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105-588: The island served as an administrative center of Dutch East Indies administration in Papua, and continued to become the core of Sorong for some time before the city developed across the strait on the mainland of Papua. The island is located around 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from mainland Sorong . It has a perimeter of around 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi). The island is part of two administrative villages ( kelurahan ): West and East Doom. The two villages also include other small islands close to Sorong. As of mid 2021,

210-460: A subtropical climate , oil-yielding crops (e.g. soybeans ), cotton , rice , tobacco , indigo , citrus , pomegranates , and some vegetables and herbs are the predominant cash crops. In regions with a tropical climate , coffee , cocoa , sugar cane , bananas , oranges , cotton and jute are common cash crops. The oil palm is a tropical palm tree, and the fruit from it is used to make palm oil . The impact of climate change on

315-810: A Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In December 1949 the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the exception of the Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ). Sukarno 's government campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United States, the Netherlands agreed to the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to Indonesian administration in May 1963. In 2013

420-742: A cease-fire on 14 October (a month after its arrival in Batavia) and a draft agreement on 15 November with the negotiators for the Republik Sutan Sjahrir , Prime Minister, Amir Sjarifuddin , Defense Minister, and Johannes Leimena , Junior Minister of Health, chairman of the Indonesian Christian Party. This so-called Linggadjati Agreement was first "elucidated" by the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs Jan Jonkman on 10 December, and in this form accepted by

525-409: A colonial post being officially established in 1906 and a Minahasan being appointed as the head. The island later served as an administrative post, with multiple office buildings, a prison, and a "pleasure building" being constructed on the island. A diesel-powered electrical generator was installed on the island to supply electricity for the buildings. The island acted as an administrative center for

630-431: A crop may suffer low prices should a bumper crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets. This system has been criticized by traditional farmers. Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations. Issues involving subsidies and trade barriers on such crops have become controversial in discussions of globalization . Many developing countries take

735-480: A pre-competitive environment to change market conditions. Sustainable intensification focuses on facilitating entrepreneurial farmers. To stimulate farm investment, projects on access to finance for agriculture are also popping up. One example is the SCOPE methodology, an assessment tool that measures the management maturity and professionalism of producer organizations as to give financing organizations better insights in

840-466: A problem until the mid-19th century. Finally, in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1806, with the Netherlands under Imperial French domination, Emperor Napoleon I appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which led to the 1808 appointment of Marshal Herman Willem Daendels as Governor-General of

945-492: A significant number of people on the continent struggle with hunger has been blamed on developed countries, including the United States , Japan and the European Union . These countries protect their own agricultural sectors, through high import tariffs and offer subsidies to their farmers, which some have contended is leading to the overproduction of commodities such as cotton, grain and milk. The result of this

1050-487: A situation in which they cannot invest much in upscaling their businesses. In general, farmers lack access to agricultural inputs and finance, and do not have enough knowledge on good agricultural and business practices. These high level problems are in many cases threatening the future of agricultural sectors and theories start evolving on how to secure a sustainable future for agriculture. Sustainable market transformations are initiated in which industry leaders work together in

1155-538: A small portion of the indigenous population was able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body; although decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to consult the Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad

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1260-691: A treaty outlining "spheres of influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere. The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil. On 10 January 1942, during the Dutch East Indies Campaign , Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East Indies as part of the Pacific War . The rubber plantations and oil fields of

1365-513: Is exported to the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East. Italy's Cassa per il Mezzogiorno in 1950 led to the government implementing incentives to grow cash crops such as tomatoes, tobacco and citrus fruits. As a result, they created an over abundance of these crops causing an over saturation of these crops on the global market. This caused these crops to depreciate . Cash cropping in

1470-512: Is known as dumping , and is illegal in most nations. Controversy over this issue led to the collapse of the Cancún trade talks in 2003, when the Group of 22 refused to consider agenda items proposed by the European Union unless the issue of agricultural subsidies was addressed. The Arctic climate is generally not conducive for the cultivation of cash crops. However, one potential cash crop for

1575-480: Is that the global price of such products is continually reduced until Africans are unable to compete in world markets, except in cash crops that do not grow easily in temperate climates. Africa has realized significant growth in biofuel plantations , many of which are on lands which were purchased by British companies. Jatropha curcas is a cash crop grown for biofuel production in Africa. Some have criticized

