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105-500: This movement largely believed in austerity for Christians at every level, from clergy to layman, and many followers of Devotio Moderna frowned upon such things as church-led celebrations of certain events. The origins of the movement likely stem from the Congregation of Windesheim , though it has so far proved elusive to locate the precise origin of the movement. Broadly, it may be seen to rise out of widespread dissatisfaction with

210-647: A cognate or calque derived from the Dutch adjective Nederlands : The Low Countries ( Dutch : Lage Landen ) refers to the historical region de Nederlanden : those principalities located on and near the mostly low-lying land around the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta . That region corresponds to all of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg , forming the Benelux . The name "Benelux" is formed from joining

315-651: A Biblical scene (to participate in the life of Jesus), significantly influenced the approaches to Christian meditation in the 16th century and thereafter. These methods persist in meditations such as the Spiritual Exercises , which the Jesuits continue to practice. Devotio Moderna arose at the same time as Christian Humanism , a meshing of Renaissance Humanism and Christianity , and is related to German mysticism and other movements which promoted an intense personal relationship with God . Practitioners of

420-540: A considerable part in the reform movement within the Dutch and German Catholic Church in the century before the Protestant Reformation . The Brethren of the Common Life, which did not strictly conform as an order or congregation, had become obnoxious to the mendicant friars and the object of their attacks. To remedy this, their founder, Gerard Groote , advised on his deathbed in 1384 that some of

525-483: A continuity with Middle Dutch ("Duytsch" being the evolution of medieval "Dietsc"), was at the time considered the proper translation of the Roman Province of Germania Inferior (which not only encompassed much of the contemporary Dutch-speaking area / Netherlands, but also added classical prestige to the name) and amplified the dichotomy between Early Modern Dutch and the "Dutch" (German) dialects spoken around

630-693: A large number of Britons, with Flemings and Brabanters , Hainuyers , Guelders , Burgundians , and Frenchmen, "Dutchmen", Lombards , also many Germans. By early 17th century, general use of the word Dutch had become exceedingly rare in Great Britain and it became an exonym specifically tied to the modern Dutch , i.e. the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of the Low Countries . Many factors facilitated this, including close geographic proximity, trade and military conflicts, for instance

735-585: A lay movement; around 1374, Groote turned his parental house in Deventer into a hostel for poor women who wished to serve God. Though similar to beguine houses, this hostel, and later communities of what came to be called the "Sisters of the Common Life", were freer in structure than the beguines and kept no private property. The women who lived in these houses remained, also, under the jurisdiction of city authorities and parish priests. Their way of life therefore sat somewhere between ordinary Christian existence 'in

840-634: A methodical format, as well as self-projection into a Biblical scene, e.g. starting a conversation with Christ in Calvary . Also influenced by the Devotio Moderna were Ludovico Barbo , Lawrence Giustiniani and the Canons Regular of San Giorgio in Alga . However, the methods of "methodical prayer" taught by the Devotio Moderna and the techniques used for "self projection" into the imagery of

945-684: A number of duchies, counties and bishoprics. Some of these became so powerful, that their names were used as a pars pro toto for the Low Countries, i.e., Flanders , Holland and to a lesser extent Brabant . Burgundian , and later Habsburg rulers added one by one the Low Countries' polities in a single territory, and it was at their francophone courts that the term les pays de par deçà arose, that would develop in Les Pays-Bas or in English "Low Countries" or "Netherlands". English

1050-470: A reference to that region. Calques of Vlaams in other languages: In many languages including English, (a calque of) "Holland" is a common name for the Netherlands as a whole. Even the Dutch use this sometimes, although this may be resented outside the two modern provinces that make up historical Holland. Strictly speaking, Holland is only the central-western region of the country comprising two of

1155-585: A reference to the Low Countries, in an attempt to define a collective identity. In the 4th and 5th centuries a Frankish confederation of Germanic tribes significantly made a lasting change by entering the Roman provinces and starting to build the Carolingian Empire , of which the Low Countries formed a core part. By the 8th century, most of the Franks had exchanged their Germanic Frankish language for

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1260-749: A role as national symbols during the formation of Belgium. The national anthem of Belgium is called the Brabançonne (English: "the Brabantian"), and the Belgium flag has taken its colors from the Brabant coat of arms: black, yellow and red. This was influenced by the Brabant Revolution ( French : Révolution brabançonne , Dutch : Brabantse Omwenteling ), sometimes referred to as the "Belgian Revolution of 1789–90" in older writing, that

1365-479: A rudder is a knyght – In "Dutch" a rudder [cf. Dutch : ridder] is a knight) in which case linguistic and/or geographic pointers need to be used to determine or approximate what the author would have meant in modern terms, which can be difficult. For example, in his poem Constantyne , the English chronicler John Hardyng (1378–1465) specifically mentions the inhabitants of three Dutch-speaking fiefdoms (Flanders, Guelders and Brabant) as travel companions, but also lists

