171-830: The Dhofar War (also known as the Dhofar Rebellion ) took place from 1963 to 1976 in the province of Dhofar against the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman . The war began with the formation of the Dhofar Liberation Front , a Marxist group which aimed to create an independent state in Dhofar, free from the rule of the Omani Sultan Said bin Taimur . The rebels also held the broader goals of Arab nationalism which included ending British influence in
342-712: A 350 000 -year-old Acheulean site named An Nasim in the Hail region could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. 354 artefacts, including hand axes and stone tools, provided information about the tool-making traditions of the earliest living man who inhabited southwest Asia. Paleolithic artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the Nefud Desert . The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to
513-670: A "hearts and minds" campaign to counter the communist rebels and began the process of modernising the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces while simultaneously deploying the Special Air Service to conduct anti-insurgency operations against the rebels. This approach led to a string of victories against the rebels and was boosted by the Shah of Iran's intervention in the conflict to support the Sultanate of Oman in 1973. The war ended with
684-645: A 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil. In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices. In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid . By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become
855-664: A battalion of the Sultan's Armed Forces against a rebel position at Deefa in the Jebel Qamar was defeated by heavily armed and well-organised and trained rebels. However, the radicalisation of the rebel movement led to a split between those such as bin Nufl who were fighting mainly for local autonomy and recognition, and the more doctrinaire revolutionaries (led by Mohammad Ahmad al-Ghassani). One of bin Nufl's lieutenants, Said bin Gheer,
1026-574: A chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]." In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah , assumed the role of de facto regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as
1197-703: A counterbalance to increasing Soviet influence in the Indian Ocean . China was quick to establish an embassy in Aden and "the Yemeni regime allowed its territory to be used for channelling weapons" to the PFLOAG. The transformation of the DLF, combined with a new supply of Chinese and Soviet weaponry and better training, ensured that the armed wing of the PFLOAG turned into an effective fighting force. In May 1968, an attack by
1368-470: A decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements. It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as Palestine . The nomadic Midianites were one of the earliest exploiters of
1539-473: A growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the " Basic Law ", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of
1710-524: A historical glimpse into the administration of the region: The administration of the Dhufar Province is in the hands of the Sultan of Muscat himself. He appears to regard Dhufar more as a private estate than as a Province of his Sultanate and maintains a separate treasury. According to an article published some 65 years ago in the Nehla, a superior Arabic magazine of the last century, Sayyid Turki ,
1881-687: A more revolutionary complexion. One was the Israeli victory in the Six-Day War which radicalised opinion throughout the Arab world . The other was the British withdrawal from Aden and the establishment of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY, aka South Yemen). From this point, the rebels had a source of arms, supplies and training facilities adjacent to Dhofar, and fresh recruits from groups in
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#17327724031302052-812: A pan- Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the revolt failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became King of Hejaz . Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took
2223-690: A portion of Dhofar was partially part of the sultanate of Kathiri , and was later mostly controlled by the tribes of Al-Hakli (Qara), thus given the name " Qara Mountain Range ". Al-Shahri were believed to be the original inhabitants of Dhofar. A historical political précis on Dhofar produced by the British Government indicate that in 1876, a man named Sayyid Fadhl bin Alawi, who had arrived in Dhofar from Mecca in August 1875, had established himself as
2394-534: A result of Sultan Qaboos's diplomatic initiatives, the Shah of Iran had sent an Imperial Iranian Army brigade numbering 1,200 and with its own helicopters to assist the Sultan's Armed Forces in 1973. The Iranian brigade first secured the Salalah-Thumrait road, while their helicopters played a vital role in keeping the isolated Simba position supplied. In 1974, the Iranian contribution was expanded into
2565-713: A royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new state al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya ( Arabic المملكة العربية السعودية ), which is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English, but literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom ", or "the Saudi Kingdom of Arabia " (compare the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ). The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Suʿūdīyya in
2736-530: A score of 8 out of 100 for 2023. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices , Saudi Arabia is the least democratic country in the Middle East . In the absence of national elections and political parties, politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society. Outside of the Al Saud, participation in
2907-507: A series of benefits for citizens amounting to $ 36 billion, of which $ 10.7 billion was earmarked for housing. No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned. Abdullah also announced a package of $ 93 billion, which included 500 000 new homes to a cost of $ 67 billion, in addition to creating 60 000 new security jobs. Although male-only municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011 , Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in
3078-540: A small portion of the northern tip of Yemen are directly exposed to the South East monsoon from mid-June to mid-September; this is known as the Khareef . Monsoon clouds keep the summer cool and humid, while the winter months are warm except for periods when cold winds from the northern deserts cause heavy and prolonged dust storms and a sharp fall in temperature. Dhofar's heavy seasonal rainfall contrasts sharply with
3249-596: A sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its official religion and Arabic as its official language. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam was the prevailing political and cultural force in the country until the 2000s. The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its intervention in the Yemeni Civil War , alleged sponsorship of terrorism , and widespread human rights abuses. Saudi Arabia
3420-399: A specific place given to women, including in the armed struggle. The move towards Marxism–Leninism ensured that the PFLOAG received sponsorship from both South Yemen and China. China in particular was quick to support the PFLOAG as it was a peasant -based organisation, giving it a strong Maoist credibility. Chinese support for the PFLOAG also had another benefit for them, as it acted as
3591-464: Is a great and noble and fine city. The people are Saracens [Muslims] and have a Count for their chief who is subject to the Soldan [Sultan] of Aden . Much white incense is produced here, and I will tell you how it grows. The trees are like small fir trees; these are notched with a knife in several places, and from these notches the incense is exuded. Sometimes it flows from the tree without any notch; this