1680-495: Is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm . The term is used to differentiate a marketed crop from a staple crop ("subsistence crop") in subsistence agriculture , which is one fed to the producer's own livestock or grown as food for the producer's family. In earlier times, cash crops were usually only a small (but vital) part of a farm's total yield, while today, especially in developed countries and among smallholders almost all crops are mainly grown for revenue. In

1785-709: The Arctic is Rhodiola rosea , a hardy plant used as a medicinal herb that grows in the Arctic. There is currently consumer demand for the plant, but the available supply is less than the demand (as of 2011). Cash crops grown in regions with a temperate climate include many cereals ( wheat , rye , corn , barley , oats ), oil-yielding crops (e.g. grapeseed , mustard seeds ), vegetables (e.g. potatoes ), lumber yielding trees (e.g. Spruce , Pines , Firs ), tree fruit or top fruit (e.g. apples , cherries ) and soft fruit (e.g. strawberries , raspberries ). In regions with

1890-754: The Dutch East Indies campaign of 1941–42 the KNIL and the Allied forces were quickly defeated. All European soldiers, which in practice included all able bodied Indo-European males, were interned by the Japanese as POWs . Twenty-five percent of the POWs did not survive their internment. Following World War II, a reconstituted KNIL joined with Dutch Army troops to re-establish colonial "law and order". Despite two successful military campaigns in 1947 and 1948–1949, Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony failed and

1995-635: The Indonesian National Armed Forces that were former KNIL soldiers included: Suharto , second president of Indonesia; A. H. Nasution , commander of the Siliwangi Division and Chief of Staff of the Indonesian army; and A. E. Kawilarang , founder of the elite special forces Kopassus . Cash crop A cash crop , also called profit crop , is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It

2100-581: The Indonesian National Revolution . The Dutch, aiming to re-establish control of the archipelago, responded by deploying roughly 220,000 troops, who fought the Indonesian nationalists in attrition warfare . The United States threatened to terminate financial aid for the Netherlands under the Marshall Plan if they did not agree to transfer sovereignty to Indonesia, leading to Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty at

2205-721: The Portuguese in 1512 who established a network of trading posts and fortresses throughout the region, including at the spice islands of the Maluku islands . In 1580 Portugal formed a union with Spain , and therewith entered the war with the Dutch Republic . Following disruption of Dutch access to spices, the first Dutch expedition set sail to reach the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. After many skirmishes and hardships , only one third of

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2310-507: The Strait of Malacca . Britain was a protector of Aceh and it granted the Dutch request to conduct their anti-piracy campaign. The campaign quickly drove out the Sultan, but across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilised and fought the Dutch in four decades of expensive guerrilla war, with high levels of atrocities on both sides. Colonial military authorities tried to forestall a war against

2415-596: The baby boomer generation and the end of World War II. It was seen as a way to feed the large population boom and continues to be the main factor in having an affordable food supply in the United States. According to the 1997 U.S. Census of Agriculture, 90% of the farms in the United States are still owned by families, with an additional 6% owned by a partnership. Cash crop farmers have utilized precision agricultural technologies combined with time-tested practices to produce affordable food. Based upon United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) statistics for 2010, states with

2520-432: The least developed countries , cash crops are usually crops which attract demand in more developed nations, and hence have some export value. Prices for major cash crops are set in international trade markets with global scope , with some local variation (termed as "basis") based on freight costs and local supply and demand balance. A consequence of this is that a nation, region, or individual producer relying on such

2625-477: The onderafdeling ( lit. subdivision) of Sorong between 1935 and 1950 or 1952. During the Second World War , Japanese forces occupied and fortified the island, building a network of tunnels and bunkers. The island was attacked by American and Australian aircraft throughout the war. Following the war, a fishing station was briefly established on the island before it was moved to Manokwari . After

2730-516: The 17th and 18th century. Punishments for slaves could be extremely harsh— for instance, runaway slaves and their accomplices could be subject to whipping, chain gangs, or death. Other punishments included the cutting of hands, ears, breasts and noses, forms of scaphism , being burned alive and the breaking wheel . In theory, slave masters did not have free rein to punish their own slaves as they wished. Punishments of slaves had to be decided in court, and certain punishments could only be applied when

