The decemviri or decemvirs ( Latin for "ten men") refer to official ten-man commissions established by the Roman Republic .
132-543: The most important were those of the two Decemvirates , formally the decemvirate with consular power for writing laws ( Latin : decemviri consulari imperio legibus scribundis ) who reformed and codified Roman law during the Conflict of the Orders between ancient Rome 's patrician aristocracy and plebeian commoners . Other decemviri include the decemviri for adjudging litigation ( decemviri stlitibus judicandis ),
264-625: A Sabine. Many of these deities were shared with the Etruscan religion , and were also adopted into the derivative Samnite and ancient Roman religion . Roman author Varro , who was himself of Sabine origin, gives a list of Sabine gods who were adopted by the Romans. Elsewhere, Varro claims Sol Indiges – who had a sacred grove at Lavinium – as Sabine but at the same time equates him with Apollo . Of those listed, he writes, "several names have their roots in both languages, as trees that grow on
396-453: A different decemvir presided over the magistracy and this man had the twelve lictors (the bodyguards of the consuls) with fasces (bound bundles of rods which were the symbol of supreme authority and sometimes had axes). Their rule was fair and their administration of justice was exemplary. Despite not being subject to appeal, they yielded to one another when an appeal was taken. They drafted their laws on ten bronze tables and presented them to
528-503: A homicide should not be held a capital crime". They also reinstated the principle of the sacrosanctity of the plebeian tribunes "by restoring certain long-neglected ceremonies" and by putting what had been just a religious sanction into the statutes with a law which extended it to all plebeian magistrates, including the aediles and the decemviral judges. Additionally, they specified that the heads of those who violated these ceremonies were to be forfeited to Jupiter and their property sold at
660-504: A homicide should not be held a capital crime." They also reinstated the principle of the sacrosanctity of the plebeian tribunes "by restoring certain long-neglected ceremonies" and by putting what had been just a religious sanction into the statutes with a law which extended it to all plebeian magistrates, including the aediles and the decemviral judges. Additionally, they specified that the heads of those who violated these ceremonies were to be forfeited to Jupiter and their property sold at
792-641: A member of the Umbrian group of Italic languages of the Indo-European family , while Glottolog classifies it as an Old Sabellic dialect alongside South Picene and Pre-Samnite . Latin -speakers called the Sabines' original territory, straddling the modern regions of Lazio , Umbria , and Abruzzo , Sabinum . To this day , it bears the ancient tribe's name in the Italian form of Sabina . Within
924-482: A new constitution. They arrested and executed political opponents and seized power. Many Athenians fled or were exiled. They formed a militia and reached Peiraeus (Piraeus, the port of Athens), defeated the forces sent by the Thirty Tyrants, and then forced them to abdicate and restored democracy. Forsythe sees similarities with the story of the decemviri, where the republican offices are suspended and replaced by
1056-404: A patrician-only panel in exchange for a law they had passed not being repealed. The decemviri took office in 451 BC. Both consuls elect, Appius Claudius Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus and Titus Genucius Augurinus , resigned. So did the other magistrates and the plebeian tribunes. In compensation for their loss of office, Appius Claudius and Titus Genucius were appointed to the decemviri. So
1188-569: A person a secure right to use that land , and to give that land outright to a person. A number of such commissions were created or have been suggested by scholars: one ten-man board was possibly created in 201 BC to distribute lands to Scipio Africanus' veterans, one in 173 for lands in Liguria and Gaul, most famously one created by the 100 BC lex Appuleia passed by plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus , and late one created in 91 BC. The previous boards for public lands created by
1320-417: A political institution with the power to compile laws. After a debate about whether plebeians should sit on the decemvirate, the plebeian tribunes agreed to a patrician-only panel in exchange for a law they had passed not being repealed. The decemviri took office in 451 BC. Both consuls, Appius Claudius Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus and Titus Genucius Augurinus , resigned as well as the other magistrates and
1452-454: A population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria . Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries
SECTION 10
#17327662805531584-403: A property line creep into both fields. Saturn, for instance, can be said to have another origin here, and so too Diana." Varro makes various claims for Sabine origins throughout his works, some more plausible than others, and his list should not be taken at face value. But the importance of the Sabines in the early cultural formation of Rome is evidenced, for instance, by the bride abduction of
1716-461: A reason for rejecting the story); the character of Verginia bears similarities with that of Lucretia, whose rape led to the overthrow of the monarchy (Ogilvie notes that in the original story might not have provided names and that she may have been referred to as 'a maiden' and the name Verginia was ascribed to her later, but she did exist); the story was the subject of a traditional ballade. Cornell argues that such objections do not prove that "the story
1848-461: A reason for rejecting the story); the character of Verginia bears similarities with that of Lucretia, whose rape led to the overthrow of the monarchy (Ogilvie notes that in the original story might not have provided names and that she may have been referred to as ‘a maiden’ and the name Verginia was ascribed to her later, but she did exist); the story was the subject of a traditional ballade. Cornell argues that such objections do not prove that “the story
1980-564: A referee and then adjourned the trial. While in prison, Appius Claudius committed suicide. Another decemvir, Spurius Oppius Cornicen was arrested and afterwards also committed suicide. The property of these two men was confiscated. The other decemviri went into exile. The two consuls marched with their armies to confront the Sabines and the Aequi who had not withdrawn. "Before they left the City,
2112-414: A referee who could prove that he had not illegally adjudged a free citizen to the custody of one who claimed her as a slave. Appius Claudius asked for a trial to assess whether his new laws had established tyranny or freedom and whether the appeal "had been merely a parade of meaningless forms, or had been really granted." This was refused. He appealed repeatedly, but Verginius kept repeating the challenge of
2244-442: A second body of bad decemvirs. However, Cornell argues that this view is problematic. He asks two questions. If this was a fiction to explain this law, why were the last two tables (one of which contained this law) published by the consuls in 449 BC after the deposition of the bad decemvirate? Why was a law banning marriage between patricians and plebeians drawn up by a body composed by both patricians and plebeians (the majority of