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#17327724031303762-581: Is about 60% of the annual precipitation. Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert , Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna , Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands , Arabian Desert , and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert . Wildlife includes the Arabian leopard , Arabian wolf , striped hyena , mongoose , baboon , Cape hare , sand cat , and jerboa . Animals such as gazelles, oryx , leopards and cheetahs were relatively numerous until
3933-565: Is by reason of the great heat of the sun there. This Dhafar is supposed to be the Sephar of Genesis , x. 30. Dhofar was a major exporter of frankincense in ancient times, with some of it being traded as far as China. Al-Baleed (also spelled Al Blaid ), an area near Salalah which contains numerous archeological finds, used to serve as the home of the Manjawi Civilization from the 12th to 16th centuries. Prior to Omani rule,
4104-494: Is considered both a regional and middle power. Since petroleum was discovered in the country in 1938 , the kingdom has become the world's third-largest oil producer and leading oil exporter, controlling the world's second-largest oil reserves and the sixth-largest gas reserves . Saudi Arabia is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy and is the only Arab country among the G20 major economies. The Saudi economy
4275-686: Is home to many expatriates. Salalah, the region's capital, has an international airport, one of the largest seaports in the Middle East, several resorts including the Marriott and the Crowne Plaza , and a university. The Burj-al-Nadha clock tower is a local landmark and is featured in the Dhofar Municipality coat of arms. The Dhofar region is also rich in meteorites . According to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ,
4446-474: Is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of Man. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the Quaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a rich Lower Paleolithic record, and the quantity of Oldowan -like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia. In
4617-498: Is the largest in the Middle East and the world's nineteenth largest by nominal GDP and seventeenth largest by PPP . Ranking very high in the Human Development Index , Saudi Arabia offers tuition-free university education , no personal income tax, and free universal health care . With its dependency on foreign labour , Saudi Arabia has the world's third-largest immigrant population . Saudi Arabians are among
4788-494: Is the highest point in the country. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes. Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi). Except for the southwestern regions such as Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high day-time temperatures during
4959-423: Is the largest of the 11 governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen 's Al Mahrah Governorate and the southern border with Saudi Arabia 's Eastern Province . It is a rather mountainous area that covers 99,300 km (38,300 sq mi) and had a population of 416,458 in the 2020 census. Salalah is the largest city and capital of
5130-563: Is the only country in the world where you can wage a war like this one, a large-scale war using every kind of weapon". As with many military operations the British were involved in, the use of nicknames was commonplace and these were used alongside local names: The following were the nicknames of the north–south blocking defences in western Dhofar: The following are mentioned as operational sites but not yet identified: Dhofar Governorate The Dhofar Governorate ( Arabic : مُحَافَظَة ظُفَّار , romanized : Muḥāfaẓat Ẓuffār )
5301-573: Is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert , lowland, steppe, and mountains . The capital and largest city is Riyadh ; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam , Mecca and Medina . With a population of almost 32.2 million , Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in
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5472-651: Is undefined. The United Nations Statistics Division estimates 2 149 690 km ( 830 000 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 12th largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on the Arabian Plate . Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert , associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The 647 500 km ( 250 001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in
5643-592: The Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia , that the two main tribes of Dhofar were the mountain-dwelling Al Qara tribe (for which the Qara Mountain Range was named) and the Al Kathiri tribes (Al-Shanfari, Al-Rawas, Al-Marhoon, Bait Fadhil, Al-Mardoof and Al-Hadhri) who lived in the hills and in villages alike; both were reported to speak dialects of Arabic unknown in other parts of
5814-435: The majlis . In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events. In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as
5985-608: The 2015 municipal elections , and also to be nominated to the Shura Council . Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula), lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N , and longitudes 34° and 56° E . Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country
6156-758: The AK-47 assault rifle and SKS semi-automatic carbine. They also used heavy machine guns (the DShK ), mortars up to 82mm in calibre and 140mm BM-14 or 122mm "Katyusha" rockets. By 1970 communists controlled the entire Jebel. Terror was then used to break up the traditional tribal structure. Young men were sent to train for guerilla warfare in China, Russia and Iraq. The units of the Sultan's Armed Forces were under strength with only 1,000 men in Dhofar in 1968. They were also badly equipped, mainly with World War II vintage weapons such as bolt-action rifles, which were inferior to
6327-406: The Arab world . Pre-Islamic Arabia , the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the prehistory of Saudi Arabia shows some of the earliest traces of human activity outside Africa. Islam , the world's second-largest religion, emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early seventh century. Islamic prophet Muhammad united
6498-722: The Arabian Peninsula . Other tribes of importance noted by Lorimer included the Ja'afar tribe, the Bait Al Qalam tribe, the Sayid (or Sadat) tribe, the Hasarit tribe and the Harasis tribe. The inhabitants of Dhofar were described primarily as agriculturalists and were well known for their affinity to 'tobacco', possibly referring to khat which is similar in appearance. At the time of Lorimer's survey, Dhofar had roughly 11,000 inhabitants,
6669-620: The Firqat Salahadin or Firqat Khalid bin Walid . (Some of the PFLOAG units also gave themselves ideological names, such as Ho Chi Minh or Che Guevara ). These firqat irregular groups played a major part in denying local support to the rebels. Being jibalis themselves (and in many cases with family connections among the communities on the Jebel), they were better at local intelligence-gathering and "hearts and minds" activities than
6840-702: The Gulf War (1990–1991). Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing near
7011-423: The Jebel Akhdar in the interior of Oman in 1957–59. The DLF also received support from Imam Ghalib Bin Ali , the exiled Imam of Oman, who had led these earlier revolts. Bin Nufl and his men made an epic crossing of the Empty Quarter to reach Dhofar. As early as December 1962, Bin Nufl's guerrilla band performed sabotage operations on the British air base at Salalah and ambushed oil industry vehicles. From 1964
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7182-454: The Neolithic period, prominent cultures such as Al-Magar , whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills. The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse, during the Neolithic period. Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that
