The saint's restored 13th-century shrine. The bone was given by the Church of St Pantaleon in Cologne , Germany News . St Pantaleon's, like St Albans Cathedral a former Benedictine abbey church that had a shrine dedicated to St Alban, has possessed remains believed to be those of St Alban since the 10th century. It is entirely possible that further relics were acquired by the church in the 16th century at

34104-471: The seat of the bishopric. Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht's conversion, but it probably took place in 597. In the early medieval period, large-scale conversions required the ruler's conversion first, and large numbers of converts are recorded within a year of the mission's arrival in Kent. By 601, Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha, calling the king his son and referring to his baptism. A late medieval tradition, recorded by

34307-413: The sees established at Rochester and London were organised along similar lines. The Gaulish and Italian churches were organised around cities and the territories controlled by those cities. Pastoral services were centralised, and churches were built in the larger villages of the cities' territorial rule. The seat of the bishopric was established in the city and all churches belonged to the diocese, staffed by

34510-441: The site from c. 300, possibly earlier. There was certainly a cult centre of St Alban at Verulamium by the time of Bede c. 731, and the mention in Gildas strongly suggests that it was already in existence by the early sixth century. However, when and how the cult of Saint Alban originated is the subject of some debate: there is little textual or archaeological evidence that a cult of Saint Alban existed before Germanus of Auxerre visited

34713-430: The site in 429. In fact, one version of the Passio Albani says that Germanus did not know the name or story of Saint Alban before visiting the site, and Alban appeared to him in a dream to reveal his identity and martyrdom story. That can be interpreted as suggesting (see above: The Disputed Historicity) that the cult of Saint Alban did not exist before the arrival of Germanus. Germanus is said to have taken away dust from

34916-426: The site, which was still marked with Alban's blood. The cult and veneration of saints was still in its infancy at this time, and it has been suggested that Germanus had a hand in creating and promoting the cult of Saint Alban. Gildas writing probably in the second quarter of the fifth century calls Saint Alban Verolamiensis , 'of Verulamium' in a passage that refers to the "graves and places where they suffered" of

35119-458: The slaves as missionaries, although the letter is also open to other interpretations. The historian N. J. Higham speculates that Gregory had originally intended to send the British slave boys as missionaries, until in 596 he received news that Liudhard had died, thus opening the way for more serious missionary activity. Higham argues that it was the lack of any bishop in Britain which allowed Gregory to send Augustine, with orders to be consecrated as

35322-495: The sons were demonstrating their independence from Kent, and repudiating the overlordship that Æthelberht had exercised over the East Saxons. There is no evidence that Christians among the East Saxons were mistreated or oppressed after Mellitus' departure. Æthelberht was succeeded in Kent by his son Eadbald . Bede states that after Æthelberht's death Eadbald refused to be baptised and married his stepmother, an act forbidden by

35525-432: The source but mistranslated the name "Severus" as an adjective, wrongly identifying the emperor as Diocletian. Bede accepted the identification as fact and dates St Alban's martyrdom to this later period. As Morris points out, Diocletian reigned only in the East and would not have been involved in British affairs in 304; Emperor Severus, however, was in Britain from 208 to 211. Morris thus dates Alban's death to 209. However,

35728-441: The teachings of the Roman Church. Although Bede's account makes Laurence's miraculous flogging the trigger for Eadbald's baptism, this completely ignores the political and diplomatic problems facing Eadbald. There are also chronological problems with Bede's narrative, as surviving papal letters contradict Bede's account. Historians differ on the exact date of Eadbald's conversion. D. P. Kirby argues that papal letters imply that Eadbald

35931-447: The time of the dissolution of the monasteries in England when many such relics were smuggled abroad to prevent their destruction. St Albans Abbey was dissolved in 1539. The largest relic of St Alban in England is the thigh of the protomartyr preserved at St Michael's Benedictine Abbey , Farnborough, Hampshire , which was transferred from the St Pantaleon's reliquary in the 1950s. There has also been an extensive cult of Saint Alban on

36134-456: The time that his sister was sent to Northumbria. Although Bede's account gives all the initiative to Edwin, it is likely that Eadbald also was active in seeking such an alliance. Edwin's position in the north also was helped by Rædwald's death, and Edwin seems to have held some authority over other kingdoms until his death. Paulinus was active not only in Deira, which was Edwin's powerbase, but also in Bernicia and Lindsey . Edwin planned to set up