1470-704: A share. Perhaps his greatest accomplishment was the winning to the side of reform of Dom Johann Hagen, O.S.B., for thirty years (1439–69) the Abbot of Bursfelde Abbey and the initiator of the Benedictine union known as the Bursfelde Congregation . In 1451, Busch was entrusted by his friend Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa , papal legate of Pope Nicholas V , with the reform of the Augustinian monasteries in northern Germany, and with such labours he

1575-591: A stem flām- , meaning "flooded area" (cf. Norwegian flaum ‘flood’, English dialectal fleam ‘millstream; trench or gully in a meadow that drains it’), with a suffix -ðr- attached. The Old Dutch form is flāmisk , which becomes vlamesc , vlaemsch in Middle Dutch and Vlaams in Modern Dutch . Flemish is now exclusively used to describe the majority of Dutch dialects found in Flanders , and as

1680-479: A term for the Dutch language, by extension hinting at a common ethnonym for people living in different fiefdoms. This was used alongside the long-standing Duytsch (the Early Modern spelling of the earlier Dietsc or Duutsc ). The most common Dutch term for the Dutch language remained Nederduytsch or Nederduitsch until it was gradually superseded by Nederlandsch in the early 1900s, the latter becoming

1785-517: Is a congregation of Augustinian canons regular (i.e., ecclesiastics living in community and bound by vows). It takes its name from its most important monastery, which was located at Windesheim , about four miles south of Zwolle on the IJssel , in the Netherlands . This congregation of canons regular , of which this was the chief house, was an offshoot of the Brethren of the Common Life and played

1890-403: Is common. This holds for English, where Dutch is the adjective form for the country "the Netherlands". Moreover, many languages have the same word for both the country of the Netherlands and the region of the Low Countries, e.g., French ( les Pays-Bas ), Spanish ( los Países Bajos ) and Portuguese ( Países Baixos ). The complicated nomenclature is a source of confusion for outsiders, and is due to

1995-551: Is one of the only languages to use the adjective Dutch for the language of the Netherlands and Flanders. The word is derived from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz . The stem of this word, *þeudō , meant "people" in Proto-Germanic, and *-iskaz was an adjective-forming suffix, of which -ish is the Modern English form. Theodiscus was its Latinised form and used as an adjective referring to

2100-441: Is the only time in history that "Holland" became an official designation of the entire Dutch territory. Around the same time, the former countship of Holland was dissolved and split up into two provinces, later known as North Holland and South Holland , because one Holland province by itself was considered too dominant in area, population and wealth compared to the other provinces. Today the two provinces making up Holland, including

2205-609: Is used to describe Low German varieties, specifically those spoken in Northern Germany as the varieties spoken in the eastern Netherlands, while related, are referred to as "Nedersaksisch". Place names with "low(er)" or neder , lage , nieder , nether , nedre , bas and inferior are used everywhere in Europe. They are often used in contrast with an upstream or higher area whose name contains words such as "upper", boven , oben , supérieure and haut . Both downstream at

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2310-555: Is written in Latin. By the late 15th century the advent of the printing press increased the reach of the movement; The Imitation of Christ was printed in several languages by the end of the century. The spiritual life of the Devotio Moderna followers was marked by focus on inner devotions and frequent short periods of meditation, especially before each new activity. The writings of the Devotio Moderna followers such as Gerard of Zutphen and Jan Mombaer , as well as Groote introduced

2415-476: The Anglo-Dutch Wars . Due to the latter, "Dutch" also became a pejorative label pinned by English speakers on almost anything they regard as inferior, irregular, or contrary to their own practice. Examples include "Dutch treat" (each person paying for himself), "Dutch courage" (boldness inspired by alcohol), "Dutch wife" (a type of sex doll ) and "Double Dutch" (gibberish, nonsense) among others. In

2520-414: The Brethren of the Common Life , which numbered 41 by the early 16th century. The majority of members in these communities were priests or candidates for the priesthood (clerics); the few lay brothers, the familiares , usually carried out the menial tasks of cooking, cleaning and tailoring. These communities did not take vows, but led an austere life of penance, prayer, spiritual reading and work, most often

2625-535: The Catholic Church , as well as later Reformed communities. The manuals for methodical prayer and meditation by Florens Radewyns and Zutphen had significant influence within Europe for over a century. The concept of immersing and projecting oneself into a Biblical scene about the life of Jesus was developed by Ludolph of Saxony in his Vita Christi in 1374 and became popular among the Devotio Moderna community. The methods of methodical prayer as taught by

2730-686: The County of Flanders ( Dutch : Graafschap Vlaanderen ), in the early Middle Ages the most influential county in the Low Countries , and the residence of the Burgundian dukes . Due to its cultural importance, "Flemish" became in certain languages a pars pro toto for the Low Countries and the Dutch language. This was certainly the case in France, since the Flemish are the first Dutch speaking people for them to encounter. In French-Dutch dictionaries of