7353-425: The Persian Gulf region. Omani and British goals, on the other hand, were to safeguard Oman from communism and halt the spread of communist ideology as part of the broader Cold War . The war initially took the form of a low level insurgency with guerrilla warfare being used against Omani forces and the foreign presence in the country. A number of factors such as the British withdrawal from Aden and support from
7524-522: The Quran , while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution. No political parties or national elections are permitted. While some critics consider it to be a totalitarian state, others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime. The Economist ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 Democracy Index , and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it
7695-435: The Ubaid period at Dosariyah . Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium. The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of Dilmun in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from Uruk refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it
7866-435: The fifth-largest country in Asia , the largest in the Middle East , and the 12th-largest in the world. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan , Iraq , and Kuwait to the north; the Persian Gulf , Bahrain , Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel . Saudi Arabia
8037-447: The khareef . Some regular troops from the PDRY reinforced the PFLO's fighters, who also deployed SA-7 anti-aircraft missiles for the first time. However, their premature use of this weapon deprived them of the advantage of surprise. Also, the Sultan's Air Force had acquired 31 Hawker Hunter aircraft from the Royal Jordanian Air Force . The SA-7 was much less effective against these aircraft than against Strikemasters. In October 1975,
8208-434: The third "Saudi state" . Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan , a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Faisal Al-Dawish , and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913. In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I ), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali , led
8379-412: The various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west to parts of Central and South Asia in the east in a matter of decades. Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to
8550-475: The " Sudairi Seven "). Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar. In February–April 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part. In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing
8721-537: The 14th century. The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507. Al-Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came under Ottoman suzerainty . The Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control. Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty. In
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#17327724031308892-399: The 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Ahsa ) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of
9063-440: The 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important Asiatic lion occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sandgrouse , and bulbuls . There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include
9234-409: The Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority —particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regionalist particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz). Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in violent incidents in
9405-407: The American interests in Aramco. King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd , who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased
9576-414: The Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba , formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the Al Saud ( Arabic : آل سعود ). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al , meaning "family of" or "House of", to the personal name of an ancestor. In
9747-420: The British Army. He then completed his education sitting in on councils, attending committee meetings and visiting industry and administrative centres in Britain before returning to Oman. His "five point plan" involved: Within hours of the coup, British Special Air Service (SAS) soldiers were flown into Oman to further bolster the counterinsurgency campaign. They identified four main strategies that would assist
9918-444: The DLF began a campaign of hit-and-run attacks on oil company installations and government posts. Many of the DLF were trained former soldiers of the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces (SAF), or of the Trucial Oman Scouts in the United Arab Emirates . The Sultan had relied on the "Dhofar Force", a locally recruited irregular unit of only 60 men, to maintain order in the region. In April 1966, members of this unit attempted to assassinate
10089-420: The German playwright Bertolt Brecht 's and of some who were associated with the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) such as the writer and strategist Ghassan Kanafani . Discussions were published by Sawt al-Thawra and 9 Yunyu . Two congresses were held to define the political objectives of the movement, in 1965 and 1968. At the second congress, the Dhofar Liberation Front became the Popular Front for
10260-427: The Imperial Iranian Task Force, numbering 4,000. They attempted to establish another interdiction line, codenamed the "Damavand Line", running from Manston , a few miles east of Sarfait, to the coast near the border with the PDRY. Heavy opposition from the rebels, which included artillery fire from within the PDRY, thwarted this aim for several months. Eventually, the town of Rahkyut, which the PFLO had long maintained as
10431-457: The Jebel Qara and Jebel Samhan by firqats and were driven into the western part of the Jebel Qamar. Nevertheless, the rebels kept the respect of their opponents for their resilience and skill. In January 1975, in the hastily organised Operation Dharab, the SAF attempted to capture the main rebel logistic base in the Shershitti Caves. A SAF company from a battalion which took a wrong route blundered into an ambush in an adoo "killing ground" above
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#173277240313010602-430: The Liberation of the Occupied Arabian Gulf , or PFLOAG. The program adopted at these two congresses was strongly tinged with communism. Its aim was to establish a "democratic people's republic" and to expel the British army from Oman. The Front sought to establish a constitution, abolish martial law, restore freedom of the press and expression and ensure the rights of minorities. On economic issues, it intended to nationalize
10773-507: The PDRY. Training camps, logistical bases and other facilities were set up in the coastal town of Hawf , only a few miles from the border with Oman. The Dhofari liberation movement adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology with the objective of liberating "all of the Gulf from British imperialism ." Political scientist Fred Halliday reported during his visit to the area that "wherever we went we saw people wearing Mao and Lenin badges, reading socialist works and discussing." Works included Lenin's,
10944-479: The PFLOAG's modern firearms. These rifles were replaced by the FN FAL only late in 1969. Even the SAF's clothing and boots were ragged and unsuitable for the terrain. The units of the SAF were generally not properly trained to face hardy guerrillas on their own ground, and no Omani held a rank above that of Lieutenant (a result of the Sultan's fears of opposition to his rule among the armed forces). The SAF generally were unable to operate in less than company strength on