2835-519: The 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Indonesia became one of the leading nations of the Asian independence movement after World War II. During the revolution and after Indonesian independence, almost all Dutch citizens repatriated to the Netherlands. In 1962, the Dutch turned over their last possession in Southeast Asia, Dutch New Guinea ( Western New Guinea ), to Indonesia under

2940-644: The 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s. Another source of profit were the so-called coolies , a name for low-wage indentured laborers. After the abolition of the Cultivation System in 1870, the economy shifted to private companies such as the Deli Company , which was founded on Sumatra in 1869. Large-scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese, Chinese, Malay, Batak and Indian people were shipped to

3045-526: The 19th century, the Cultivation System ("Cultuurstelsel") was implemented in 1830. Under this system it was stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for the cultivation of cash crops for export such as indigo, coffee and sugar. Through this system considerable profits were made; the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at 4% of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue. The system proved disastrous for

3150-631: The British secured the Dutch settlement of Singapore as well as Dutch possessions in the Malay Peninsula ( Malaya ) and Dutch India . The resulting borders between former British and Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia. Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the expansion of Dutch territory had been a business matter. Graaf van den Bosch 's governor-generalship (1830–1835) confirmed profitability as

3255-645: The Dutch East Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies Army surrendered in Java. Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda and the Indonesian National Awakening , a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed the Japanese as liberators from

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3360-547: The Dutch East Indies. In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor-General Jan Willem Janssens , but shortly after his arrival, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including the Spice islands in 1810 and Java the following year , leading to Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles becoming Lieutenant Governor. Following Napoleon's defeat at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna , independent Dutch control

3465-563: The Dutch Parliament on 20 December 1946. It was formally signed by the parties on 25 March 1947 in Djakarta, with the Indonesian side rejecting the "elucidation". After this high point in the relations between the two countries, the situation rapidly deteriorated. On both sides more extreme parties got the upper hand. The Dutch unilaterally instituted an interim government for the colony on a "federal" basis, with representation for

3570-478: The Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy became an indigenous civil service. While they lost de facto control, their wealth and splendour under the Dutch grew. This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were required to rule 35 million colonial subjects. From 1910,

3675-541: The Dutch created the most centralised state power in Southeast Asia . Politically, the highly centralised power structure established by the Dutch administration, including the exorbitant powers of exile and censorship, was carried over into the new Indonesian republic. A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918. The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and only

3780-499: The European legal class and in 1922 a supplemental legal enactment introduced the creation of a 'Home guard' ( Dutch : Landstorm ) for European conscripts older than 32. Petitions by Indonesian nationalists to establish military service for indigenous people were rejected. In July 1941 the Volksraad passed law creating a native militia of 18,000 by a majority of 43 to 4, with only the moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After

3885-757: The Indies. During the occupation, the Njai and their mixed-race children were forcefully separated from European men, who were put into internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia, the Njai were forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia. The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on May 14, 1940. The royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and Japan were Axis allies. On 27 September 1940, Germany, Hungary , Italy and Japan signed

3990-657: The Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four-and-a-half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. The Netherlands committed war crimes: summary and arbitrary killings of Indonesian villagers and farmers, torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented

4095-430: The Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge links among the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generations. According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation. Following

4200-404: The Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King Willem-Alexander on a state visit in 2020. To this day, the colonial war is commonly referred to as "police actions" in the Netherlands. Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of the governor-general. During the Dutch East Indies era

4305-607: The Netherlands recognised Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949. The KNIL was disbanded by 26 July 1950 with its indigenous personnel being given the option of demobilising or joining the Indonesian military . At the time of disbandment the KNIL numbered 65,000, of whom 26,000 were incorporated into the new Indonesian Army. The remainder were either demobilised or transferred to the Netherlands Army. Key officers in

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4410-549: The Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts throughout the colony. Six councils of justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime committed by people in the European legal class and only indirectly with the indigenous population. The land councils (Landraden) dealt with civil matters and less serious offences like estate divorces, and matrimonial disputes. The indigenous population

4515-435: The United States dates back to the colonial period with crops like tobacco, indigo, cotton and others farmed on massive scales on southern plantations primarily fueled by black slave labor, even after the end of slavery this system continued in some form with the share cropping system where farmers would live and work on large plantations for a share of the crop to sell themselves. Crash cropping of fruits rose to prominence after

