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132-657: Bible translations into Dutch have a history that goes back to the Middle Ages. The oldest extant Bible translations into the Dutch language date from the Middle Dutch ( Diets ) period. Bible translations are commonly referred to by their abbreviations, such as Psalm 55:22 (NBV) , in which "NBV" stands for Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling ("New Bible Translation", 2004). The table below gives an overview of commonly used translations abbreviations: Several partial translations of

264-578: A common ancestor with languages such as English, German, and the Scandinavian languages . All Germanic languages are subject to the Grimm's law and Verner's law sound shifts, which originated in the Proto-Germanic language and define the basic features differentiating them from other Indo-European languages. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in

396-467: A schwa . The Middle Dutch dialect areas were affected by political boundaries. The sphere of political influence of a certain ruler often also created a sphere of linguistic influence, with the language within the area becoming more homogenous. Following the contemporary political divisions they are in order of importance: A process of standardisation started in the Middle Ages , especially under

528-601: A synod taking place in Corbridge , England , where the decisions are being written down " tam Latine quam theodisce " meaning "in Latin as well as common vernacular". According to a hypothesis by De Grauwe, In northern West Francia (i.e. modern-day Belgium) the term would take on a new meaning during the Early Middle Ages , when, within the context of a highly dichromatic linguistic landscape, it came to be

660-576: A comparison between the West Germanic languages, see the sections Phonology, Grammar, and Vocabulary. Dutch dialects are primarily the dialects that are both related with the Dutch language and are spoken in the same language area as the Dutch standard language . Although heavily under the influence of the standard language, some of them remain diverse and are found in the Netherlands and in

792-467: A consequence evolve (along with Alemannic , Bavarian and Lombardic ) into Old High German. At more or less the same time the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law, moving over Western Europe from west to east, led to the development of Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Old Frisian and Old Saxon . Hardly influenced by either development, Old Dutch probably remained relatively close to the original language of

924-582: A minority language in Germany and northern France's French Flanders . Though Belgium as a whole is multilingual, three of the four language areas into which the country is divided ( Flanders , francophone Wallonia , and the German-speaking Community ) are largely monolingual, with Brussels being bilingual. The Netherlands and Belgium produce the vast majority of music , films , books and other media written or spoken in Dutch. Dutch

1056-670: A minority) and the province of Walloon Brabant . Brabantian expands into small parts in the west of Limburg while its strong influence on the East Flemish of East Flanders and eastern Zeelandic Flanders weakens towards the west. In a small area in the northwest of North Brabant ( Willemstad ), Hollandic is spoken. Conventionally, the Kleverlandish dialects are distinguished from Brabantian, but there are no objective criteria apart from geography to do so. Over 5 million people live in an area with some form of Brabantian being

1188-420: A number of closely related, mutually intelligible dialects spoken in the former Old Dutch area. Where Old Dutch fragments are very hard to read for untrained Modern Dutch speakers, the various literary works of Middle Dutch are somewhat more accessible. The most notable difference between Old and Middle Dutch is in a feature of speech known as vowel reduction , whereby vowels in unstressed syllables are leveled to

1320-579: A political border, because the traditional dialects are strongly influenced by the national standard varieties. While a somewhat heterogeneous group of Low Franconian dialects, Limburgish has received official status as a regional language in the Netherlands and Germany, but not in Belgium. Due to this official recognition, it receives protection by chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . Afrikaans , although to

1452-413: A result, Nederduits no longer serves as a synonym for the Dutch language. In the 19th century, the term " Diets " was revived by Dutch linguists and historians as well, as a poetic name for Middle Dutch and its literature . Old Dutch can be discerned more or less around the same time as Old English (Anglo-Saxon), Old High German , Old Frisian , and Old Saxon . These names are derived from