11115-472: The Persian Gulf (PFLOAG). This latter group was supported by Communist South Yemen and several other socialist states, including East Germany . It aimed to depose the Sultan's government, who was assisted by the United Kingdom, Iran , and officers and doctors from Pakistan and India. The rebellion failed, and once the campaign was declared over in December 1975, the active remainder of PFLOAG forces surrendered. J.G. Lorimer noted in his 1908 manuscript,
11286-423: The Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia . In it, Dhofar's boundaries are given as between the Samhan hills (Jebel Samhan) and the sea, from Ra's Risut eastwards for 30 miles to Khor Rori . Colloquially, the term Dhofar was used to describe the villages of Al Haffah and Salalah , which housed about two-thirds of Dhofar's population at that time; however, on an official capacity, the term was understood to refer to
11457-454: The Qarmatians in Bahrain and al-Hasa with the help of the Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty . The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian Desert . They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253. Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in
11628-445: The Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Arabian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah , parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Asir is mountainous and contains the 3 002 m ( 9 849 ft) Jabal Ferwa , which
11799-431: The SAF and two squadrons of the SAS. After hard fighting, the SAS and Firqats secured an enclave on the eastern Jebel Samhan from which they could expand. The SAS introduced two new weapons to support the mobile but lightly equipped firqats : the rapid firing GPMG , which could lay down a heavier weight of fire than the Bren light machine gun previously available to the SAF, and the Browning M2 heavy machine gun, which
11970-423: The SAF launched a final offensive. An attack from Simba , intended to be a diversion, nevertheless succeeded in descending cliffs and slopes 3,000 feet (910 m) in total height to reach the coast at Dalqhut, and thus finally cut off the adoo from their bases in the PDRY. While the Iranian Task Force threatened the Shershitti Caves from the south, another SAF battalion advanced from Deefa, threatening to surround
12141-403: The SAF reported that after receiving heavy resistance, it "proved that the position was unattainable, and after blowing up the village wells we evacuated the camp." From the early days of the rebellion, Nasserite and other left wing movements in the neighbouring Aden Protectorate , later the Protectorate of South Arabia , were also involved. In 1967, two events combined to give the rebellion
12312-664: The Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered. By the late Bronze Age , a historically recorded people and land ( Midian and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in Tabouk , it stretched from Wadi Arabah in
12483-709: The Soviets. As a result of the various measures undertaken by the Omani government, firqats and regular SAF, the rebels were being deprived both of local support and supplies from the PDRY. This was recognised at a Third National Congress of the movement, held in Rakhyut in June 1971. Some military improvements were suggested, such as better discipline to avoid wasteful expenditure of ammunition and better coordination between units. It
12654-474: The Special Air Service. Salim Mubarak played a major role in establishing the first Firqat (and the only one to be formed from members of more than one tribe), but died, apparently of heart failure, shortly after its first successful actions. Eighteen Firqat units, numbering between 50 and 150 men each, were eventually formed. They usually gave themselves names with connections to Islam, such as
12825-567: The Sultan. This event apparently changed the nature of the conflict. The Sultan retired to his palace in Salalah, never to be seen in public again. This only served to add to rumours that the British were running Oman through a "phantom" Sultan. The Sultan also launched a full-scale military offensive against the DLF, contrary to the advice of his British advisors. Heavy-handed search and destroy missions were launched in Dhofar, villages were burned and wells were concreted over or blown up. A member of
12996-563: The United States to intervene. King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq . In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as
13167-456: The absence of liberties and services, such as education and health, would end; that it was up to them to come forward and demonstrate their goodwill; that we should co-operate together and that defects inherited from the past needed full time on our part to cope with them . One step which had a major impact on the uprising was the announcement of an amnesty for surrendered fighters, and aid in defending their communities from rebels. A cash incentive
13338-510: The appointment of the country's first female deputy minister. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people. Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people. Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests . In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011
13509-466: The beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman 's son, Abdul Aziz—later known as Ibn Saud —recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating
13680-434: The best of them, producing an estimated flow of 40,000 gallons of water an hour. These waters, if unharnessed, again disappear underground in the foothills and reappear to feed extensive fresh water creeks in the coastal belt divided from the sea only by narrow sandbars . Fresh water is easily obtainable from shallow wells at a distance of a hundred yards from high water mark and up to a distance of one mile inland, beyond which
13851-611: The capital of their liberated territory, fell to the Iranian task force. Shah Mohamad Reza Pahlavi justified his intervention in Oman by the need to defend the Strait of Hormuz: "Just imagine that these savages should seize the other bank of the Ormuz Straits, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Our life depends on that. And those people at war with the Sultan are savages. They may even be worse than communists". Iranian troops remained in
14022-616: The case of Al Saud, this is Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin , the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder, Muhammad bin Saud . There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125 000 years ago. A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about 75 000 years ago across the Bab-el-Mandeb connecting the Horn of Africa and Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula
14193-613: The caves and suffered heavy casualties. During late February 1975, three battalions of the SAF eliminated much of the rebel "9th June" Regiment (named after the anniversary of the outbreak of the rebellion) in the rugged Wadi Ashoq in the Jebel Samhan between the Damavand and Hornbeam lines. This largely restored SAF morale. During the next few months, the SAF seized an airstrip at Deefa, but were unable to make immediate use of it during
14364-522: The central part as the Jebel Qara and the eastern part as the Jebel Samhan . From June to September each year, the jebel receives moisture-laden winds (the Khareef or monsoon) and is shrouded in cloud. As a result, it is heavily vegetated, and for much of the year is green and lush. The inhabitants of the villages and communities on the jebel are known as jibalis ( hill people ). To the north,
14535-455: The coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole at Dahab ). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species, including some of the 44 species of shark . There are many offshore reefs including several atolls . Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to