4620-751: The VOC arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, they started to use and expand upon the then-existing indigenous system of slavery. In certain places slaves were used on plantations such as on the Maluku islands, namely the Banda islands where most of the local population had been deported or exterminated by the VOC to be replaced with slaves. Dutch slaves worked in agriculture, manufacturing, and services, but most were used as domestic servants including housemaids and houseboys, cooks, seamstresses, musicians, and concubines. Slaves could be acquired through trade at indigenous slave markets or captured on raids. In certain cases

4725-414: The VOC stirred up ethnic tensions between rivalling populations in the hope they could cheaply buy war captives at slave markets after the conflict. Slaves were transported from islands in Indonesia itself, or from other countries such as India and China. Estimates of the scale of the slave trade in the Dutch East Indies are scant, but it is suggested that around 1 million slaves were active during its peak in

4830-514: The absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any Court of Law. Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925)

4935-756: The archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during the European push for colonial possessions . As exploitation of Indonesian resources expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control or influence. The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War (1821–38) and the Java War (1825–30) ended significant Javanese resistance. The Banjarmasin War (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan resulted in

5040-458: The bankruptcy of the VOC in 1798, but continued under Dutch state rule. Due to growing international criticism slavery was eventually abolished in the Dutch East Indies in 1860. In reality this was mostly limited to the slaves present on Java and Madura, whose masters were financially compensated for the loss of their workforce. However, on many other islands where slave masters were more often indigenous rulers, little changed. The main reason for this

5145-520: The colonial Government Navy . The KNIL was not part of the Royal Netherlands Army , but a separate military arm commanded by the governor-general and funded by the colonial budget. The KNIL was not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had the nature of a ' Foreign Legion ' recruiting not only Dutch volunteers, but many other European nationalities (especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries). While most officers were Europeans,

5250-429: The colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than the Dutch colonial government. The Japanese occupation during World War II brought about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime. Although the top positions were held by

5355-558: The colonial justice system. The Coolie Ordinances ("Poenale sanctie") of 1880, which allowed the plantation owners to serve as judge, jury and executioner resulted in widespread atrocities. It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically punish their coolies as they saw fit. Punishments that were used against coolies included whippings or beatings, after which the open wounds were rubbed with salt. Other punishments used were electrocution, crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke. Medical care for

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5460-571: The colony from 1913, and quasi-diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies. The governor-general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials: the residents, the assistant residents, and district officers called controllers . Traditional rulers who survived displacement by

5565-469: The coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work or be tortured more extensively. Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common. The coolie system was heavily criticized, especially after 1900 with the rise of the so-called "Ethical Politics". A critical pamphlet named "De miljoenen uit Deli" was published by J. van den Brand. The document described abuses committed against coolies including

5670-543: The correctional facility. In response to the communist uprising of 1926 the prison camp Boven-Digoel was established in New Guinea . As of 1927, political prisoners, including indigenous Indonesians espousing Indonesian independence, were 'exiled' to the outer islands. The Dutch East Indies was divided into three gouvernementen —Groot Oost, Borneo and Sumatra—and three provincies in Java. Provincies and gouvernementen were both divided into residencies, but while

5775-490: The country's population lives in poverty. Larger farms tend to grow cash crops such as coffee , tea , cotton , cocoa , fruit and rubber . These farms, typically operated by large corporations, cover dozens of square kilometres and employ large numbers of laborers. Subsistence farms provide a source of food and a relatively small income for families, but generally fail to produce enough to make re-investment possible. The situation in which African nations export crops while

5880-481: The declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous. Although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh , Bali , Lombok and Borneo . There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces. Piracy remained

5985-411: The declaration of war with Japan, over 100,000 natives volunteered. The KNIL hastily and inadequately attempted to transform them into a modern military force able to protect the Dutch East Indies from Imperial Japanese invasion. On the eve of the Japanese invasion in December 1941, Dutch regular troops in the East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men, of whom 28,000 were indigenous. During

6090-464: The defeat of the Sultan. After failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848 , an 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912. Disturbances continued to break out on both Java and Sumatra during