2835-506: The Devotio Moderna , though, seems to have lessened the force of many of these criticisms. The movement was especially prominent in cities in the Low Countries during the 14th and 15th centuries. Alongside its immediate impact, however, it was the writings of authors associated with the movement (who were most commonly based in the monasteries associated with Windesheim), that gave the Devotio Moderna its wider European influence at

2940-638: The Germanic vernaculars of the Early Middle Ages . In this sense, it meant "the language of the common people", that is, the native Germanic language. The term was used as opposed to Latin , the non -native language of writing and the Catholic Church . It was first recorded in 786, when the Bishop of Ostia writes to Pope Adrian I about a synod taking place in Corbridge , England , where

3045-469: The Latinized name for all the Low Countries, a nomenclature that became obsolete after Belgium's secession in 1830 . The Low Countries—and the Netherlands and Belgium—had in their history exceptionally many and widely varying names, resulting in equally varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages: the use of one word for the country and another for the adjective form

3150-593: The Middle and Upper Rhine which had begun to be called overlantsch of hoogduytsch (literally: Overlandish, High-"Dutch") by Dutch merchants sailing upriver. Though "Duytsch" forms part of the compound in both Nederduytsch and Hoogduytsch, this should not be taken to imply that the Dutch saw their language as being especially closely related to the German dialects spoken in Southerwestern Germany. On

3255-656: The Randstad – the main conurbation of Holland proper and of the Netherlands. In 2009, members of the First Chamber drew attention to the fact that in Dutch passports, for some EU-languages a translation meaning "Kingdom of Holland" was used, as opposed to "Kingdom of the Netherlands". As replacements for the Estonian Hollandi Kuningriik , Hungarian Holland Királyság , Romanian Regatul Olandei and Slovak Holandské kráľovstvo ,

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3360-561: The Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta , and low at the plain near the North Sea apply to the Low Countries . The related geographical location of the "upper" ground changed over time tremendously, and rendered over time several names for the area now known as the Low Countries: Apart from its topographic usage for the then multi-government area of the Low Countries, the 15th century saw the first attested use of Nederlandsch as

3465-684: The Seven United Provinces . Since then, several ships of the Royal Netherlands Navy have bared that name. The nomenclature Belgica is harking back to the ancient local tribe of the Belgae and the Roman province named after that tribe Gallia Belgica . Although a derivation of that name is now reserved for the Kingdom of Belgium , from the 15th to the 17th century the name was the usual Latin translation to refer to

3570-529: The Synod of Emden chose the name "Nederduytsch Hervormde Kerk" as the official designation of the Dutch Reformed Church . The synods choice of "Nederduytsch" over the more dominant "Nederlandsch", was inspired by the phonological similarities between "neder-" and "nederig" (the latter meaning "humble") and the fact that it did not contain a worldly element ("land"), whereas "Nederlandsch" did. As

3675-515: The Union of Arras (1579), and begun negotiations for a peace treaty with Spain. In response, nine northern provinces united in the Union of Utrecht (1579) against Spain. After the Flanders and the Brabant where reconquered by Spain, the remaining seven provinces ( Frisia , Gelre , Holland , Overijssel , Groningen , Utrecht and Zeeland ) signed 2 years later the declaration of independence of

3780-628: The United States , the word "Dutch" remained somewhat ambiguous until the start of the 19th century. Generally, it referred to the Dutch, their language or the Dutch Republic , but it was also used as an informal monniker (for example in the works of James Fenimore Cooper and Washington Irving ) for people who would today be considered Germans or German-speaking, most notably the Pennsylvania Dutch . This lingering ambiguity

3885-526: The Vulgate Bible text and of the text of various Church Fathers was also undertaken. Gabriel Biel , "the last German scholastic", was a member of the congregation, as was the Renaissance scholar Erasmus . The revival of the congregation was proposed under the pontificate of Pope Pius XII , by Father Carl Egger. Permission for this was granted by Pope John XXIII in 1961. The motherhouse of

3990-402: The nation's football team will solely be called the Netherlands in any official setting. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team. From the 17th century onwards, the County of Holland was the most powerful region in the current Netherlands. The counts of Holland were also counts of Hainaut , Friesland and Zeeland from the 13th to

4095-517: The 15th centuries. Holland remained most powerful during the period of the Dutch Republic , dominating foreign trade, and hence most of the Dutch traders encountered by foreigners were from Holland, which explains why the Netherlands is often called Holland overseas. After the demise of the Dutch Republic under Napoleon, that country became known as the Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810). This

4200-462: The 1650s a trend emerges in which "Duytsch" is taken as the shorthand for "Hooghduytsch". This process was probably accelerated by the large number of Germans employed as agricultural day laborers and mercenary soldiers in the Dutch Republic and the ever increasing popularity of "Nederlandsch" and "Nederduytsch" over "Duytsch", the use of which had already been in decline for over a century, thereby acquiring its current meaning (German) in Dutch. In