2376-480: A second decemvirate, which they see as fiction. Mommsen argued that the decemvirate must have been open to plebeians from the beginning. Some historians see the sharp contrast between the first, good decemvirate and the second, bad one as a legend to explain the Twelve Tables in general being good while the prohibition of marriage between patricians and plebeians was bad. This bad law was fictively ascribed to
2508-679: A surprise war action starting from Amiternum . Ancient historians debated the specific origins of the Sabines. According to Strabo the Sabines, after a long war with the Umbrians, migrated to the land of the Opici , following the ancient Italic rite of the Ver Sacrum . The Sabines then drove out the Opici and encamped in that region. Zenodotus of Troezen claimed that the Sabines were originally Umbrians that changed their name after being driven from
2640-495: A way of proving further protections for the plebeians. The patricians were opposed to this curtailment and managed to postpone the debate on this law for eight years. In 454 BC the plebeian tribunes dropped the fruitless pursuit of this law. They asked the senate to “consent to the appointment of a body of legislators, chosen in equal numbers from plebeians and patricians to enact what would be useful to both orders and secure equal liberty for each”. The patricians replied that this
2772-516: Is a later invention". The story of the embassy to Athens to study the Law of Solon is unlikely. If it had gone to Athens, by that time the Law of Solon would have been replaced by the radical reforms of Pericles in the first half of the 5th century BC. Cornell notes that the fragments of the Law of the Twelve Tables show many signs of Greek influence and even some Greek loan-words. He thinks that
SECTION 20
#17327662805532904-405: Is a later invention.” The story of the embassy to Athens to study the Law of Solon is unlikely. If it had gone to Athens, by that time the Law of Solon would have been replaced by the radical reforms of Pericles in the first half of the 5th century BC. Cornell notes that the fragments of the Law of the Twelve Tables show many signs of Greek influence and even some Greek loan-words. He thinks that
3036-481: The Gracchi had only three men. Decemvirate (Twelve Tables) According to Roman tradition, it was a Decemvirate ( Latin : decemviri consulari imperio legibus scribundis , 'decemvirs with consular power for writing laws') that drew up the Twelve Tables of Roman law. The setting up of the decemviri consulari imperio legibus scribundis occurred within the context of the two-hundred-year Conflict of
3168-447: The Law of Solon and question more about the laws of Greek city-states. In 452 BCE the envoys "returned with the laws of Athens". The plebeian tribunes pressed to begin the compilation of the laws. It was agreed to appoint decemviri with consular powers which would not be subject to appeal and to suspend both the consulship and the plebeian tribunate. Thus establishing the decemvirate as
3300-834: The Samnites and the Sabelli , as attested by the common ethnonyms of Safineis (in ancient Greek σαφινείς ) and by the toponyms safinim and safina (at the origin of the terms Samnium and Sabinum ). The Indo-European root * Saβeno or * Sabh evolved into the word Safen , which later became Safin . From Safinim , Sabinus , Sabellus and Samnis , an Indo-European root can be extracted, * sabh- , which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian : Sabini and * Safineis . At some point in prehistory,
3432-542: The Orders between the patrician order (the aristocracy) and the plebeian order (the commoners). The patricians had developed into the upper class by monopolising the priesthoods, which played an important part in the politics of archaic Rome and, in the Early Republic, the consulship (the office of the two annual elected heads of the Roman Republic and the army), and the seats of the (unelected) senate ,
3564-690: The Pomentine plains) and some from that colony settled among the Sabines. According to the account, the Sabine habits of belligerence (aggressive or warlike behavior) and frugality (prudence in avoiding waste) were known to have derived from the Spartans. Plutarch also mentions, in the Life of Numa Pompilius, "Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians". Plutarch also wrote that
3696-584: The Pythagoras of Sparta, who was Olympic victor in the foot-race, helped Numa arrange the government of the city and many Spartan customs introduced by him to the Numa and the people. Legend says that the Romans abducted Sabine women to populate the newly built Rome. The resultant war ended only by the women throwing themselves and their children between the armies of their fathers and their husbands. The Rape of
3828-629: The Reatine territory by the Pelasgians . Porcius Cato argued that the Sabines were a populace named after Sabus , the son of Sancus (a divinity of the area sometimes called Jupiter Fidius). In another account mentioned in Dionysius's work, a group of Lacedaemonians fled Sparta since they regarded the laws of Lycurgus as too severe. In Italy, they founded the Spartan colony of Foronia (near
3960-465: The Republic, possibly by the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla ; the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar added a sixteenth member, but this precedent was not followed. The decemviri agris dandis adsignandis was appointed from time to time to control the distribution of public lands ( ager publicus ). Members of such boards had three-fold powers: to determine which lands were public and private, to assign to
4092-463: The Sabine Women became a common motif in art; the women ending the war is a less frequent but still reappearing motif. According to Livy , after the conflict, the Sabine and Roman states merged, and the Sabine king Titus Tatius jointly ruled Rome with Romulus until Tatius' death five years later. Three new centuries of Equites were introduced at Rome, including one named Tatienses, after
Decemviri - Misplaced Pages Continue
4224-544: The Sabine country, but these are given in Latin form. Robert Seymour Conway , in his Italic Dialects , gives approximately 100 words which vary from being well-attested as Sabine to being possibly of Sabine origin. In addition to these he cites place names derived from the Sabine, sometimes giving attempts at reconstructions of the Sabine form. Based on all the evidence, the Linguist List tentatively classifies Sabine as
4356-623: The Sabine king. A variation of the story is recounted in the pseudepigraphal Sefer haYashar (see Jasher 17:1–15 ). Tradition suggests that the population of the early Roman kingdom was the result of a union of Sabines and others. Some of the gentes of the Roman republic were proud of their Sabine heritage, such as the Claudia gens , assuming Sabinus as a cognomen or agnomen . Some specifically Sabine deities and cults were known at Rome: Semo Sancus and Quirinus , and at least one area of