6195-548: The early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië , Indies , the Dutch East Indies , the Netherlands Indies , and colonial Indonesia interchangeably. At the time when Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states (the most important were Srivijaya and Majapahit ). Since centuries BCE

6300-423: The foundation of official policy, restricting its attention to Java, Sumatra and Bangka . However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands. Motivations included the protection of areas already held, the intervention of Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion, and the aim to establish Dutch claims throughout

6405-400: The governor-general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief of the colonial army ( KNIL ). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets. Until 1815 the governor-general had

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6510-555: The governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory board called the Raad van Indie (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague . From 1815 to 1848 the ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king. In the 20th century the colony gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with its treasury separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by

6615-404: The handover of Papua to Indonesia , growth of Sorong forced the movement of the city to the mainland around 1965, although the island initially remained developed relative to mainland Sorong until the latter grew, with Doom being called the "star island" in the 1970s and 80s due to its relatively bright lights. Due to its short distance from Sorong, Doom is reachable by boat within 10 minutes from

6720-421: The highest fruit production quantities are California , Florida and Washington . Coconut is a cash crop of Vietnam . Coconut palms are cultivated in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 61 million tonnes per year. The oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and frying; coconut oil is also widely used in soaps and cosmetics . Approximately 70% of

6825-474: The house they worked in as so-called "Indigenous Furniture" ( Inlands Meubel ). Njai were also not allowed custody of the children they had with their Dutch masters, and when they were fired, their children would be taken away. By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased, although prostitution had become more prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the Empire of Japan invaded and occupied

6930-412: The islands were part of migratory and commercial exchange within Southeast Asia , India , Arabian peninsula and east-Africa . From classical antiquity onwards the archipelago was also a major part of the global spice trade . For centuries Hindu-Buddhist civilizations were dominant; however, increasing trade links instigated the spread of Islam . By the 16th century, a large part of the archipelago

7035-407: The late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia, leading to a shortage of available women, as most immigrants were men. The Dutch then bought the "Njai", who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as concubines . While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed few rights. They could be bought and sold together with

7140-473: The local population; at its height, over 1 million farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20% of their farmland, or the most fertile land, for cultivation of cash crops. The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s. According to one estimate,

7245-477: The mainland. The island has a reverse osmosis seawater processing facility, capable of processing 9,000 liters per hour. There is a high school on the island, which used to be a Dutch prison complex, and a football field. Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies , also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( Dutch : Nederlands(ch)-Indië ; Indonesian : Hindia Belanda ),

7350-456: The majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians, the largest contingent of which were Javanese and Sundanese . Dutch policy before the 1870s was to take full charge of strategic points and work out treaties with the local leaders elsewhere so they would remain in control and co-operate. The policy failed in Aceh , in northern Sumatra, where the Sultan tolerated pirates who raided commerce in

7455-505: The mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden, documented later the execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede . The independence movement during the later phases of the Bersiap also targeted Dutch and Eurasian civilians, particularly under the direction of Sutomo who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians. After

7560-576: The mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period. Due to widespread criticism of the system, it was abolished in 1870. According to one study, the mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished. The introduction of trucks, railways, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java which had historically been common. Java experienced rapid population growth during

7665-486: The ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was formally dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java , parts of Sumatra , much of Maluku , and the hinterlands of ports such as Makasar , Manado and Kupang ) were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. When

7770-536: The original crew made it back to Holland and other Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC). In March 1602 the VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make treaties across Asia. A capital

7875-560: The parts of the colony not represented by the Republik. This was unacceptable to Sukarno. Sjahrir proposed a compromise, but this was rejected by the Dutch. Sjahrir resigned and was replaced by Sjarifuddin. Sukarno declared a state of emergency in the areas that were in the hands of the Republik and assumed charge of the negotiations. The situation deteriorated further, and the Dutch resorted to military intervention under Operation Product (or first "politionele actie" ). The Commission General

7980-802: The plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor. It is estimated that over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century. The precise death rate among coolie laborers is hard to estimate due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as 25% in certain places, with a possible death toll of many tens of thousands. While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will, in practice their circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They were often misled when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts or were criminals sentenced to forced labour by