4305-589: The 16th century, "Dutch" is almost always translated as Flameng . A calque of Vlaams as a reference to the language of the Low Countries was also in use in Spain. In the 16th century, when Spain inherited the Habsburg Netherlands , the whole area of the Low Countries was indicated as Flandes , and the inhabitants of Flandes were called Flamencos . For example, the Eighty Years' War between

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4410-490: The 19th century, and were in disrepair. Netherlands (terminology) The Low Countries comprise the coastal Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta region in Western Europe , whose definition usually includes the modern countries of Luxembourg , Belgium and the Netherlands . Both Belgium and the Netherlands derived their names from earlier names for the region, due to nether meaning "low" and Belgica being

4515-491: The 19th century, the term "Diets" was revived by Dutch linguists and historians as a poetic name for Middle Dutch and its literature . In the second half of the 16th century the neologism "Nederduytsch" (literally: Nether-Dutch, Low-Dutch) appeared in print, in a way combining the earlier "Duytsch" and "Nederlandsch" into one compound. The term was preferred by many leading contemporary grammarians such as Balthazar Huydecoper, Arnold Moonen and Jan ten Kate because it provided

4620-702: The Catholic faith strong in the now largely-Protestant towns where they lived. At that time, they formed a union with the Canons Regular of the Lateran in Italy. The events of the French Revolution worked to end the life of the congregation. First, their houses in the Lowlands under the control of Emperor Joseph II of Austria were closed. Then the armies of Revolutionary France invaded that territory and

4725-459: The Church (both in terms of the structure of the church and the personal lives of the clergy) in 14th-century Europe. Geert Groote (1340–1384) was among many in being highly dissatisfied with the state of the Church and what he perceived as the gradual loss of monastic traditions and the lack of moral values among the clergy. He sought to rediscover certain pious practices. Devotio Moderna began as

4830-565: The Common Life, outlines the concepts of Modern Devotion, based on personal connection to God and the active showing of love towards Him (e.g., in the Blessed Sacrament of the altar or during mass ). It influenced a number of Saints such as Thérèse of Lisieux and Ignatius of Loyola . Though the members of Devotio Moderna also wrote in their native language, which was IJssellands , a written language which stood in between Middle Dutch and Middle Low German , The Imitation of Christ

4935-530: The Devotio Moderna emphasized the individual's inner life and promoted meditation according to certain strictures. With the ideals of Christian Humanism, Devotio Moderna recommended a more individual attitude towards belief and religion . It is regarded sometimes as a contributing factor for Lutheranism and Calvinism . It was also a significant influence upon Erasmus , who was brought up in this tradition. Congregation of Windesheim The Congregation of Windesheim ( Latin : Congregatio Vindesemensis )

5040-479: The Devotio Moderna entered Spain and were known in the early 16th century, and influenced the approaches to Christian meditation . Garcias de Cisneros the abbot of the abbey of Montserrat was influenced by the Devotio Moderna and his book Ejercitatorio de la vida spiritual , i.e. "exercises for the spiritual life" became one of the primary sources for the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola . Ignatius used both of these techniques in his Spiritual exercises:

5145-649: The Dutch increasingly referred to their own language as "Nederlandsch" or "Nederduytsch", the term "Duytsch" became more ambiguous. Dutch humanists , started to use "Duytsch" in a sense which would today be called "Germanic", for example in a dialogue recorded in the influential Dutch grammar book "Twe-spraack vande Nederduitsche letterkunst", published in 1584: R. ghy zeyde flux dat de Duytsche taal by haar zelven bestaat/ ick heb my wel laten segghen, dat onze spraack uyt het Hooghduytsch zou ghesproten zyn. S: Ick spreeck, so als Becanus, int ghemeen vande duytse taal, die zelve voor een taal houdende. R: You've just said that

5250-473: The Dutch language exists in its own right, but I've heard it said that our language comes from High Dutch (i.e. German) S: I, like Becanus , speak of the Germanic language in general, considering it as one. In the Dutch language itself, Diets(c) (later Duyts ) was used as one of several Exonym and endonyms . As the Dutch increasingly referred to their own language as "Nederlandsch" or "Nederduytsch",

5355-603: The Dutch language itself a cognate with the same meaning, i.e., Diets(c) or Duuts(c) . The designation "low" to refer to the region has also been in use many times. First by the Romans, who called it Germania "Inferior". After the Frankish empire was divided several times, most of it became the Duchy of Lower Lorraine in the 10th century, where the Low Countries politically have their origin. Lower Lorraine disintegrated into

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5460-639: The European mainland. Historical linguists have noted that the medieval "Duche" itself most likely shows an external Middle Dutch influence, in that it shows a voiced alveolar stop rather than the expected voiced dental fricative . This would be a logical result of the Medieval English wool trade , which brought the English in close linguistic contact with the cloth merchants living in the Dutch-speaking cities of Bruges and Ghent , who at