14706-771: The coast and up to the summit of the Jebel, to interdict the movement of rebels and the camel trains carrying their supplies from the PDRY. The "Leopard Line" was established in 1971, but this line had to be abandoned during the following monsoon season as it could not be supplied. The more effective "Hornbeam Line" was set up in 1972, running north from Mughsayl on the coast west of Salalah. The lines consisted of fortified platoon and company outposts on commanding peaks, linked by barbed wire. The posts possessed mortars and some also had artillery, to provide cover for patrols and to harass rebel positions and tracks used by them. The SAF soldiers continually sortied from their outposts to set ambushes on
14877-522: The coasts of Dhofar, perhaps Wadi Sayq, are considered the most likely location of the Book of Mormon land of Bountiful , from which the nomadic family of Lehi sailed, some time after 600 BC, in a ship constructed by his son Nephi , to the New World. Dhofar Governorate consists of ten wilayats also called provinces. Al-Mazyunah is the newest after it was declared separate from the Rakhyut wilayat. It
15048-550: The corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government. The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the ulema a greater role in government. Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength. In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out
15219-651: The country after the end of the war but were withdrawn after the Iranian Revolution . In January 1974, after several splits and defections, the rebel movement renamed itself the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman . This public contraction of their aims coincided with a reduction in the support they received from the Soviet Union and China. Meanwhile, the rebels were steadily cleared from
15390-469: The country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation , encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization . In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and
15561-557: The creation of the Dhofar Development Programme, whose aim was to wrest support from the PFLOAG through the modernisation of Dhofar. The operation was almost a carbon copy of a system that had proved successful in the Malayan Emergency some twenty years previously. To assist in the civil development and coordinate it with the military operations, the command structure in Dhofar was reorganised, with
15732-556: The danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla , where their leaders were massacred. On Ibn Saud's behalf, Prince Faisal declared
15903-796: The de facto ruler of Dhofar. He claimed allegiance to the Ottomans , however, it was unknown if he was acting under their directive. With the help of Dhofari tribes he carried out warfare against the Bedouins of the interior. He was expelled by local sheikhs in January 1879. Dhofar is extensively detailed in the 1917 publication Gazetteer of Arabia , produced by the Government in British India and mostly based on information gathered by J.G. Lorimer 's in his 1908 and 1915 handbook Gazetteer of
16074-503: The deployment of 20 personnel of the British Royal Engineers , who would aid in the construction of schools and health centres, and drilled wells for the population of Dhofar. Royal Army Medical Corps Field Surgical Teams and some Royal Air Force medical teams would also operate out of Salalah hospital, in order to open a humanitarian front in the conflict. The British government additionally provided monetary support for
16245-434: The domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region. At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of Lihyan . During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain. In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between
16416-462: The earliest depictions of dogs in the world. At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the Bronze Age ; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours. In May 2021, archaeologists announced that
16587-532: The early period of Dilmun, a form of hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun. By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and
16758-509: The empire's central authority. These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an , including the cities of Ma'an and Aqaba . The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of Diriyah in Nejd in central Arabia with the accession as emir of Muhammad bin Saud on 22 February 1727. In 1744 he joined forces with
16929-440: The end of the war. The special envoy in Oman of The Times of London explained in 1976: Most of the civil servants and all the army officers I met, with one single exception, were British. Major General Perkins himself [commander-in-chief of the Omani army] assured us that 'if Great Britain were to withdraw from Oman it would be catastrophic' […]. Serving in Oman was very useful for the training of officers posted out here. […] It
17100-521: The entire region of Dhofar, much like in the modern sense. Dhofar's physical geography was noted as consisting mainly of barren plains, a mountain range and several valleys, the most important of which was Wadi Raikut. Communication outside of Dhofar was made difficult on account of the rugged landscape and the fact that no large harbors existed on the coast, though Mirbat and Risut were said to offer good anchorage for smaller vessels. The mountain paths were, for all intents and purposes, inaccessible during
17271-629: The establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession. In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post; however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic. The rule of
17442-435: The festival among the lower classes of Dhofar. Jackson (1943) states that the ruler of Oman prohibited Muslims from participating in these festivities sometime in the early 20th century. While Arabic speakers from the dominant culture of Oman have come to live in the province, especially the larger cities and towns, Dhofar has been the traditional homeland of many tribespeople speaking Modern South Arabian languages . One of
17613-580: The fight against the PFLOAG: The military commanders on the ground (rather than the UK Ministry of Defence ) suggested the implementation of a "hearts and minds" campaign, which would be put into operation primarily by a troop (25 men) from the SAS. The British government (then under Conservative leader Edward Heath ) supported this unconventional approach to the counterinsurgency campaign. It approved
17784-416: The final defeat of the rebels in 1976. In 1962, Oman was a very underdeveloped country. Sultan Said bin Taimur , an absolute ruler under British influence, had outlawed almost all technological development and relied on British support to maintain the rudimentary functions of the state. Oman at the time was a " British protectorate ", a de facto colony . During his collaboration with the British empire,
17955-512: The governorate. Historically, the region was a source of frankincense . The local dialect of Arabic is Dhofari Arabic , which is distinct from that used in the rest of Oman and in Yemen. At Aybut Al-Auwal ("First Aybut") in Wadi Aybut (west-central Nejd), a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools belonging to a regionally specific lithic industry,
18126-422: The ground, and eight Shorts Skyvan transport aircraft and eight Agusta Bell 205 transport helicopters which supplied firqat and SAF posts on the jebels. A flight of RAF Westland Wessex helicopters also operated from Salalah. On 17 April 1972, a battalion of the SAF made a helicopter landing to capture a position codenamed Simba at Sarfait near the border with South Yemen. The captured position overlooked
18297-497: The high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera ) is widespread. Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy ; however, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and