4488-400: The Sabine women by Romulus 's men, and in the Sabine ethnicity of Numa Pompilius , second king of Rome , to whom are attributed many of Rome's religious and legal institutions. Varro, however, says that the altars to most of these gods were established at Rome by King Tatius as the result of a vow ( votum ). During the expansion of ancient Rome , there were a series of conflicts with
4620-417: The Twelve Tables in general being good while the prohibition of marriage between patricians and plebeians was bad. This bad law was fictively ascribed to a second body of bad decemvirs. However, Cornell argues that this view is problematic. He asks two questions. If this was a fiction to explain this law, why were the last two tables (one of which contained this law) published by the consuls for 449 BC after
4752-523: The abdication of the decemviri, the election of the plebeian tribunes and the mentioned immunity. The plebeians returned to Rome and elected their tribunes. The plebeian council carried a motion of immunity and passed a bill for the election of consuls subject to appeal. Lucius Valerius Potitius and Marcus Horatius Barbatus were elected as consuls. They passed the Valerio-Horatian Laws ( Leges Valeriae Horatiae ). The first law provided that
4884-450: The abdication of the decemviri, the election of the plebeian tribunes and the mentioned immunity. The plebeians returned to Rome and elected their tribunes. The plebeian council carried a motion of immunity and passed a bill for the election of consuls subject to appeal. Lucius Valerius Potitius and Marcus Horatius Barbatus were elected as consuls. They passed the Valerio-Horatian Laws ( Leges Valeriae Horatiae ). The first law provided that
5016-408: The advisory body for the consuls. They were also large landowners. The form of labour exploitation during this archaic period was the nexum, which was what historians call debt bondage, bonded labour, or debt slavery . The debtor pledged his labour services as collateral for debt. Defaulting debtors were liable to have their labour bonded for life. In the early 5th century BC there was an increase in
5148-428: The arrest of Icilius, but the crowd prevented this. Two patricians, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus pushed the lictors back, announcing that "if Appius proceeded legally, they would protect Icilius from the prosecution of a mere citizen; if he sought to make use of violence, there too they would be a match for him". Appius Claudius, Lucius Valerius, and Marcus Horatius made speeches. The crowd booed
5280-428: The arrest of Icilius, but the crowd prevented this. Two patricians, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus pushed the lictors back, announcing that “if Appius proceeded legally, they would protect Icilius from the prosecution of a mere citizen; if he sought to make use of violence, there too they would be a match for him." Appius Claudius, Lucius Valerius, and Marcus Horatius made speeches. The crowd booed
5412-455: The case the consuls and the plebeian tribunes would have been suspended at the start of the second decemvirate instead of the first. Moreover, that the second decemvirate was elected because it was felt that two new tables were needed implies that the decemvirate was meant to be a temporary body for the duration of the drawing up of the laws. So does the second decemvirate's attempt to prolong its office by pretending that they were still working on
Decemviri - Misplaced Pages Continue
5544-458: The central Apennine Mountains (see Sabina ) of the ancient Italian Peninsula , also inhabiting Latium north of the Anio before the founding of Rome . The Sabines divided into two populations just after the founding of Rome, which is described by Roman legend. The division, however it came about, is not legendary. The population closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united with
5676-469: The city and to the Aventine. When they joined the other army, the twenty "military tribunes" appointed two men, Marcus Oppius and Sextus Manilius, to take command. According to Livy, the senators, who were convening daily, spent most of the time squabbling. They decided to send Valerius and Horatius to the Aventine on the condition that the decemviri resign. The latter said that they would do so only after
5808-412: The city and to the Aventine. When they joined the other army, the twenty "military tribunes" appointed two men, Marcus Oppius and Sextus Manilius, to take command. According to Livy, the senators, who were convening daily, spent most of the time squabbling. They decided to send Valerius and Horatius to the Aventine on the condition that the decemviri resign. The latter said that they would do so only after
5940-485: The city they were joined by civilian plebeians. The senate hesitated because of the enmity between senators and plebeian tribunes. Some senators, including Valerius and Horatius, argued that their restoration was needed in order to both get rid of the decemviri and restore patrician magistrates. The decemviri agreed to step down on the condition that they would get personal protection against any reprisals. Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius were sent to negotiate terms with
6072-484: The city, they were joined by civilian plebeians. The senate hesitated because of the enmity between senators and plebeian tribunes. Some senators, including Valerius and Horatius, argued that their restoration was needed in order to both get rid of the decemviri and restore patrician magistrates. The decemviri agreed to step down on the condition that they would get personal protection against any reprisals. Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius were sent to negotiate terms with
6204-428: The commanders to keep the troops from mutiny. Verginius, who had been followed by nearly four hundred men, caused an even bigger stir with the soldiers than in the city. He told his fellow soldiers to "look out for themselves and for their own children" and they replied that they "would not forget his sufferings nor fail to vindicate their liberty". The civilians who had come with Verginius to the military camp claimed that
6336-428: The commanders to keep the troops from mutiny. Verginius, who had been followed by nearly four hundred men, caused an even bigger stir with the soldiers than in the city. He told his fellow soldiers to "look out for themselves and for their own children" and they replied that they "would not forget his sufferings nor fail to vindicate their liberty." The civilians who had come with Verginius to the military camp claimed that
6468-624: The conflict was the Lex Terentilia proposed by Gaius Terentilius Harsa , a plebeian tribune, in 462 BC. It provided for a five-man commission to set out the norms through which the power of the consuls would be defined. With the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the republic, the powers of the king were transferred to the consuls, who were regarded as the representatives of regal power. As such, consular powers were undefined and therefore without limits. Gaius Terentilus wanted to have them defined, and therefore curtailed, as
6600-443: The consuls had the decemviral laws, which are known as the Twelve Tables , engraved on bronze, and set them up in a public place. Some authors say that the aediles, acting under orders from the tribunes, performed this service." The reason why the first decemvirate had a dual role--as a new magistracy which replaced the consuls and took on governance with extraordinary powers, and as a commission for compiling law--is not explained by