5565-503: The Latin-derived Romances of Gaul . The Franks that stayed in the Low Countries had kept their original language, i.e., Old Dutch , also known as "Old Low Franconian" among linguists. At the time the language was spoken, it was known as * þiudisk , meaning "of the people"—as opposed to the Latin language "of the clergy "—which is the source of the English word Dutch . Now an international exception, it used to have in

5670-480: The Low Countries are usually called Flemish and those from the northern Protestant provinces Dutch, but art historians sometimes use "Netherlandish art" for art of the Low Countries produced before 1830, i.e., until the secession of Belgium from the Netherlands to distinguish the period from what came after. Apart from this largely intellectual use, the term "Netherlandish" as adjective is not commonly used in English, unlike its Dutch equivalent. Many languages have

5775-728: The Low Countries were united as the Seventeen Provinces in a personal union during the 16th century, covered by the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , which freed the provinces from their archaic feudal obligations. In 1566, Philip II of Spain , heir of Charles V, sent an army of Spanish mercenaries to suppress political upheavals to the Seventeen Provinces. A number of southern provinces ( Hainaut , Artois , Walloon Flanders , Namur , Luxembourg and Limburg ) united in

5880-453: The Netherlands (of which it is a region), with the exception of the Dutch football team , which is conventionally known as Holland". In 2019, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under its real name "the Netherlands" in the future, and stop describing itself as Holland. They stated: “It has been agreed that the Netherlands, the official name of our country, should preferably be used.” From 2019 onwards,

5985-437: The Reformation (they still numbered 32 in 1728) were suppressed at the end of the 18th or beginning of the 19th century. Uden in the Netherlands was the only survivor at the early 20th century. The rise of Protestantism augured the decline of the Windesheim canons since their contemplative life relied heavily on the local population for vocations and support. As Calvinism swept through the Netherlands in particular, support for

6090-451: The Windesheim monastic reformers, Johann Busch (1399–1480), was admitted to Windesheim in 1419. At the chapter of 1424, Prior Johann Vos, who knew his own end was near, especially entrusted Busch and Hermann Kanten with the carrying out of his work of reform (Chron. Wind., 51). Grube gives a list of forty-three monasteries (twenty-seven Augustinian, eight Benedictine , five Cistercian and three Premonstratensian ), in whose reform Busch had

6195-457: The average 15th century Dutchman stood a far greater chance of hearing French or English than a dialect of the German interior, despite its relative geographical closeness. Medieval Dutch authors had a vague, generalized sense of common linguistic roots between their language and various German dialects, but no concept of speaking the same language existed. Instead they saw their linguistic surroundings mostly in terms of small scale regiolects. In

6300-434: The brethren should adopt the rule of an approved Order. His successor, Florence Radewyns , carried this advice into effect. Six of the brethren, carefully chosen as specially fitted for the work, among them John, elder brother of Thomas à Kempis , were sent to the monastery of Eymsteyn (founded 1382) to learn the usages of the canons regular. In 1386, they erected huts as their temporary monastery at Windesheim, and in March of

6405-441: The buildings. The last prior of Windesheim, Marcellus Lentius (d. 1603), never obtained possession of this monastery. The chief historical importance of the Windesheim Canons lies in their reforming work. This was not confined to the reform of monasteries, but was extended to the secular clergy and the laity, whom they especially sought to bring to greater devotion toward the Blessed Sacrament and more frequent communion. The chief of

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6510-406: The canons dwindled. Sometimes this rejection even burst into violence and destruction. Windesheim, the mother house was destroyed in 1581 and there were many martyrs including St. Jan of Osterwijk. The destruction of Windesheim itself began in 1572, when the altars in the church were destroyed by the people of Zwolle; the suppression of that priory came in 1581. There are practically no remains of

6615-412: The cities of Amsterdam , The Hague and Rotterdam , remain politically, economically and demographically dominant – 37% of the Dutch population live there. In most other Dutch provinces, particularly in the south including Flanders (Belgium), the word Hollander is commonly used in either colloquial or pejorative sense to refer to the perceived superiority or supposed arrogance of people from

6720-415: The congregation, with considerable powers. After 1573 the Prior General was elected from among the priors of the various monasteries. When the Windesheim Congregation reached the height of its prosperity towards the end of the fifteenth century, it numbered 86 houses of canons and sixteen of nuns, mostly situated in what is the Netherlands, and in the ecclesiastical province of Cologne. Those that survived

6825-429: The contrary, the term "Hoogduytsch" specifically came into being as a special category because Dutch travelers visiting these parts found it hard to understand the local vernacular: in a letter dated to 1487 a Flemish merchant from Bruges instructs his agent to conduct trade transactions in Mainz in French, rather than the local tongue to avoid any misunderstandings. In 1571 use of "Nederduytsch" greatly increased because

6930-454: The conversion of some of the houses of Brothers to this new form of religious life. By the end of the 15th century, there were almost 100 houses (84 of them male) in the Chapter of Windesheim. The movement faced opposition from clergy and laity at times, both during its early years under Groote's leadership and under Radewyns' later expansion. Much of this suspicion was similar to that directed at other new forms of religious devotion developed in