18468-660: The hills slope down via rough wadis and cliffs into the gravel plains and sand seas of the Empty Quarter . In 1962 a dissatisfied tribal leader, Musallam bin Nufl (Mussalim bin Nafl), formed the Dhofar Liberation Front (DLF) and obtained arms and vehicles from Saudi Arabia . Saudi Arabia and Oman had earlier clashed over ownership of the Buraimi Oasis , and the Saudis had already supported two failed insurrections in
18639-417: The increased depth of the water discourages prospective cultivators. Dhofar's forest cover was estimated to be 53,000 hectares in 1989. However, due to human actives and deforestation, it declined to 10,000 hectares in 2020. The forests are home to more than 750 flora species – including 50 native species, which counts for more than 75% of Oman's biodiversity. Dhofar has a tropical climate . Dhofar and
18810-461: The indignation of the Sultan of Oman. They engaged in little cultivation due to the arid landscape, instead preferring to trade incense and rear livestock. In the past, the Hindu festival Diwali was celebrated by practicing Omani Muslims and non-Muslims alike. According to local tradition, the custom was introduced by a Brahmin who was shipwrecked off Dhofar's coast and found a ready acceptance of
18981-594: The jebel (making their operations clumsy and conspicuous), and were mainly restricted to Salalah and its immediate area. At various times, small detachments from Nos. 2 (Para), 15 (Field) and 51 (Field) squadrons of the British RAF Regiment , and other units (a Royal Artillery locating troop, a 5.5-inch medium battery of the Royal Jordanian Artillery, and a 25-pounder battery of the Sultan's artillery) had to be deployed to protect
19152-589: The languages most commonly spoken by Al-Hakli (Qara), Al-Shahri, Al-Barami, Al-Mashaiki and Al-Bathari mountain tribes is the Shehri language (called Jibbali "Mountainous"). The Yemeni language Mehri is somewhat linked to Jeballi. Other indigenous groups speaking smaller languages such as Bat'hari living in the coastal towns of Shuwaymiya and Sharbithat . The Harasis , speaking Harsusi , number 1–2000 and live in Jiddat al-Harasis . The Dhofar Governorate, situated in
19323-453: The largest oil producer in the world. Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country; in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed. In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first
19494-789: The late Nubian Complex, known previously only from Northeast Africa. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This provides evidence for a distinct Middle Stone Age technocomplex in southern Arabia around the earlier part of the Marine Isotope Stage 5. Bronze Age sites of the Dhofar Survey include tomb complexes found at Hodor (al-Hudfir). Venetian merchant Marco Polo wrote of Dhofar in The Travels of Marco Polo (c. 1300), stating: Dufar
19665-529: The legendary Arabian horse , Arabian camel , sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc. The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem with more than 1,200 species of fish around 10% of which are endemic . This also includes 42 species of deep water fish . The rich diversity is partly owed to the 2 000 km ( 1 240 mi) of coral reef extending along the coastline; these fringing reefs are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along
19836-640: The locations, geography and history of several of these villages. Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia , officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ( KSA ), is a country in West Asia . Located in the centre of the Middle East , it is one of the countries situated in the Gulf region . It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about 2,150,000 km (830,000 sq mi), making it
20007-656: The majority of which were Bedouins . In Gordon Noel Jackson's 1943 treatise on the Dhofar Governorate, he wrote that "the people of the province are as varied as the landscape". He goes on to state that the Arabs of the hills, 'mountain Arabs', were highly nomadic and were not proficient in Standard Arabic . Furthermore, it is asserted that they were not overtly observant of Islamic customs, were highly superstitious, and practiced pre-Islamic rites , much to
20178-408: The monsoon season of 1972. On 19 July 1972, at the Battle of Mirbat , 250 rebel fighters attacked 100 assorted firqat under training, paramilitary askars (armed police) and a detachment of the Special Air Service. In spite of the low khareef cloud cover, air support from Strikemaster aircraft was available, and helicopters landed SAS reinforcements. The rebels were repulsed with heavy losses. As
20349-449: The most likely enemy infiltration routes and mount attacks against rebel mortar- and rocket-launching positions. Anti-personnel land mines were sown on infiltration routes. The rebels also used anti-personnel mines against suspected SAF patrol bases, and even laid anti-tank land mines on tracks used by SAF vehicles. The Sultan of Oman's Air Force was also expanded, acquiring BAC Strikemaster aircraft which provided air support to units on
20520-427: The neighboring barren Empty Quarter Desert. The Salalah plain was once a well cultivated area with a sophisticated irrigation system. Dhofar has a tribal community , including the tribes of Al-Kathiri are the largest number in Salalah and Dhofar in general Al-Hakli (Qara), Hashimi, Al-Yafei, Al-Mashaikhi, Al-Shahri, Al-Mahri, Al-Bat'hari, Al-Daroodi(Dhashisha, Siwaqron, Ali Saleban, Al-bahanta) and Al-Barami. It also
20691-601: The newly appointed Wāli or civilian governor (Braik bin Hamoud) being given equal status to the military commander of the Dhofar Brigade (Brigadier Jack Fletcher to 1972, Brigadier John Akehurst from that date). A major effort was made to counter rebel propaganda and induce the Dhofari population to support the government. In particular, appeals were made to Islam and to traditional tribal values and customs, against
20862-575: The newly conquered lands. Arabs originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz in particular, founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and the Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca , but at most times the sharif owed allegiance to
21033-510: The newly independent South Yemen , China and the Soviet Union brought the rebels increased success, with the communists controlling the entirety of the Jebel region by the late 1960s. The 1970 Omani coup d'état led to the overthrow of Sultan Said bin Taimur by his reformist son Qaboos bin Said who was backed by a major British military intervention in the conflict. The British initiated
21204-518: The north and east and buffeted and depressed until they are entrapped by the mountains over the Dhofar plain. Thus, Dhofar is unique on the Southern Arabian coast in that it enjoys monsoon rainfall for some three months of the year. The Province contains three distinct physical tracts, a cultivated coastal belt, Al Haffah , divided from the mountains by a desert plain some 40 miles in length and up to 9 miles in depth. The mountains enclosing
21375-423: The north being practically free of clouds and devoid of moisture. It is in these wadis that the frankincense , for which the mountains have been famous through the ages, grows wild. The dryness of the air determines the quality of the frankincense, the resin of similar trees growing on the southern slopes being spoilt by the rain. Although the southern slopes enjoy a good rainfall the ground soil does not retain
21546-459: The north to the area of al-Wejh in the south. The capital of Midian was Qurayyah, it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants. The Bible recounts Israel 's two wars with Midian, somewhere in the early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having
21717-455: The northern Omani or Baluchi personnel of the regular SAF, although they exasperated commanders of the regular SAF by refusing to take part in operations outside their tribal areas, or during Ramadan . The first serious step in re-establishing the Sultan's authority on the Jebel took place in October 1971, when Operation Jaguar was mounted, involving five Firqat units. three companies of