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1584-509: A result, when West Flemings try to talk Standard Dutch, they are often unable to pronounce the g-sound, and pronounce it similar to the h-sound. This leaves, for example, no difference between " held " (hero) and " geld " (money). Or in some cases, they are aware of the problem, and hyper-correct the "h" into a voiced velar fricative or g-sound, again leaving no difference. The West Flemish variety historically spoken in adjacent parts in France

1716-473: A second or third language in the polyglot Caribbean island countries of Aruba , Curaçao and Sint Maarten . All these countries have recognised Dutch as one of their official languages, and are involved in one way or another in the Dutch Language Union . The Dutch Caribbean municipalities ( St. Eustatius , Saba and Bonaire ) have Dutch as one of the official languages. In Asia, Dutch

1848-522: A significant degree mutually intelligible with Dutch, is usually not considered a dialect but instead a separate standardised language . It is spoken in South Africa and Namibia. As a daughter language of 17th-century Dutch dialects, Afrikaans evolved in parallel with modern Dutch, but was influenced by various other languages in South Africa. West Frisian ( Westerlauwers Fries ), along with Saterland Frisian and North Frisian , evolved from

1980-479: A somewhat different development since the late Middle Ages. Two dialect groups have been given the official status of regional language (or streektaal ) in the Netherlands. Like several other dialect groups, both are part of a dialect continuum that continues across the national border. The Dutch Low Saxon dialect area comprises the provinces of Groningen , Drenthe and Overijssel , as well as parts of

2112-424: A source language, mainly for law and history students. In Indonesia this involves about 35,000 students. Unlike other European nations, the Dutch chose not to follow a policy of language expansion amongst the indigenous peoples of their colonies. In the last quarter of the 19th century, however, a local elite gained proficiency in Dutch so as to meet the needs of expanding bureaucracy and business. Nevertheless,

2244-556: A translation commission was set up in 1644 headed by the Lutheran preacher Adolph Visscher (1605–1652), resulting in the Lutheran translation of 1648. Although the preface claimed it was a new translation, this was in fact not the case. Nevertheless, this version became so well-known amongst Dutch Lutherans and the later Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1818–2004) as an exceptional translation associated with

2376-552: A unique prestige dialect and has a large dialectal continuum consisting of 28 main dialects, which can themselves be further divided into at least 600 distinguishable varieties. In the Netherlands, the Hollandic dialect dominates in national broadcast media while in Flanders Brabantian dialect dominates in that capacity, making them in turn unofficial prestige dialects in their respective countries. Outside

2508-883: A work in progress since 1991, and the Torah translation of the Societas Hebraica Amstelodamensis. In December 2010, the Herziene Statenvertaling ("Revised States Translation") was released. It essentially replicates the Statenvertaling of 1637 into modern Dutch, and was produced by conservative Protestants who maintained that the Byzantine Textus Receptus was superior to the Alexandrian text-type that modern scholars used for critical editions, such as

2640-537: Is kantor , handdoek "towel" in Indonesian is handuk , or bushalte "bus stop" in Indonesian is halte bus . In addition, many Indonesian words are calques of Dutch; for example, rumah sakit "hospital" is calqued on the Dutch ziekenhuis (literally "sickhouse"), kebun binatang "zoo" on dierentuin (literally "animal garden"), undang-undang dasar "constitution" from grondwet (literally "ground law"). These account for some of

2772-402: Is Sranan Tongo , spoken natively by about a fifth of the population. Sint-Truiden Abbey The monastery was founded by Saint Trudo in about 655, on a spot known as Sarchinium (Zerkingen). After his death and canonisation the monastery became a place of pilgrimage (the dedication of the abbey to Saint Trudo did not however take place until the 12th century). Other early members of

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2904-506: Is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family , spoken by about 25 million people as a first language and 5 million as a second language and is the third most spoken Germanic language. In Europe, Dutch is the native language of most of the population of the Netherlands and Flanders (which includes 60% of the population of Belgium ). Dutch was one of the official languages of South Africa until 1925, when it