8085-645: The political situation in Indonesia devolved into a deadlock the new Dutch government, led by Louis Beel of the Catholic People's Party, formed a Commissie-Generaal voor Nederlands-Indië (Commission General for the Dutch Indies) on 14 September 1946. This Commission-General consisted of Willem Schermerhorn , Dutch Prime Minister from 1945 to 1946; F. De Boer, Liberal politician; Max van Poll, Catholic Party politician; and Hubertus van Mook , Lieutenant-Governor General (ex officio). The Commission achieved

8190-412: The population by means of a 'strategy of awe'. When a guerrilla war did take place the Dutch used either a slow, violent occupation or a campaign of destruction. By 1900 the archipelago was considered "pacified" and the KNIL was mainly involved with military police tasks. The nature of the KNIL changed in 1917 when the colonial government introduced obligatory military service for all male conscripts in

8295-479: The position that the current international trade system is unfair because it has caused tariffs to be lowered in industrial goods while allowing for low tariffs and agricultural subsidies for agricultural goods. This makes it difficult for a developing nation to export its goods overseas, and forces developing nations to compete with imported goods which are exported from developed nations at artificially low prices. The practice of exporting at artificially low prices

8400-454: The practice of raising non-food plants for export while Africa has problems with hunger and food shortages, and some studies have correlated the proliferation of land acquisitions, often for use to grow non-food cash crops with increasing hunger rates in Africa. Australia produces significant amounts of lentils . It was estimated in 2010 that Australia would produce approximately 143,000 tons of lentils. Most of Australia's lentil harvest

8505-578: The provisions of the New York Agreement . At that point, the entirety of the colony ceased to exist. The word Indies comes from Latin : Indus ( Names for India ). The original name Dutch Indies ( Dutch : Nederlandsch-Indië ) was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies , to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies . The name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Company 's documents of

8610-608: The ranges of pests and diseases  – especially those of coffee, cocoa, and banana – is commonly underestimated. Limiting temperature rise to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) is vital to maintaining productivity in the tropics. Around 60 percent of African workers are employed in the agricultural sector, with about three-fifths of African farmers being subsistence farmers . For example, in Burkina Faso 85% of its residents (over two million people) are reliant upon cotton production for income, and over half of

8715-526: The remainder of the 19th century. This included the Banten Peasant's Revolt in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894, and Batak resistance in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895. Towards the end of the 19th century, the balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as

8820-703: The remaining independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905–06, the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908 , as were the remaining independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara . Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan) and Palembang in Sumatra , requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions under colonial rule. The Bird's Head Peninsula ( Western New Guinea ),

8925-694: The residencies under the provincies were divided again into regentschappen , residencies under gouvermenten were divided into afdeelingen first before being subdivided into regentschappen . The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) and its air arm, the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (ML-KNIL), were established in 1814 and 1915, respectively. Naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy were based in Surabaya , supplemented by

9030-509: The risks involved in financing. Currently, agricultural finance is always considered risky and avoided by financial institutions. Coca , opium poppies and cannabis are significant black market cash crops, the prevalence of which varies. In the United States, cannabis is considered by some to be the most valuable cash crop. In 2006, it was reported in a study by Jon Gettman , a marijuana policy researcher, that in contrast to government figures for legal crops such as corn and wheat and using

9135-476: The second politionele actie, or Operation Kraai , in December 1948. This was militarily successful (the Dutch managed to capture Sukarno), but again international political pressure forced the Dutch to back down and be party to the Roem–Van Roijen Agreement (7 May 1949). The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference then started on 22 August 1949, which led to the agreement to transfer sovereignty to

9240-484: The slave was found guilty in an official court case. In reality however abuse of slaves by their masters was rampant and often went unpunished. Beatings and whippings were a commonplace punishment for disobedient slaves. Rape of female slaves by their masters was a common occurrence as well, as these women and girls were obliged to provide sexual services for their masters. Refusing to do so could result in severe physical punishment. Slavery and its excesses did not end with

9345-399: The technology gap widened. Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or disrespectful of international law. Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from

9450-478: The torture and sexual abuse of a 15-year-old female coolie who had rejected sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer. The penal sanction was eventually abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s. During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch colonials, but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery. In