21888-557: The oil companies, develop industries and implement land reform. The Front called for more social justice and affirmed its support for all Asian, African and Latin American liberation movements. References were also made to the Palestinian struggle. The rebels opened schools to which both boys and girls had access (girls' education was forbidden in Oman until 1970). Tribalism was fought against and social relations tended to evolve, with
22059-515: The oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company) . Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia . At
22230-404: The political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and members of important commercial families on major decisions. This process is not reported by the Saudi media. By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as
22401-648: The population of the Arabian Peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territories in North Africa , Central , South Asia and Iberia within decades. Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates, as well as numerous other dynasties in Asia, Africa , and Europe . The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
22572-460: The port of Aden , Yemen. 15 of the hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks were Saudi nationals. Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies. Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and
22743-581: The present Sultan's grandfather, established his rule there at the invitation of the Sayyids of Salalah to forestall the unwelcome interest of the Turks. He entrusted the task of establishing Muscat authority to one Sulaiman bin Suwailim, a former slave, and supplied him with a small body of soldiers to secure the towns from the tribesmen. Sulaiman bin Suwailim built a fort on the site of the present palace which
22914-433: The purchase of American and British military equipment. The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there
23085-435: The rainy season. Aside from camels, no other transport animals were widely used. Frankincense was said to comprise the bulk of economic trade, with 9,000 cwt. being sent to Mumbai annually. Other exports were hides, sheep-skins, gums and beeswax. Among the chief imports were khat (which was mistaken for tobacco) from Mukalla and rice, sugar, dates and cloths from Mumbai. Gordon Noel Jackson's 1943 essay on Dhofar provides
23256-412: The rebels' secular or materialist teachings. A significant outlet for government propaganda was the many inexpensive Japanese transistor radios which were sold cheaply or distributed free to jibalis who visited Salalah and other government-held towns to sell firewood or vegetables. Although the PFLOAG could also broadcast propaganda by radio, the Government's propaganda was factual and low-key, while that of
23427-500: The rebels' supply lines along the coastal plain, but did not block them. Although the demands on its transport aircraft and helicopters to maintain the post at Sarfait forced the SAF to abandon some positions in the eastern Jebel, Sarfait was nevertheless retained for four years. Immediately after China established relations with Iran, all support to the rebels in Dhofar was cut off by China which had changed its mind about insurgencies, since it viewed them as counterproductive to countering
23598-465: The rebels, broadcast by Radio Aden, was soon perceived to be exaggerated and stereotyped. On 27 December 1970 Sultan Qaboos gave an interview to Al Khaleej and commented on the situation in Dhofar saying: This crisis developed in the past, but its after-effects still exist. And on the very first day [of assuming power] we addressed ourselves to the discontented there, and extended our hand to them saying that what they were complaining about regarding
23769-535: The religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab , founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today. The Emirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802, and capturing Mecca in 1803. In 1818, it
23940-414: The remaining adoo territory in the Jebel Qamar. Hawker Hunter aircraft of the Sultan's Air Force attacked artillery positions in the PDRY. Over the next few months, the remaining rebel fighters surrendered or sought sanctuary in the PDRY. The Rebellion was finally declared to be defeated in January 1976, although isolated incidents took place as late as 1979. The British influence was still considerable at
24111-487: The ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad , Cairo or Istanbul . Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule. For much of the 10th century, the Isma'ili -Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone . In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated
24282-433: The same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing. In 1953, Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia , after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained
24453-572: The south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road. The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from Yathrib in the south and parts of the Levant in the north. In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired. The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma , and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain
24624-423: The southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert. Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers. Wadis , non-permanent rivers, however, are very numerous throughout the kingdom . The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases. There are approximately 1,300 islands in
24795-415: The statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants. In November 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the Canaan Dog ) and wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, a hilly region of northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8 000 years, making them
24966-432: The sultan committed himself to maintaining an iron-fisted policy, slowing down the development of his country to the detriment of the Omani population, who lived in atrocious and unhealthy conditions. Nadir bin Ali bin Faisal , undersecretary of foreign affairs at the time, wrote a book called Sultan and Colonialism in which he stated that the sultan was nothing more than a British puppet without any authority. Dhofar itself
25137-464: The summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 45 °C (113 °F) but can be as high as 54 °C (129 °F). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 °C (32 °F) with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of Tabuk Province , is not uncommon. The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F),
25308-428: The summer for herds of dairy cattle, camels and goats numbering many hundreds. The uplands rise gently to a height of between 3,000 and 4,000 feet at the top of the watershed and thence slope away to the north draining into Wadi Muqshin on the southern edge of the Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter). Cloud formations are entrapped over the enclosed plain and on southern slopes of the mountains, the reverse slopes draining to
25479-541: The title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz. For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units. After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized
25650-405: The unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. That date is now a national holiday called Saudi National Day . The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of
25821-460: The vital airfield at Salalah from infiltrators and from harassing mortar and rocket fire. Other insurgents in the northern section of Oman formed a separate resistance movement, the National Democratic Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arabian Gulf (NDFLOAG). In June 1970 they attacked two SAF posts at Nizwa and Izki . They were repulsed but the incident convinced many (including the Sultan's British advisers and backers) that new leadership