7035-452: The copying of manuscripts. In addition, the Brethren provided pastoral care and spiritual counsel to the sister houses, and at least some of the Brethren engaged in preaching. Groote's message of reform had also been aimed at clerics and priests, some of whom had joined the Brethren. In addition, though, under the leadership of Radewyns, in 1387 some members of the Deventer house set up a new community at Windesheim , near Zwolle , and adopted

7140-408: The cultural and historical region comprising present-day Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, and to "the Netherlands" alone, e.g., Les Pays-Bas in French, Los Países Bajos in Spanish and i Paesi Bassi in Italian. Several other languages have literally translated "Low Countries" into their own language to refer to the Dutch language: Flemish ( Dutch : Vlaams ) is derived from the name of

7245-438: The decisions are being written down "tam Latine quam theodisce" meaning "in Latin as well as Germanic". So in this sense theodiscus referred to the Germanic language spoken in Great Britain, which was later replaced by the name Englisc . By the late 14th century, þēodisc had given rise to Middle English duche and its variants, which were used as a blanket term for all the non-Scandinavian Germanic languages spoken on

7350-407: The earliest sources, its primary use was to differentiate between Germanic and the Romance dialects, as expressed by the Middle Dutch poet Jan van Boendale , who wrote: Want tkerstenheit es gedeelt in tween, die Walsche tongen die es een, Dandre die Dietsche al geheel Because Christendom is divided in two parts, the " Welsh " languages (i.e. Romance languages, compare Walloon ) form one,

7455-472: The early 19th century. The English adjective "Netherlandish", meaning "from the Low Countries", is derived directly from the Dutch adjective Nederlands or Nederlandsch , and the French and German equivalents. It is now rare in general use, but remains used in history, especially in reference to art or music produced anywhere in the Low Countries during the 15th and early 16th centuries. " Early Netherlandish painting ", has replaced "Flemish Primitives", despite

7560-594: The entire Low Countries , which was on maps sometimes heroically visualised as the Leo Belgicus . Other use: Throughout the centuries the Dutch attempted to define their collective identity by looking at their ancestors, the Batavi. As claimed by the Roman historian Tacitus , the Batavi were a brave Germanic tribe living in the Netherlands, probably in the Betuwe region. In Dutch, the adjective Bataafs ("Batavian")

7665-604: The equivalents remaining current in French, Dutch and other languages; the latter is now only seen in poorly-translated material from a language that uses it. In English the pejorative sense of "primitive" makes the term impossible to use in such a context. In music the Franco-Flemish School is also known as the Netherlandish School. Later art and artists from the southern Catholic provinces of

7770-545: The example of the newer Orders, such as the Carthusians and Dominicans, and adopted a more centralized form of government. Like the Carthusians, Windesheim broke from the standard practice in monastic life by having all members of the congregation subject to the Prior General, who could transfer them from one house to another as needed. The prior of Windesheim was initially automatically the Prior General, or head of

7875-456: The far more general "Dutchemēne" and "Almains", the latter term having an almost equally broad meaning, though being more restricted in its geographical use; usually referring to people and locaties within modern Germany , Switzerland and Austria : He went to Roome with greate power of Britons strong, with Flemynges and Barbayns, Henauldes, Gelders, Burgonians, & Frenche, Dutchemēne, Lubārdes, also many Almains. He went to Rome with

7980-439: The first two or three letters of each country's name Be lgium, Ne therlands and Lux embourg. It was first used to name the customs agreement that initiated the union (signed in 1944) and is now used more generally to refer to the geopolitical and economical grouping of the three countries, while "Low Countries" is used in a more cultural or historical context. In many languages the nomenclature "Low Countries" can both refer to

8085-517: The following year commenced the building of a monastery and church, which were consecrated by Hubert Lebene, titular Bishop of Hippo and auxiliary bishop of Utrecht, on 17 October 1387. At the same time the six men took their vows . They adopted the apostolate of hospitality. Under Johann Vos, the second prior (1391–1424), the number of canons greatly increased and many new foundations were made. The first of these were Marienborn near Arnhem and Nieuwlicht near Hoorn (1392). The congregation

8190-574: The former and about 60 houses in the latter). There were also many homes (mostly small and needy) inspired by the movement that were never formally attached to the Sisters of the Common Life, and may eventually have become Third Order Franciscans or Augustinian nuns. Among male followers, the movement was given impetus after Groote's death in 1384 by Florens Radewyns (who had become a priest based on Groote's advice). He gathered like-minded laity and clergy into houses of communal living, eventually known as

8295-646: The government initially refused to change the text except for the Estonian, recent Dutch passports feature the translation proposed by the First Chamber members. Calques derived from Holland to refer to the Dutch language in other languages: Toponyms: As the Low Country's prime duchy, with the only and oldest scientific centre (the University of Leuven ), Brabant has served as a pars pro toto for