9555-558: The two villages have a combined population of 9,855. Prior to European colonization, the island had been part of the Sultanate of Tidore . The island's name came from the local Moi people, meaning "island with many fruit trees". First appearing in Dutch records by 1863 through a study by Heinrich Agathon Bernstein , the island was colonized by the Dutch early in the establishment of Dutch East Indies presence in New Guinea , with

9660-600: The unruliest inmates. In the Sawahlunto prison on Sumatra prisoners had to perform manual labour in the coal mines. Separate prisons were built for juveniles (West Java) and for women. In the Bulu women's prison in Semarang inmates had the opportunity to learn a profession during their detention, such as sewing, weaving and making batik . This training was held in high esteem and helped re-socialise women once they were outside

9765-488: The world's food is produced by 500 million smallholder farmers. For their livelihood they depend on the production of cash crops, basic commodities that are hard to differentiate in the market. The great majority (80%) of the world's farms measure 2 hectares or less. These smallholder farmers are mainly found in developing countries and are often unorganized, illiterate or have only basic education. Smallholder farmers have little bargaining power and incomes are low, leading to

9870-577: Was a Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia , which declared independence on 17 August 1945. Following the Indonesian War of Independence , Indonesia and the Netherlands made peace in 1949. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 , the Dutch ceded the governorate of Dutch Malacca to Britain, leading to its eventual incorporation into Malacca (state) of modern Malaysia . The Dutch East Indies

9975-473: Was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia . The colonial wars in the Dutch East Indies exacted a heavy toll on the Indonesian population, with around 3 to 4 million deaths including both direct war casualties and indirect victims of war due to famine and disease. Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in

10080-478: Was dissolved in 1942 during the Japanese occupation. The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch colonial administration— Europeans, Foreign Orientals (Arabs and the Chinese) and the indigenous— which were subject to their own legal systems that were all simultaneously in force. The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony. The highest court of law,

10185-518: Was dissolved on 15 November 1947 after Schermerhorn and Van Poll resigned. The Politionele Actie did not achieve its goals, and international pressure forced the Dutch government to accept a cease-fire and the Renville Agreement (17 January 1948). This agreement, however, did not lead to a solution. Provocative actions from both sides led to a tense military situation, and the Dutch for the second time resorted to military intervention with

10290-476: Was established in Batavia (now Jakarta ), which became the center of the VOC's Asian trading network. To their original monopolies on nutmeg , peppers , cloves and cinnamon , the company and later colonial administrations introduced non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory. Smuggling,

10395-409: Was financial, as the Dutch state at that time did not want to spend the money necessary to free the slaves on the more distant islands. Another reason was to appease local rulers and to prevent political turmoil. Due to the lax policy of the Dutch state slavery persisted in parts of the Dutch East Indies well into the 20th century. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to

10500-490: Was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company , which came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800. During the 19th century, the Dutch fought many wars against indigenous rulers and peoples, which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths. Dutch rule reached its greatest territorial extent in the early 20th century with the occupation of Western New Guinea . The Dutch East Indies

10605-414: Was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule, though its profits depended on exploitative labor. The colony contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th century, and coal and oil exploration in the 20th century. The colonial social order was rigidly racial with the Dutch elite living separately from but linked to their native subjects. The term Indonesia

10710-509: Was restored in 1816 on the basis of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 . The Commissioners-General of the Dutch East Indies reformed the public finances of the colony and drew up a new Regeringsreglement that would define the government of the colony for a century. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty the Dutch secured the Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak and British settlements such as Bengkulu , both in Sumatra , and

10815-560: Was ruled under Islamic kingdoms , except Bali that retained a Hindu majority. Sultanates, city states , local kingdoms and tribes were all connected through trade, creating a mixed Hindu-Buddhist-Islamic culture , and Malay as a lingua franca throughout the region. The islands were known to the Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Italians Marco Polo in 1292 and Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. The first Europeans to establish themselves in Indonesia were

10920-439: Was subject to their respective adat law and to indigenous regents and district courts, unless cases were escalated before Dutch judges. Following Indonesian independence, the Dutch legal system was adopted and gradually a national legal system based on Indonesian precepts of law and justice was established. By 1920 the Dutch had established 350 prisons throughout the colony. The Meester Cornelis prison in Batavia incarcerated

11025-481: Was used for the geographical location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals conceived Indonesia as a nation state , setting the stage for an independence movement. Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared independence , instigating

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