25992-415: The water. Underground rivers drain the waters of Jabal Aram into Wadi Darbat, the mouth of which is sealed by a sheer limestone cliff 500 feet high. The accumulated waters fill a lake two miles long, situated at a height of 1,000 feet, and overflow during the rains to form a picturesque waterfall. Other underground rivers feed perennial springs at the foot of the hills. There are six of these springs; Jarziz,
26163-472: The western end of the plain are precipitous and inaccessible while those to the east rise steeply with many sheer cliffs and deep gorges but are capped by rolling grassy uplands and interspersed with wide park-like valleys well wooded with groves of wild figs , tamarinds , acacias , sycamores . Varieties of evergreens, privets , babuls , wild olives, jasmines , camel thorn, salt cedars and an abundance of wild flowers and grasses provide ample grazing during
26334-416: The western extremity of Oman's territories, is enclosed by the Indian Ocean on its southern side and by the Dhofar Mountains , a semi-circular formation of mountains running into the sea at Ras Hamar and Mirbat , which shut it off from the mountains and deserts to the north, east and west. South-west monsoon (locally referred to as Khareef ) clouds driving up from the Indian Ocean are here met by winds from
26505-415: The world's youngest people , with approximately half being under 25 years old. Saudi Arabia is an active and founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council , United Nations , Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , Arab League , and OPEC , as well as a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation . Following the amalgamation of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd , Abdulaziz bin Saud issued
26676-399: Was a dependency of Oman but was culturally and linguistically distinct from Oman proper. The province of Dhofar consists of an intermittent narrow, fertile coastal plain, on which stand Salalah , the provincial capital, and other towns such as Mughsayl, Taqah , and Mirbat . Behind this are the rugged hills of the Jebel Dhofar. The western portion of this range is known as the Jebel Qamar ,
26847-435: Was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government. In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait spent $ 25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988); however, Saudi Arabia condemned the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked
27018-411: Was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of Saudi Arabia, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that Tarout Island was the main port and the capital of Dilmun. Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in
27189-405: Was acknowledged that the movement had estranged many of the local population, by indiscriminate punishments by "people's courts", the movement's inability to match the government's civil aid program and the effectiveness of the government's information service which promoted Islam over Marxism. To retrieve the military situation, the rebels mounted a major attack on the coastal town of Mirbat during
27360-465: Was an early and influential defector to the Sultan. Nevertheless, by 1969 the DLF and PFLOAG fighters had overrun much of the Jebel Dhofar, and cut the only road across it—that from Salalah to "Midway" ( Thumrait ) in the deserts to the north. They were known to the Sultan's Armed Forces as Adoo , Arabic for "enemy", or sometimes as "the Front", while they referred to themselves as the People's Liberation Army or PLA. They were well-armed with weapons such as
27531-429: Was annexed by the Roman Empire , which renamed it Arabia Petraea , and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630. Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 CE . In the early 7th century, Muhammad united
27702-671: Was deployed to match the DShK machine guns used by the adoo . Meanwhile, the regular units of the SAF were expanded and re-equipped. Extra officers and NCO instructors from the British Army and Royal Marines (and also the Pakistan Army ) were attached to all units (there were nominally twenty-two British or contracted personnel with each infantry battalion) while Omani personnel were educated and trained to become officers and senior NCOs . British specialist elements, including mortar locating radar troops and artillery observation officers, also rotated through Oman over several years. The revitalised SAF created fortified lines running north from
27873-441: Was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha . The much smaller Emirate of Nejd was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid , who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar . By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait. At
28044-406: Was fertile enough to produce food and grain to supply a large proportion of the requirement of the British Army fighting in Mesopotamia . A counter-insurgency campaign—the Omani Civil War (1963-76) —was fought here by the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces against guerrilla fighters of the nationalist Dhofar Liberation Front and later the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and
28215-490: Was founded in 1932 by King Abdulaziz (also known as Ibn Saud ), who united the regions of Hejaz , Najd , parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) and South Arabia ( 'Asir ) into a single state through a series of conquests , beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh , the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud . Saudi Arabia has since been an absolute monarchy governed by an authoritarian regime without public input. In its Basic Law , Saudi Arabia defines itself as
28386-412: Was later seized and looted by the Kathiri , but it was not long before Muscat authority was re-established. His father took little interest in the Province but Sayyid Said bin Taimur , the present Sultan, has now been in residence there for over a year, has a trained agricultural adviser and an engineer with him and is making great strides in developing the agricultural resources. During World War I it
28557-460: Was measured in Turaif . Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently. In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F). Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons , usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which
28728-441: Was named in honor of Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said 's mother, Mazoon bint Ahmad Al Mashani . Each wilayat comprises several villages and towns. The following are the ten wilayats of Dhofar: Dozens of villages are found in the governorate, particularly around the coast and near major towns. The 1917 Gazetteer of Arabia , produced by the Government in British India and based on J.G. Lorimer 's earlier Gazeteer , makes note of
28899-432: Was offered to rebels who changed sides, with a bonus if they brought their weapon. Following the split between the PFLOAG and DLF wings of the rebel movement, several prominent rebel leaders changed sides, including bin Nufl himself and his deputy, Salim Mubarak, who had commanded the eastern region. The rebels who defected to the Sultan formed Firqat irregular units, trained by British Army Training Teams, or BATTs, from
29070-406: Was required. In the 1970 Omani coup d'état on 23 July 1970, Said bin Taimur was deposed and went into exile in London . He was replaced by his son, Qaboos bin Said , who immediately instigated major social, educational and military reforms. Qaboos was well educated, first in Salalah by an old Arab scholar and then at Sandhurst , after which he was commissioned into the Cameronians , a regiment of
29241-476: Was the Iranian Islamic Revolution . It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Uprising . The second event was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be
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