6732-469: The corrupt oligarchy of the second one whose misrule leads to rebellion and further political change". Third, one year and one decemvirate should have been enough to draw up a legislation which was not overly complicated. Forsythe also says that the idea of the decemviri being overthrown "might have been suggested to later Roman historians by the names of the consuls for 449 BC, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus ". They were similar to
SECTION 50
#17327662805536864-470: The corrupt oligarchy of the second one whose misrule leads to rebellion and further political change.” Third, one year and one decemvirate should have been enough to draw up a legislation which was not overly complicated. Forsythe also says that the idea of the decemviri being overthrown "might have been suggested to later Roman historians by the names of the consuls for 449 BC, Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus ." They were similar to
6996-545: The creditors could imprison and torture the debtors and, sometimes, sell them as slaves. This led to the First Plebeian Secession (494 BC), which was the start of the Conflict of the Orders. The plebeians demanded that the state protect small farmers from the abuse of defaulting debtors by the creditors, who were the wealthy patrician landowners. When this was not forthcoming, they resorted to boycotting
7128-484: The custody of the defendants. Appius Claudius agreed to summon Verginius but put Verginia in the custody of the claimant. Verginia's lover, Icilius, arrived at the forum, but was stopped by a lictor. He pleaded his case loudly and attracted the attention of the crowd. Verginia's supporters sent a relative and Icilius' brother to quickly go to Verginius' military camp. The claimant pressed Icilius to pay surety to be Verginia's guarantor. Many people offered money and Verginia
7260-485: The custody of the defendants. Appius Claudius agreed to summon Verginius, but put Verginia in the custody of the claimant. Verginia's lover, Icilius, arrived at the forum, but was stopped by a lictor. He pleaded his case loudly and attracted the attention of the crowd. Verginia's supporters sent a relative and Icilius' brother to quickly go to Verginius' military camp. The claimant pressed Icilius to pay surety to be Verginia's guarantor. Many people offered money and Verginia
7392-579: The debate on this law for eight years. In 454 BC the plebeian tribunes dropped their pursuit of this law. They asked the senate to "consent to the appointment of a body of legislators, chosen in equal numbers from plebeians and patricians to enact what would be useful to both orders and secure equal liberty for each". The patricians replied that this was worthy of consideration, but said that only patricians could legislate. Although disputed by historians such as Niebuhr, Cornell and Grant, according to Livy and Dionysius, three envoys were sent to Athens to study
7524-403: The decemviri and tried to oppose them, called them private citizens and refused to call a levy. In the end they allowed its proclamation of the levy in silence because they feared a popular uprising would bolster the plebeian tribunes, their political adversaries. The plebeians enlisted because they feared violent reprisal as there was no right to appeal. Some of the decemviri led two armies against
7656-502: The decemviri for making sacrifices ( decemviri sacris faciundis ), and the decemviri for the assignment and giving of arable lands ( decemviri agris dandis adsignandis ). Gaius Terentilius Harsa , a plebeian tribune , wished to protect the plebeian population by curtailing the power of the Roman consuls . To do this, he proposed a law in 462 BC which provided for a five-man commission to define their power. The patricians were opposed to this curtailment and managed to postpone
7788-481: The decemviri had been overthrown and that Appius Claudius had gone into exile and incited the soldiers to rise up. These soldiers, who were from the army which had been sent against the Aequi, marched to Rome and took possession of the Aventine Hill . They urged the plebeians to regain their freedom and elect the plebeian tribunes. The senate decided to take no harsh action as it had been partly responsible for
7920-418: The decemviri had been overthrown and that Appius Claudius had gone into exile and incited the soldiers to rise up. These soldiers, who were from the army which had been sent against the Aequi, marched to Rome and took possession of the Aventine Hill . They urged the plebeians to regain their freedom and elect the plebeian tribunes. The senate decided to take no harsh action as it had been partly responsible for
8052-518: The decemviri the presidency in the courts of the Centumviri ("Hundred Men"). Under imperial law, the decemvirate had jurisdiction in capital cases. The decemviri sacris faciundis (also called the decemviri sacrorum ) had religious functions and was the outcome of the claim of the plebs to equal share in the administration of the state religion (five decemviri were plebeians, five were patricians). They were first appointed in 367 BC in lieu of
SECTION 60
#17327662805538184-412: The decemviri was T. Genucius , who had a plebeian name, have led some historians to reject both that this man was a decemvir and the existence of a second decemvirate, which they see as fiction. Mommsen argued that the decemvirate must have been open to plebeians from the beginning. Some historians see the sharp contrast between the first, good decemvirate and the second, bad one as a legend to explain
8316-516: The decemviri who were also tasked with drafting new laws, who then refused to leave office when their term was up, became tyrannical, were forced to resign by a secession and the republican offices were restored. Second, the story fits with the Greek theory that a good form of government gives way to its corrupt counterpart, which, in turn, leads back to another good one. The first decemvirate represents "ideal aristocratic rule in its ideal form, followed by
8448-409: The deposition of the bad decemvirate? Why was a law banning marriage between patricians and plebeians drawn up by a body composed by both patricians and plebeians (the majority of the members of the second decemvirate being plebeians)? In 2005, historian Gary Forsythe dismissed the second decemvirate as unhistorical. He presents a number of arguments for his view. First, it is an invention modeled on
8580-463: The election and announced the election of himself and nine men who were his supporters. Livy writes that these officials became tyrannical, each man had twelve lictors and each fasces had axes. He describes this decemvirate conducting trials behind closed doors and issuing arbitrary judgements. Due to these possible actions, they may have become a source of fear in ancient Rome, striking terror into those who saw them. Livy states that there were rumors that
8712-464: The election and announced the election of himself and nine men who were his supporters. This new decemvirate became tyrannical. All the ten men had twelve lictors and their fasces had axes (even though the carrying of weapons within the city walls was forbidden). The sight of these 120 lictors terrified everyone. They conducted trials behind closed doors and issued arbitrary judgements. There were rumours that they wanted to rule perpetually. When they issued