8400-426: The habit and rule of St Augustine. Although living a cloistered life under vows, the new community kept many of the practices and spiritual values of the teaching of Groote and Radewyns. From 1395, a monastic union was set up around Windesheim; this new confederation grew quickly, and was joined both by older Augustinian communities (including, famously, Groenendaal in 1413), as well as new foundations, and sometimes

8505-670: The houses of the Brethren, including the founding homes of Deventer and Zwolle, had disappeared by 1600. In Roman Catholic areas, some of the brother houses and houses of the Windesheim Congregation survived until they fell victim to the secularisations of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The most important members of the Windesheim Congregation in Germany, St. Marienwolde in Frenswegen, held out until 1809 when

8610-514: The last house, that of Frenswegen , was closed in 1809. The last member of the congregation, Clemens Leeder, died in Hildesheim in 1865. The canons of Windesheim numbered many writers, besides copyists and illuminators. Their most famous author was Thomas à Kempis . Besides ascetical works, they also produced a number of chronicles, such as the "Chronicle of Windesheim" by Johann Busch, after retiring from his reforming labors. An emendation of

8715-633: The late 19th century "Nederduits" was reintroduced to Dutch through the German language, where prominent linguists, such as the Brothers Grimm and Georg Wenker , in the nascent field of German and Germanic studies used the term to refer to Germanic dialects which had not taken part in the High German consonant shift . Initially this group consisted of Dutch, English , Low German and Frisian , but in modern scholarship only refers to Low German -varieties. Hence in contemporary Dutch, "Nederduits"

8820-593: The long history of the language, the culture and the frequent change of economic and military power within the Low Countries over the past 2,000 years. The historic Low Countries made up much of Frisia , home to the Frisii , and the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica and Germania Inferior , home to the Belgae and Germanic peoples like the Batavi . Throughout the centuries, the names of these ancestors have been in use as

8925-545: The non-observance of an interdict published by Pope Martin V, exemplifies their spirit of obedience to the Holy See. Though devastated by the destruction of the Reformation on the houses of the congregation in the Lowlands, the houses in German lands continued and a new spirit flourished there in the 17th century. The canons ceased leading purely contemplative lives and began to engage in pastoral activity, working to make

9030-653: The other [part] of the whole is "Dutch" (i.e. Germanic) During the High Middle Ages "Dietsc/Duutsc" was increasingly used as an umbrella term for the specific Germanic dialects spoken in the Low Countries , its meaning being largely implicitly provided by the regional orientation of medieval Dutch society: apart from the higher echelons of the clergy and nobility, mobility was largely static and hence while "Dutch" could by extension also be used in its earlier sense, referring to what today would be called Germanic dialects as opposed to Romance dialects , in many cases it

9135-463: The parliamentarians proposed Madalmaade Kuningriik , Németalföldi Királyság , Regatul Țărilor de Jos and Nizozemské Kráľovstvo , respectively. Their reasoning was that "if in addition to Holland a recognisable translation of the Netherlands does exist in a foreign language, it should be regarded as the best translation" and that "the Kingdom of the Netherlands has a right to use the translation it thinks best, certainly on official documents". Although

9240-492: The period, such as beguine and beghard movements. Also, the strong resemblance to the monastic life of the daily routine among the Brethren provoked accusations from the mendicant orders that the Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life were starting a new mendicant order, in violation of the Fourth Lateran Council 's prohibition of new orders in 1215, and without taking vows. The simplicity and devotion of

9345-581: The rebellious Dutch Republic and the Spanish Empire was called Las guerras de Flandes and the Spanish army that was based in the Low Countries was named the Army of Flanders ( Spanish : Ejército de Flandes ). The English adjective "Flemish" (first attested as flemmysshe , c. 1325; cf. Flæming , c. 1150), was probably borrowed from Old Frisian . The name Vlaanderen was probably formed from

9450-649: The restored congregation is now in Paring Abbey , in Bavaria , Germany . The congregation is a member of the Confederation of the Canons Regular of St. Augustine. The monastery that houses St. Michael's Priory was bought in 1974 by the Canons Regular of the newly refounded Congregation of Windesheim, and is the motherhouse of the revived congregation. The buildings had been owned by a farmer during

9555-417: The sole name for the language by 1945. Earlier, from the mid-16th century on, the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) had divided the Low Countries into the northern Dutch Republic (Latin: Belgica Foederata ) and the southern Spanish Netherlands (Latin: Belgica Regia ), introducing a distinction, i.e. Northern vs. Southern Netherlands; the latter evolved into the present-day Belgium after a brief unification in

9660-401: The state officially dissolved it. The last canon, Gerhard Tobbe, left Frenswegen in 1815. Four cornerstones of the Brethren of the Common Life and its associated devotio moderna were: There was a widely followed movement within the Devotio Moderna traditions that frowned upon pilgrimages. The Imitation of Christ (c. 1418), often attributed to Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471), a Brother of