36337-441: The true and living God who created all things." (The words are still used in prayer at St Alban's Abbey). The enraged judge ordered Alban to be scourged , thinking that a whipping would shake the constancy of his heart, but Alban bore these torments patiently and joyfully. When the judge realized that the tortures would not shake his faith, he gave orders for Alban to be beheaded. Alban was led to execution, and he presently came to

36540-425: The vacillation about conversion. When Augustine died in 604, Laurence, another missionary, succeeded him as archbishop. The historian N. J. Higham suggests that a synod , or ecclesiastical conference to discuss church affairs and rules, was held at London during the early years of the mission, possibly shortly after 603. Boniface , an Anglo-Saxon native who became a missionary to the continental Saxons, mentions such

36743-598: The very public life of his early career. He became a missionary to the Housatonic Native Americans (1751) and a staunch advocate for them against cultural imperialism . As European culture has been established in the midst of indigenous peoples, the cultural distance between Christians of differing cultures has been difficult to overcome. One early solution was the creation of segregated "praying towns" of Christian natives. This pattern of grudging acceptance of converts played out again later in Hawaii when Congregational missionaries from New England went there and converted

36946-433: The way at a place that a later version of 1502, was identified as Silenen, Switzerland . The original record was in a 12th-century manuscript that alleged that the relics were actually those of the British martyr, having been delivered to Ravenna by Germanus himself and taken from there to Rome. Another church at Cologne is known to have been dedicated to the British Alban from the 12th century. The Saint Alban of Basel

37149-462: The world, including in what became known as "the Middle East". Before the American Revolution , British Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the Thirteen Colonies . The Methodists, led by George Whitefield , were the most successful and after the Revolution an entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the United States . A major problem for British colonial officials

37352-493: The year 283, but Bede places it in 305, "when the cruel Emperors first published their edicts against the Christians." In other words, it was sometime after the publication of the edicts by Eastern Roman Emperor Diocletian in 303 and before the proclamation of toleration in the Edict of Milan by co-ruling Roman Emperors Constantine I and Licinius , in 313. Bede was probably following Gildas. English historian John Morris suggests that Alban's martyrdom took place during

37555-437: Was a Frankish princess and practising Christian. Augustine had been the prior of Gregory's own monastery in Rome and Gregory prepared the way for the mission by soliciting aid from the Frankish rulers along Augustine's route. In 597, the forty missionaries arrived in Kent and were permitted by Æthelberht to preach freely in his capital of Canterbury . Soon the missionaries wrote to Gregory telling him of their success, and of

37758-515: Was active in Wales. During the Middle Ages , Ramon Llull advanced the concept of preaching to Muslims and converting them to Christianity by means of non-violent argument. A vision for large-scale mission to Muslims would die with him, not to be revived until the 19th century. Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions . During the Middle Ages, Christian monasteries and missionaries such as Saint Patrick , and Adalbert of Prague propagated learning and religion beyond

37961-438: Was appointed to Canterbury by the papacy. The mission was part of a movement by Gregory to turn away from the East, and look to the Western parts of the old Roman Empire. After Gregory, a number of his successors as pope continued in the same vein, and maintained papal support for the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. The missionary efforts of Augustine and his companions, along with those of the Hiberno-Scottish missionaries , were

38164-408: Was based partly on the idea that the name Albanus is suggestive of Albion as the oldest name for Britain, but for him, the name Alban suggested simply 'the man from Albion' rather than an actual 'personification' of the island and its people. It is, in any case, a part of what suggested to Wood that "it is Germanus who gives Alban a name". That, in turn, encouraged him in his conclusion: "The story of

38367-535: Was carried out by members of religious orders . Monasteries followed disciplines and supported missions, libraries, and practical research, all of which were perceived as works to reduce human misery and suffering and glorify the Christian God. For example, Nestorian communities evangelized parts of Central Asia, as well as Tibet, China, and India. Cistercians evangelized much of Northern Europe , as well as developing most of European agriculture's classic techniques. St Patrick evangelized many in Ireland. St David

38570-471: Was compiled in the late 9th century. In 595, when Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission to the Anglo-Saxons, the Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht. He had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588, and perhaps earlier than 560. Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I , one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks . As one of the conditions of her marriage she had brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent as her chaplain. They restored