8844-411: The enactment of the two tables of laws for which they were elected. Given that the senate kept bickering, the soldiers decided to secede to Mons Sacer as they had done in 494 BC to increase pressure on the senators and the decemviri. They now demanded the restoration of tribunician power (i.e. the reinstatement of the plebeian tribunes ) and they would stand firm to obtain this. On their way through
8976-409: The enactment of the two tables of laws for which they were elected. Given that the senate kept bickering, the soldiers decided to secede to Mons Sacer as they had done in 494 BC to increase pressure on the senators and the decemviri. They now demanded the restoration of tribunician power (i.e. the reinstatement of the plebeian tribunes ) and they would stand firm to obtain this. On their way through
9108-535: The endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones , Suiones ; Celtic Senones ; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs ; Italic Sabelli , Sabini , etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. There is little record of the Sabine language; however, there are some glosses by ancient commentators, and one or two inscriptions have been tentatively identified as Sabine. There are also personal names in use on Latin inscriptions from
9240-457: The etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria , he derives the names from an o-grade extension * swo-bho- of an extended e-grade * swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, * s(e)we- , of the reflexive pronoun, * se- , "oneself" (the source of English self ). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not
9372-465: The final two tables. The decemvirate's role as a new magistracy which replaced the consuls and the plebeian tribunes has been interpreted being intended to reintegrate the plebeians into the Roman state by doing away with the plebeian tribunes. If this was the case, the fact that Livy seemed to suggest that only patricians sat on the first decemvirate would be a contradiction. This and the fact that one of
9504-420: The first decemvirate differed from the second one by being a commission to compile laws, while the latter was a permanent governing body. Theodor Mommsen criticized this for not having any support from the sources. Cornell notes that if this was the case the consuls and the plebeian tribunes would have been suspended at the start of the second decemvirate instead of the first. Moreover, that the second decemvirate
9636-409: The former and listened only to the latter two, who ordered the lictors to back off. Appius Claudius fled. Another decemvir, not knowing what to do, ended up summoning the senate. The senators were hostile to the decemviri and there was hope that they would bring them down. However, the senators were concerned that the arrival of Verginius at the military camp would cause unrest and sent messengers to tell
9768-409: The former and listened only to the latter two, who ordered the lictors to back off. Appius Claudius fled. Another decemvir, not knowing what to do, ended up summoning the senate. The senators were hostile to the decemviri and there was hope that they would bring them down. However, the senators were concerned that the arrival of Verginius at the military camp would cause unrest and sent messengers to tell
9900-465: The forum and the shouts of her nurses attracted a crowd. The claimant said that he was acting lawfully and had summoned her to court. Verginia went to court followed by her friends and acquaintances. The judge was Appius Claudius. The claimant said that the girl was born at his house and then he palmed her off to Verginius as his, but that she still was his slave. Verginia's friends asked for an adjournment until Verginius could attend and to leave Verginia in
10032-413: The guiding hand in the whole magistracy ... thanks to the favour of the plebs". Each day a different decemvir presided over the magistracy and this man had the twelve lictors (the bodyguards of the consuls) with fasces (bound bundles of rods, sometimes with axes, which were the symbol of supreme authority). The decemvirate was not subject to appeal, despite this, they yielded to one another when an appeal
10164-407: The illegitimacy of the decemviri as their term had expired and were now meant to be just private citizens. They were considering boycotting the military draft. However, it turned out that the senators had left and gone to their farms, supposedly in disgust. The senate was summoned again and this time some senators attended. The plebeians saw this as a betrayal of liberty. However, the senators denounced
10296-404: The instigation of Icilius, the soldiers of the Roman armies located in Sabine territories also rebelled. On hearing of the election of military tribunes at the Aventine, Icilius, thinking that these men would then be elected as plebeian tribunes and wanting to become one himself, arranged the election of the same number of "military tribunes" among these soldiers, who headed for Rome, marched through
10428-404: The instigation of Icilius, the soldiers of the Roman armies located in Sabine territories also rebelled. On hearing of the election of military tribunes at the Aventine, Icilius, thinking that these men would then be elected as plebeian tribunes and wanting to become one himself, arranged the election of the same number of "military tribunes" among these soldiers, who headed for Rome, marched through
10560-425: The laws. It was agreed to appoint decemviri with consular powers which would not be subject to appeal and to suspend both the consulship and the plebeian tribunate. This made the decemvirate an extraordinary magistracy (a governing body with extraordinary powers) as well as a commission tasked with compiling laws. After a long debate about whether plebeians should sit on the decemvirate, the plebeian tribunes agreed to
10692-469: The lictors to seize the slave (Verginia). The crowd did not react. According to Livy, Verginius stabbed his daughter to death saying that that was the only way he could assert her freedom. Appius Claudius ordered his arrest, but the crowd protected him as he made his way to the city gate. As a result, the crowd talked about restoring the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal. The second decemvirate consisted of: According to Livy, Appius Claudius ordered
10824-462: The lictors to seize the slave (Verginia). The crowd did not react. According to Livy, Verginius stabbed his daughter to death saying that was the only way he could assert her freedom. Appius Claudius ordered his arrest, but the crowd protected him as he made his way to the city gate. As a result, the crowd talked about restoring the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal. The second decemvirate consisted of: According to Livy, Appius Claudius ordered
10956-502: The matrons who accompanied Verginia moved people more than words. Appius Claudius upheld the fabricated case of the claimant and adjudged Verginia to him without even listening to Verginius. The crowd was stunned. When the claimant made his way to take her, Verginius shouted that he had betrothed Verginia to Icilius, not to Appius Claudius, and that he did not bring her up for dishonour. Appius Claudius claimed that he knew that there had been seditious meetings and told Verginius to be quiet and