9765-460: The term "Duytsch" became more ambiguous. Dutch humanists , started to use "Duytsch" in a sense which would today be called "Germanic". Beginning in the second half of the 16th century, the nomenclature gradually became more fixed, with "Nederlandsch" and "Nederduytsch" becoming the preferred terms for Dutch and with "Hooghduytsch" referring to the language today called German. Initially the word "Duytsch" itself remained vague in exact meaning, but after

9870-562: The time, and its great subsequent influence. In the early 15th century, even before the Protestant Revolution, Devotio Moderna was fading due to many Christians wanting more "pomp and ceremony in processions". In the wake of the Protestant Reformation, the institutions of the Devotio Moderna declined rapidly. In Protestant territories, both the brother houses and the monasteries were dissolved. Most of

9975-429: The time, referred to their language as dietsc . Its exact meaning is dependent on context, but tends to be vague regardless. When concerning language, the word duche could be used as a hypernym for several languages (The North est Contrey which lond spekyn all maner Duche tonge – The North [of Europe] is an area, in which all lands speak all manner of "Dutch" languages) but it could also suggest singular use (In Duche

10080-497: The tradition of "methodical prayer" which arranged exercises day by day and week by week. Groote's On four Kinds of Matter for Meditation included mental imagery, as well as methodical approaches as an element of meditation. Centuries earlier, Hugh of Saint Victor and Guigo II had produced structured methods for Christian meditation , but their approaches were less systematic. The methodical approach of Devotio Moderna towards prayer and meditation found significant following within

10185-509: The twelve provinces. They are North Holland and South Holland . Holland has, particularly for outsiders, long become a pars pro toto name for the whole nation, similar to the use of Russia for the (former) Soviet Union , or England for the United Kingdom . The use is sometimes discouraged. For example, the "Holland" entry in the style guide of The Guardian and The Observer newspapers states: "Do not use when you mean

10290-599: The whole of the Low Countries, for example in the writings of Desiderius Erasmus in the early 16th century. Perhaps of influence for this pars pro toto usage is the Brabantian holding of the ducal title of Lower Lorraine . In 1190, after the death of Godfrey III , Henry I became Duke of Lower Lorraine, where the Low Countries have their political origin. By that time the title had lost most of its territorial authority. According to protocol, all his successors were thereafter called Dukes of Brabant and Lower Lorraine (often called Duke of Lothier). Brabant symbolism served again

10395-439: The world', and the formation of an ecclesiastically recognised religious order. From this point, several different loose forms of community emerged. On the one hand, various types of life for the female Devout were formed. Especially from the 1390s under the leadership of John Brinckerinck, one of Grote's early converts, the Sisters of the Common Life spread across the Netherlands and into Germany (with eventually about 25 houses in

10500-695: Was an armed insurrection that occurred in the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium ) between October 1789 and December 1790. The revolution led to the brief overthrow of Habsburg rule and the proclamation of a short-lived polity, the United Belgian States . Some historians have seen it as a key moment in the formation of a Belgian nation-state , and an influence on the Belgian Revolution of 1830. Holland, Flanders and 15 other counties, duchies and bishoprics in

10605-533: Was approved and received certain privileges from Pope Boniface IX in 1395. Their constitutions, added to the Rule of St. Augustine , were approved by Pope Martin V at the Council of Constance . Unlike other congregations of canons regular, those of Windesheim followed a monastic life as if they were an enclosed religious order , but they were not. The life of the canons was strict, but not over-severe. A postulant

10710-562: Was asked if he could sleep well, eat well, and obey well, since, "...these three points are the foundation of stability in the monastic life." Their constitutions exhibit in many points the influence of the Carthusian statutes. The canons wore a black or grey mozzetta and rochet over a grey tunic . While other groups of canons regular followed the Benedictine practice of being totally autonomous communities, Windesheim followed

10815-529: Was busied till shortly before his death. Similar work on a smaller scale was carried out by other Windesheimers. Some Protestant writers have claimed the Windesheim reformers as forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This is a misapprehension of the whole spirit of the canons of Windesheim; their object was the reform of morals, not the overthrow of dogma. The conduct of the communities of Windesheim and Mount St. Agnes (near Zwolle ), who preferred exile to

10920-580: Was most likely caused by close proximity to German-speaking immigrants, who referred to themselves or (in the case of the Pennsylvania Dutch) their language as "Deutsch" or "Deitsch", rather than archaic use of the term "Dutch" In the Dutch language itself, Old Dutch *thiudisk evolved into a southern variant duutsc and a western variant dietsc in Middle Dutch , which were both known as duytsch in Early Modern Dutch. In

11025-425: Was understood or meant to refer to the language now known as Dutch. Apart from the sparsely populated eastern borderlands, there was little to no contact with contemporary speakers of German dialects, let alone a concept of the existence of German as language in its modern sense among the Dutch. Because medieval trade focused on travel by water and with the most heavily populated areas adjacent to Northwestern France,

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