3036-466: Is a calque of the aforementioned Roman province Germania Inferior and an attempt by early Dutch grammarians to give their language more prestige by linking it to Roman times. Likewise, Hoogduits ("High German") and Overlands ("Upper-landish") came into use as a Dutch exonym for the various German dialects used in neighboring German states. Use of Nederduytsch was popular in the 16th century but ultimately lost out over Nederlands during

3168-473: Is a monocentric language , at least what concerns its written form, with all speakers using the same standard form (authorised by the Dutch Language Union ) based on a Dutch orthography defined in the so-called " Green Booklet " authoritative dictionary and employing the Latin alphabet when writing; however, pronunciation varies between dialects. Indeed, in stark contrast to its written uniformity, Dutch lacks

3300-537: Is also an official language of several international organisations, such as the European Union , Union of South American Nations and the Caribbean Community . At an academic level, Dutch is taught in about 175 universities in 40 countries. About 15,000 students worldwide study Dutch at university. In Europe, Dutch is the majority language in the Netherlands (96%) and Belgium (59%) as well as

3432-587: Is found in the Salic law . In this Frankish document written around 510 the oldest Dutch sentence has been identified: Maltho thi afrio lito ("I say to you, I free you, serf") used to free a serf. Another old fragment of Dutch is Visc flot aftar themo uuatare ("A fish was swimming in the water"). The oldest conserved larger Dutch text is the Utrecht baptismal vow (776–800) starting with Forsachistu diobolae ... ec forsacho diabolae (litt.: "Forsake you

3564-529: Is intended as an all-purpose translation for pulpit and home use. It is a critical, Alexandrian text-type version, based on the 27th Nestle–Aland edition of 2001. However, some theologians levelled criticism on its accuracy. Around the same time, there has also been much work on very literal, idiolect translations, such as the Naarden translation of 2004, Albert Koster's translation of the Old Testament,

3696-471: Is mostly Germanic; it incorporates slightly more Romance loans than German, but far fewer than English. In Belgium, the Netherlands and Suriname, the native official name for Dutch is Nederlands (historically Nederlandsch before the Dutch orthographic reforms ). Sometimes Vlaams (" Flemish ") is used as well to describe Standard Dutch in Flanders , whereas Hollands (" Hollandic ")

3828-487: Is occasionally used as a colloquial term for the standard language in the central and northwestern parts of the Netherlands. English uses the adjective Dutch as a noun for the language of the Netherlands and Flanders. The word is derived from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz . The stem of this word, *þeudō , meant "people" in Proto-Germanic, and *-iskaz was an adjective-forming suffix, of which -ish

3960-569: Is so distinct that it might be considered as a separate language variant, although the strong significance of language in Belgian politics would prevent the government from classifying them as such. An oddity of the dialect is that, the voiced velar fricative (written as "g" in Dutch) shifts to a voiced glottal fricative (written as "h" in Dutch), while the letter "h" becomes mute (like in French). As

4092-585: Is sometimes called French Flemish and is listed as a French minority language . However, only a very small and aging minority of the French-Flemish population still speaks and understands West Flemish. Hollandic is spoken in Holland and Utrecht , though the original forms of this dialect (which were heavily influenced by a West Frisian substratum and, from the 16th century on, by Brabantian dialects ) are now relatively rare. The urban dialects of

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4224-637: Is spoken in Limburg (Belgium) as well as in the remaining part of Limburg (Netherlands) and extends across the German border. West Flemish ( Westvlaams ) is spoken in West Flanders , the western part of Zeelandic Flanders and also in French Flanders , where it virtually became extinct to make way for French. The West Flemish group of dialects, spoken in West Flanders and Zeeland ,

4356-595: Is taught in various educational centres in Indonesia, the most important of which is the Erasmus Language Centre (ETC) in Jakarta . Each year, some 1,500 to 2,000 students take Dutch courses there. In total, several thousand Indonesians study Dutch as a foreign language. Owing to centuries of Dutch rule in Indonesia, many old documents are written in Dutch. Many universities therefore include Dutch as