11088-412: The measures were passed against the will of the patricians, but they did not actively oppose them. The plebeian tribunes tasked Verginius with prosecuting Appius Claudius. Verginius pardoned him for the crimes he had committed over two years saying "[I shall not] suffer him to add to his other crimes the impudence of defending himself". However, he said that he would arrest Appius Claudius unless he named
11220-425: The measures were passed against the will of the patricians, but they did not actively oppose them. The two consuls marched with their armies to confront the Sabines and the Aequi who had not withdrawn. "Before they left the city, the consuls had the decemviral laws, which are known as the Twelve Tables , engraved on bronze, and set them up in a public area. Some authors say that the aediles, acting under orders from
11352-468: The members of the second decemvirate being plebeians)? In 2005, historian Gary Forsythe dismissed the second decemvirate as unhistorical. He presents a number of arguments for his view. First, it is an invention modeled on the story of the Thirty Tyrants . Athens was forced to abolish her democracy following her defeat by Sparta and it was replaced by a commission tasked with drafting the laws of
11484-494: The mid-second century BC. Therefore, although the later historians who have given us the accounts of the decemvirate might have added additional elaborations, there is no evidence that they made up the core story. Doubts have been cast about the story of Appius Claudius and Verginia. Appius Claudius was the victim of a later tradition of hostility towards the Claudii, his family (Mommsen showed traces of this, but did not see it as
11616-438: The mid-second century BC. Therefore, although the later historians who have given us the accounts of the decemvirate might have added additional elaborations, there is no evidence that they made up the core story. Doubts have been cast about the story of Appius Claudius and Verginia. Appius Claudius was the victim of a later tradition of hostility towards the Claudii, his family (Mommsen showed traces of this, but did not see it as
11748-505: The military draft. Again, the senate was summoned, and this time some senators attended. The plebeians saw this as a betrayal of liberty. However, the senators denounced the decemviri and tried to oppose them, called them private citizens and refused to call a levy. In the end they allowed its proclamation of the levy in silence because they feared a popular uprising would bolster the plebeian tribunes, their political adversaries. The plebeians enlisted because they feared violent reprisal as there
11880-506: The military levy. At that time the Roman army was a part-time militia of peasant farmers who were drafted each year for the military campaigning season and then went back to their farms. Refusing the call-up gave plebeians significant political leverage. When their demands were not met, on their return from a defensive military campaign the soldiers refused to obey orders and seceded to Mons Sacer , outside Rome. They threatened to stay there until their demands were met. There were negotiations and
12012-512: The modern region of Lazio (or Latium ), Sabina constitutes a sub-region, situated north-east of Rome , around Rieti . The Sabines settled in Sabinum, around the tenth century BC, founding the cities of Reate , Trebula Mutuesca and Cures Sabini. Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions the Sabines in relation to the Aborigines , from whom they allegedly stole their capital Lista, with
12144-412: The mutiny. It sent three envoys to inquire who had seized the Aventine, who their leaders were and what they wanted. The mutineers did not have a leader and no one dared to express enmity. The civilian crowd shouted that they wanted Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius to be the envoys. Verginius proposed the election of ten leaders to be given the military title, military tribune. Verginius was elected. At
12276-413: The mutiny. It sent three envoys to inquire who had seized the Aventine, who their leaders were and what they wanted. The mutineers did not have a leader, and no one dared to express enmity. The civilian crowd shouted that they wanted Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius to be the envoys. Verginius proposed the election of ten leaders to be given the military title, military tribune. Verginius was elected. At
12408-481: The names of the consuls for 509 BC, the year of the establishment of the Roman republic ( Publius Valerius Publicola and Marcus Horatius Pulvillus ). The republic was instituted with the overthrow of the last king of Rome, who was a tyrant, in a rebellion and the decision to do away with the monarchy. Cornell thinks that the story of the second decemvirate attracted much secondary elaboration (later additions), that some of this at times romanticised it and that parts of
12540-480: The names of the consuls for 509 BC, the year of the establishment of the Roman republic ( Publius Valerius Publicola and Marcus Horatius Pulvillus ). The republic was instituted with the overthrow of the last king of Rome, who was a tyrant, in a rebellion and the decision to do away with the monarchy. Cornell thinks that the story of the second decemvirate attracted much secondary elaboration (later additions), that some of this at times romanticized it and that parts of
12672-515: The officials in the second decemvirate wished to rule perpetually. When time for the elections came, they were not held, and the decimviri became violent. A Sabine and an Aequi army attacked Roman territory and an ally of Rome. According to Livy, the decemviri summoned the senate, but the senators did not show up due to their disgust. To the plebeians this signaled the illegitimacy of the decemviri as their term had expired and were now meant to be just private citizens. They were considering boycotting
12804-465: The patrician duumviri ("Two Men") who had had responsibility for the care and consultation of the Sibylline books and the celebration of the games of Apollo . Membership in this ecclesiastical college ( collegium ) was for life, and the college was increased to a quindecimvirate—that is, a college of fifteen members—and renamed accordingly (see quindecimviri sacris faciundis ) in the last century of
12936-534: The people, asked for feedback and amended them accordingly. They were approved by the higher popular assembly, the Assembly of the Soldiers. There was a general feeling that two more tables were needed to have a corpus of all Roman law. It was decided to elect a new decemvirate. The first decemvirate consisted of: Many men canvassed for election to the second decemvirate. According to Livy, Appius Claudius rigged
13068-447: The plebeian tribunes. In compensation for their loss of office, Appius Claudius and Titus Genucius were appointed to the decemviri. Publius Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus , one of the consuls of the previous year, was also appointed because he had put the proposal to the senate despite the opposition of his colleague. The three envoys were also part of the decemviri. The most influential member was Appius Claudius who, according to Livy, "was