38773-492: Was converted during the time that Justus was Archbishop of Canterbury, which was after Laurence's death, and long after the death of Æthelberht. Henry Mayr-Harting accepts the Bedan chronology as correct, and feels that Eadbald was baptised soon after his father's death. Higham agrees with Kirby that Eadbald did not convert immediately, contending that the king supported Christianity but did not convert for at least eight years after his father's death. The spread of Christianity in

38976-443: Was due to a strong pagan presence in the kingdom that forced the king to rely on indirect means including royal patronage and friendship to secure conversions. For Markus this is demonstrated by the way in which Bede describes the king's conversion efforts which, when a subject converted, were to "rejoice at their conversion" and to "hold believers in greater affection". After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with

39179-444: Was from the north of England, and this may have led to a bias towards events near his own lands. Bede was writing over a hundred years after the events he was recording with little contemporary information on the actual conversion efforts. Nor did Bede completely divorce his account of the missionaries from his own early 8th-century concerns. Although a few hagiographies , or saints' biographies, about native British saints survive from

39382-401: Was little fighting or bloodshed during the mission. Paganism was still practised in Kent until the 630s, and it was not declared illegal until 640. Although Honorius sent Felix to the East Angles, it appears that most of the impetus for conversion came from the East Anglian king. With the Gregorian missionaries, a third strand of Christian practice was added to the British Isles, to combine with

39585-436: Was living at the end of the sixth age, a notion that may have played a part in Gregory's decision to dispatch the mission. Gregory not only targeted the British with his missionary efforts, but he also supported other missionary endeavours, encouraging bishops and kings to work together for the conversion of non-Christians within their territories. He urged the conversion of the heretical Arians in Italy and elsewhere, as well as

39788-406: Was long regarded as a genuine martyr saint, the protomartyr of Britain, and for much of the 20th century controversy centred on the date of his martyrdom (see further 'Dating controversy ', above). More recently, however, some researchers have taken a more sceptical view of his historicity. In the view of Robin Lane Fox , not only is St Alban's date disputable but so is his very existence. In 2008

39991-446: Was pioneered by men like Dr G. D. James of Singapore , Rev Theodore Williams of India and Dr David Cho of Korea . The "two thirds missions movement" as it is referred to, is today a major force in missions. Often, missionaries provide welfare and health services, as a good deed or to make friends with the locals. Thousands of schools, orphanages, and hospitals have been established by missions. One service provided by missionaries

40194-442: Was probably due to his understanding of how Britain was administered under the Romans, when London was the principal city of the province. Along with the letter to Augustine, the returning missionaries brought a letter to Æthelberht that urged the king to act like the Roman Emperor Constantine I and force the conversion of his followers to Christianity. The king was also urged to destroy all pagan shrines. However, Gregory also wrote

40397-410: Was sheltering the priest. The prince gave orders for Roman soldiers to make a strict search of Alban's house. As they came to seize the priest, Alban put on the priest's cloak and clothing and presented himself to the soldiers in place of his guest. Alban was brought before a judge, who just then happened to be standing at the altar, offering sacrifices to "devils" (Bede's reference to pagan gods). When

40600-440: Was the Each one, teach one literacy program begun by Dr. Frank Laubach in the Philippines in 1935. The program has since spread around the world and brought literacy to the least enabled members of many societies. During this period missionaries, especially evangelical and Pentecostal missionaries, witnessed a substantial increase in the number of conversions of Muslims to Christianity. In an interview published in 2013

40803-408: Was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans colonists, as it had never happened before. Colonial officials increasingly took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After

41006-416: Was then the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th Century. This eventually let to the creation of what are today the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land and the see of the Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem . Furthermore, it was during this time that the Christian and Missionary Alliance started their missionary activity in Jerusalem. Thomas Coke (1747–1814), the first bishop of

41209-432: Was where Augustine had preached. The idea that an archbishop needed a pallium to exercise his archiepiscopal authority derives from the Gregorian mission, which established the custom at Canterbury from where it was spread to the Continent by later Anglo-Saxon missionaries such as Willibrord and Boniface. The close ties between the Anglo-Saxon church and Rome were strengthened later in the 7th century when Theodore of Tarsus

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