4488-536: Is the Liégeois Leven van Jesus ("Life of Jesus"), a gospel harmony based on Tatian 's Latin Diatessaron . This " Liège Diatessaron  [ nl ] ", which was of comparatively high quality next to many poor translations, was most likely produced around 1280 in the entourage of Willem van Affligem  [ nl ] , the abbot of Sint-Truiden Abbey . Several Middle Dutch translations of

4620-662: Is the Modern English form. Theodiscus was its Latinised form and used as an adjective referring to the Germanic vernaculars of the Early Middle Ages . In this sense, it meant "the language of the common people". The term was used as opposed to Latin , the non -native language of writing and the Catholic Church . It was first recorded in 786, when the Bishop of Ostia writes to Pope Adrian I about

4752-404: Is the case with the ( standardised ) West Frisian language . It is spoken alongside Dutch in the province of Friesland . Dutch dialects and regional languages are not spoken as often as they used to be, especially in the Netherlands. Recent research by Geert Driessen shows that the use of dialects and regional languages among both Dutch adults and youth is in heavy decline. In 1995, 27 percent of

4884-530: Is the sole official language, and over 60 percent of the population speaks it as a mother tongue . Dutch is the obligatory medium of instruction in schools in Suriname, even for non-native speakers. A further twenty-four percent of the population speaks Dutch as a second language . Suriname gained its independence from the Netherlands in 1975 and has been an associate member of the Dutch Language Union since 2004. The lingua franca of Suriname, however,

5016-531: The 2006 New Zealand census , 26,982 people, or 0.70 percent of the total population, reported to speak Dutch to sufficient fluency that they could hold an everyday conversation. In contrast to the colonies in the East Indies , from the second half of the 19th century onwards, the Netherlands envisaged the expansion of Dutch in its colonies in the West Indies . Until 1863, when slavery was abolished in

5148-689: The Apocalypse of John , the Psalms, the Epistles and the Gospels appeared in Flanders and Brabant at the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century. Later, the entourage of Brabantian mystic John of Ruusbroec (1293–1381) produced a full translation of all non-historical books of the New Testament. Evidence suggests that such late Medieval Dutch translations were in widespread use in

5280-578: The Bergakker inscription , found near the Dutch city of Tiel , which may represent a primary record of 5th-century Frankish. Although some place names recorded in Roman texts such as vadam (modern Dutch: wad , English: "mudflat"), could arguably be considered as the oldest single "Dutch" words, the Bergakker inscription yields the oldest evidence of Dutch morphology. However, interpretations of

5412-583: The Bible into Old Dutch and Middle Dutch have been handed down in manuscripts. All these Medieval translations were made from Latin , usually the Latin Vulgate , the official version employed by the Catholic Church . After the early Medieval Christianisation of the language area of Old Dutch (Old Low Franconian ), the entire populace was nominally Catholic, but very few were literate, let alone in Latin. The Wachtendonck Psalms could be considered

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5544-455: The Brussels and Flemish regions of Belgium . The areas in which they are spoken often correspond with former medieval counties and duchies. The Netherlands (but not Belgium) distinguishes between a dialect and a streektaal (" regional language "). Those words are actually more political than linguistic because a regional language unites a large group of very different varieties. Such is

5676-654: The Deux-Aesbijbel (1562, Emden ) were produced. These editions were all Protestant and therefore unauthorised, as a result their availability would have been poor at times. An authorised Catholic translation based on the Latin Vulgate to counter the Textus Receptus favoured by Protestants was also produced, the Leuvense Bijbel (1548, Louvain ). These were the oldest print translations of

5808-750: The Epistelen en evangeliën ("Epistles and Gospels", first publication in Utrecht in 1478) and the Psalmen ("Psalms", first publication in Delft in 1480). Because the latter two satisfied the needs of most vernacular readers – primarily nuns in convents – no full Dutch Bible translation was ever printed before the Reformation. During the sixteenth century the Liesveltbijbel (first ed. 1526, Antwerp , many later editions), Biestkensbijbel (1560) and