13200-474: The plebeians at their discretion. The plebeians welcomed and thanked them because of their previous stand at the forum. They demanded the recovery of the protections the plebeians enjoyed through the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal, immunity for those who incited the rebellion and harsh punishment for the decemviri. The envoys agreed on the first three demands and asked that the issue of punishment be postponed. The plebeians accepted this. The senate decreed
13332-474: The plebeians at their discretion. The plebeians welcomed and thanked them because of their previous stand at the forum. They demanded the recovery of the protections the plebeians enjoyed through the plebeian tribunes and the right to appeal, immunity for those who incited the rebellion and harsh punishment for the decemviri. The envoys agreed on the first three demands and asked that the issue of punishment be postponed. The plebeians accepted this. The senate decreed
13464-402: The plebeians into the Roman state by doing away with the plebeian tribunes. If this was the case, the fact that Livy seemed to suggest that only patricians sat on the first decemvirate would be a contradiction. This and the fact that one of the decemviri was Titus Genucius Augurinus , who had a plebeian name, have led some historians to reject both that this man was a decemvir and the existence of
13596-408: The plebeians. The plebeian institutions were parallel and separate from that of the Roman state (the consuls, the senate and the two other popular assemblies). Livy said "[t]wo states had been created out of one; each faction had its own magistrates [officials], its own laws." The main role of the plebeian institutions in the early days of the conflict of the orders was self-defence. The next step in
13728-497: The populace towards Icillus' side. Appius Claudius upheld the fabricated case of the claimant and adjudged Verginia to him without even listening to Verginius. Livy wrote that the crowd was stunned by this. When the claimant made his way to take her, Verginius shouted that he had betrothed Verginia to Icilius, not to Appius Claudius, and that he did not bring her up for dishonor. Appius Claudius claimed that he knew that there had been seditious meetings and told Verginius to be quiet and
13860-485: The preexisting citizenry, beginning a new heritage that descended from the Sabines but was also Latinized . The second population remained a mountain tribal state, coming finally to war against Rome for its independence along with all the other Italic tribes. Afterwards, it became assimilated into the Roman Republic . The Sabines derived directly from the ancient Umbrians and belonged to the same ethnic group as
13992-418: The problem of indebtedness due to the appropriation of public land (ager publicus) by the rich landowners to expand their estates (which restricted the amount of land available to small farmers), Rome's territory being attacked by neighbouring peoples and taxation. This also led to an increase in the problem of the abuse of defaulting debtors. Because of the absence of clearly defined laws and judicial procedures,
14124-467: The provocatio, the power to veto the actions of the consuls and officials. They used it for actions they judged inequitable or abusive to any plebeian. They also convened and presided over the Plebeian Council and presented bills for its vote. An element of this conflict was about whether the resolutions of this council should be binding on all Roman citizens, including the patricians, or only on
14256-403: The resolutions of the plebeian council were binding on the people. Then "they not only restored a consular law about the appeal, but they also safeguarded it for the future by the solemn enactment of a new law, that no one should declare the election of any magistrate without appeal, and that he who should so declare might be put to death [by anyone] without offence to law or religion, and that such
14388-403: The resolutions of the plebeian council were binding on the people. Then "they not only restored a consular law about the appeal, but they also safeguarded it for the future by the solemn enactment of a new law, that no one should declare the election of any magistrate without appeal, and that he who should so declare might be put to death [by anyone] without offence to law or religion, and that such
14520-465: The secession ended. However, the plebeian demands were not fully met. Rather, they obtained the recognition of the institutions which they had created during the rebellion, the Plebeian Council (an assembly restricted to plebeians where they could debate their issues) and the plebeian tribunes . The latter acted as the defenders of the plebeians from abuse by consuls or officials through
14652-556: The source was likely to have been the Greek cities of southern Italy and that it is there that efforts to familiarise with Greek written laws would have been directed. He also points out that according to an alternative tradition the decemviri were advised by Hermodorus of Ephesus, a Greek philosopher in exile. Sabines Timeline The Sabines ( US : / ˈ s eɪ b aɪ n z / , SAY -bynes , UK : / ˈ s æ b aɪ n z / , SAB -eyens ; Latin : Sabini ) were an Italic people who lived in
14784-523: The source was likely to have been the Greek cities of southern Italy and that it is there that efforts to familiarize with Greek written laws would have been directed. He also points out that according to an alternative tradition the decemviri were advised by Hermodorus of Ephesus , a Greek philosopher in exile. The decemviri stlitibus judicandis ("the ten men who judge lawsuits") was a civil court of ancient origin (traditionally attributed to King Servius Tullius ) mainly concerned with questions bearing on
14916-399: The sources. Some modern historians have grappled with this as an apparent contradiction. A theory has tried to explain this contradiction by positing that the first decemvirate differed from the second one by being a commission to compile laws, while the latter was a permanent governing body. Mommsen criticised this for not having any support from the sources. Cornell notes that if this was
15048-620: The status of individuals. It originally served as a jury rendering verdicts under the presidency of the praetor , but these decemviri subsequently became annual minor magistrates ( magistratus minores ) of the Republic, elected by the Comitia Populi Tributa and forming part of the Vigintisexviri ("Twenty-Six Men"). Suetonius and Dio Cassius record that during the Principate , Caesar Augustus transferred to
15180-400: The story are fictitious, but that it cannot be proved the whole story was fictive and more convincing cases have to be made to support this view. He adds that “identifying the fictitious parts is no easier than deciding which parts might be based on genuine fact.” He also notes that the tradition of two decemvirates and the division of the tables into groups of ten and two were already around in
15312-399: The story are fictitious, but that it cannot be proved the whole story was fictive and more convincing cases have to be made to support this view. He adds that "identifying the fictitious parts is no easier than deciding which parts might be based on genuine fact". He also notes that the tradition of two decemvirates and the division of the tables into groups of ten and two were already around in