5940-554: The High German consonant shift , does not use Germanic umlaut as a grammatical marker, has largely abandoned the use of the subjunctive , and has levelled much of its morphology , including most of its case system . Features shared with German, however, include the survival of two to three grammatical genders  – albeit with few grammatical consequences  – as well as the use of modal particles , final-obstruent devoicing , and (similar) word order . Dutch vocabulary

6072-493: The Low Countries , its meaning being largely implicitly provided by the regional orientation of medieval Dutch society: apart from the higher echelons of the clergy and nobility, mobility was largely static and hence while "Dutch" could by extension also be used in its earlier sense, referring to what today would be called Germanic dialects as opposed to Romance dialects , in many cases it was understood or meant to refer to

6204-591: The Low Franconian languages, paired with its sister language Limburgish or East Low Franconian. Its closest relative is the mutually intelligible daughter language Afrikaans. Other West Germanic languages related to Dutch are German , English and the un-standardised languages Low German and Yiddish . Dutch stands out in combining some Ingvaeonic characteristics (occurring consistently in English and Frisian and reduced in intensity from west to east over

6336-845: The Nederlands Bijbelgenootschap (NBG) translation, better known as NBG 1951  [ nl ] , which still uses relatively old-fashioned language. Lutherans in the Dutch Republic employed the Biestkensbijbel since 1560, but there was a need for a proper Dutch translation of the Luther Bible (written in High German) to preserve their identity vis-à-vis the Statenvertaling that was deemed too Calvinist, and to provide immigrated Lutheran Germans with an appropriate Dutch translation. To this end,

6468-531: The Randstad , which are Hollandic dialects, do not diverge from standard Dutch very much, but there is a clear difference between the city dialects of Rotterdam , The Hague , Amsterdam and Utrecht . In some rural Hollandic areas more authentic Hollandic dialects are still being used, especially north of Amsterdam. Another group of dialects based on Hollandic is that spoken in the cities and larger towns of Friesland , where it partially displaced West Frisian in

6600-543: The Southern Netherlands (now Belgium and Luxembourg), developments were different. Under subsequent Spanish , Austrian and French rule , the standardisation of Dutch language came to a standstill. The state, law, and increasingly education used French, yet more than half the Belgian population were speaking a variety of Dutch. In the course of the 19th century, the Flemish Movement stood up for

6732-737: The Textus Receptus (a Byzantine text-type) for the New Testament. Protestant interconfessional critical edition. Old Testament based on the Masoretic Text of Codex L, New Testament based primarily on the Alexandrian text-type. Derived from the English Jehovah's Witnesses translation 1950–1961. First edition (using Westcott and Hort ) was deemed unscholarly and theologically distorted; later editions (1970, 1984) were based on Nestle-Aland's text. Catholic translation Ecumenic translation Protestant edition in simple Dutch by

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6864-413: The Textus Receptus ) and Hebrew sources was the Statenvertaling . It was ordered by the States-General of the emerging Dutch Republic at the Synod of Dort in 1618/19, and first published in 1637. It soon became the generally accepted translation for the Calvinist Reformed Churches in the Northern Netherlands and remained so well into the 20th century. It was supplanted to a large extent in 1951 by

6996-444: The Textus Receptus , a Byzantine text-type. Protestant Statenvertaling retranslation by the Pocket Testament League . New Testament heavily dependent on the Textus Receptus , a Byzantine text-type. Protestant critical edition in simple/paraphased modern Dutch. New Testament based on the Alexandrian text-type (28th Nestle-Aland 2012). Dutch language Dutch ( endonym : Nederlands [ˈneːdərlɑnts] )