15444-507: The story of the Thirty Tyrants. Athens was forced to abolish her democracy following her defeat by Sparta and it was replaced by a commission tasked with drafting the laws of a new constitution. They arrested and executed political opponents and seized power. Many Athenians fled or were exiled. They formed a militia and reached Peiraeus (Piraeus, the port of Athens), defeated the forces sent by the Thirty Tyrants, and then forced them to abdicate and restored democracy. Forsythe sees similarities with
15576-551: The story of the decemviri, where the republican offices are suspended and replaced by the decemviri who were also tasked with drafting new laws, who then refused to leave office when their term was up, became tyrannical, were forced to resign by a secession and the republican offices were restored. Second, the story fits with the Greek theory that a good form of government gives way to its corrupt counterpart, which, in turn, leads back to another good one. The first decemvirate represents “ideal aristocratic rule in its ideal form, followed by
15708-452: The temple of Ceres , Liber , and Libera . They also introduced the practice of delivering the decrees of the senate to the aediles at the temple of Ceres , "[u]p to that time they were wont to be suppressed or falsified, at the pleasure of the consuls". In addition, the plebeian council passed a law whereby those who left the plebeians without tribunes or elected a magistrate without appeal were to be scourged and beheaded. Livy noted that all
15840-450: The temple of Ceres , Liber , and Libera . They also introduced the practice of delivering the decrees of the senate to the aediles at the temple of Ceres, “[u]p to that time they were wont to be suppressed or falsified, at the pleasure of the consuls." In addition, the plebeian council passed a law whereby those who left the plebeians without tribunes or elected a magistrate without appeal were to be scourged and beheaded. Livy noted that all
15972-484: The town, the Quirinale , where the temples to those latter deities were located, had once been a Sabine centre. The extravagant claims of Varro and Cicero that augury , divination by dreams and the worship of Minerva and Mars originated with the Sabines are disputable, as they were general Italic and Latin customs, as well as Etruscan , even though they were espoused by Numa Pompilius , second king of Rome and
16104-404: The tribunes, performed this service". The reason the first decemvirate had a dual role, as a new magistracy which replaced the consuls and took on governance with extraordinary powers, and as a commission for compiling law, is not explained by the sources. Some modern historians have grappled with this as an apparent contradiction. A theory has tried to explain this contradiction by positing that
16236-424: The two additional tables there was no longer any justification for their rule and people looked forward to elections. However, when the time came, they were not held and the decimviri became violent. A Sabine army attacked Roman territory and encamped there and an Aequi army attacked an ally of Rome. According to Livy, the decemviri summoned the senate, but the senators did not show up. To the plebeians this showed
16368-422: The two enemies. As they were not good military men, both armies were routed. According to Livy, Appius Claudius had his eyes on Verginia , the daughter of a plebeian, Lucius Verginius, who was a centurion absent from Rome with the army. Having failed to woo her with money and promises, Appius Claudius decided to seize this opportunity to get one of his men to claim her as his slave. She was dragged off her feet in
16500-403: Was bailed to her family. Appius Claudius wrote to his colleagues at the camp not to grant Verginius leave and to arrest him. However, the messengers had already arrived and Verginius had already been given leave. At dawn a crowd was waiting to see what would happen. Verginius arrived, leading his daughter and a large mass of supporters. He canvassed people for help to claim his due. The tears of
16632-459: Was bailed to her family. Appius Claudius wrote to his colleagues at the camp not to grant Verginius leave and to arrest him. However, the messengers had already arrived and Verginius had already been given leave. At dawn a crowd was waiting to see what would happen. Verginius arrived, leading his daughter and a large mass of supporters. He motivated people for help to claim his due. The matrons accompanying Verginia began to cry, this display moved
16764-490: Was dragged off her feet in the forum and the shouts of her nurses attracted a crowd. The claimant said that he was acting lawfully and had summoned her to court. Verginia went to court followed by her friends and acquaintances. The judge was Appius Claudius. The claimant said that the girl was born at his house and then he persuaded Verginius to take her, but that she still was his slave. Verginia's friends asked for an adjournment until Verginius could attend and to leave Verginia in
16896-456: Was elected because it was felt that two new tables were needed implies that the decemvirate was meant to be a temporary body for the duration of the drawing up of the laws. So does the second decemvirate's attempt to prolong its office by pretending that they were still working on the final two tables. The decemvirate's role as a new magistracy which replaced the consuls and the plebeian tribunes has been interpreted as being intended to reintegrate
17028-504: Was no right to appeal. Some of the decemviri led two armies against the two enemies. However, both armies were routed. Livy alleged that Appius Claudius was sexually interested in Verginia , the daughter of a plebeian, Lucius Verginius, who was a centurion absent from Rome with the army. Having failed to woo her with money and promises, Appius Claudius decided to seize this opportunity to get one of his men to claim her as his slave. She
17160-401: Was one of the consuls of the previous year (452 BC), Publius Sestius Capitolinus Vaticanus , because he had put the proposal to the senate despite the opposition of his colleague. The three envoys were also part of the decemviri. The most influential member was Appius Claudius who, according to Livy, "was the guiding hand in the whole magistracy ... thanks to the favour of the plebs." Each day
17292-440: Was taken. They drafted their laws on ten bronze tables and presented them to the people, asked for feedback and amended them accordingly. They were approved by the higher popular assembly, the Assembly of the Soldiers. There was a general feeling that two more tables were needed to have a corpus of all Roman law. It was decided to elect a new decemvirate. The first decemvirate consisted of: According to Livy, Appius Claudius rigged
17424-416: Was worthy of consideration, but said that only patricians could legislate. Although disputed by historians such as Niebuhr, Cornell and Grant, according to Livy and Dionysius, three envoys were sent to Athens to study the Law of Solon and inquire about the laws of other Greek city-states. In 452 BC the envoys “returned with the laws of Athens.” The plebeian tribunes pressed to begin the compilation of
#552447