7128-431: The antonym of *walhisk (Romance-speakers, specifically Old French ). The word, now rendered as dietsc (Southwestern variant) or duutsc (Central and Northern Variant), could refer to the Dutch language itself, as well as a broader Germanic category depending on context. During the High Middle Ages " Dietsc / Duutsc " was increasingly used as an umbrella term for the specific Germanic dialects spoken in

7260-471: The continental West Germanic plane) with dominant Istvaeonic characteristics, some of which are also incorporated in German. Unlike German, Dutch (apart from Limburgish) has not been influenced at all by the south to north movement of the High German consonant shift and had some changes of its own. The cumulation of these changes resulted over time in separate, but related standard languages with various degrees of similarities and differences between them. For

7392-434: The differences in vocabulary between Indonesian and Malay. Some regional languages in Indonesia have some Dutch loanwords as well; for example, Sundanese word Katel or "frying pan" origin in Dutch is " ketel ". The Javanese word for "bike/ bicycle " " pit " can be traced back to its origin in Dutch " fiets ". The Malacca state of Malaysia was also colonized by the Dutch in its longest period that Malacca

7524-524: The pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age . The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: East (now extinct), West , and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period . Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots , Frisian , Low German (Old Saxon) and High German . It is characterised by a number of phonological and morphological innovations not found in North or East Germanic. The West Germanic varieties of

7656-459: The 14th to 15th century onward, its urban centers ( Deventer , Zwolle , Kampen , Zutphen and Doesburg ) have been increasingly influenced by the western written Dutch and became a linguistically mixed area. From the 17th century onward, it was gradually integrated into the Dutch language area. Dutch Low Saxon used to be at one end of the Low German dialect continuum . However, the national border has given way to dialect boundaries coinciding with

7788-476: The 16th century and is known as Stadsfries ("Urban Frisian"). Hollandic together with inter alia Kleverlandish and North Brabantian , but without Stadsfries, are the Central Dutch dialects . Brabantian is named after the historical Duchy of Brabant , which corresponded mainly to the provinces of North Brabant and southern Gelderland , the Belgian provinces of Antwerp and Flemish Brabant , as well as Brussels (where its native speakers have become

7920-581: The 2004 Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling . In October 2014, the Bijbel in Gewone Taal ("Bible in Normal Language") was released. Catholic. Not a literal translation, but a poetic "history Bible" based on Petrus Comestor 's Latin Historia scholastica Catholic, based on the Latin Vulgate . First printed Dutch translation, Old Testament (excluding Psalms) only. Protestant (Lutheran). First fully printed Dutch Bible translation. NT based on Luther's 1522 September Bible (in turn based on Erasmus' 1519 Textus Receptus ); OT based on Luther's unfinished translation,

8052-502: The 7th century. It was replaced in France by Old French (a Romance language with a considerable Old Frankish influence). However, the Old Franconian language did not die out at large, as it continued to be spoken in the Low Countries, and subsequently evolved into what is now called Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch in the Low Countries. In fact, Old Frankish could be reconstructed from Old Dutch and Frankish loanwords in Old French. The term Old Dutch or Old Low Franconian refers to

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8184-405: The Catholic Church based on the Latin Vulgate to counter Textus Receptus -based Protestant translations. Protestant (Baptist/Lutheran) version with strong similarities to a 1558 version published in Emden , which in turn was largely based on a 1554 High German Luther Bible printed in Magdeburg . Changes, references, emphases and notes point to Mennonite influence. Calvinist translation during

8316-417: The Dutch adult population spoke a dialect or regional language on a regular basis, but in 2011, that was no more than 11 percent. In 1995, 12 percent of children of primary school age spoke a dialect or regional language, but in 2011, that had declined to four percent. Of the officially recognised regional languages Limburgish is spoken the most (in 2011 among adults 54%, among children 31%) and Dutch Low Saxon

8448-445: The Dutch branch of the International Bible Society . Ecumenic critical edition. Old Testament based Masoretic Text (Codex L), Deuterocanonicals based on Göttinger Septuaginta 1931, New Testament based on the Alexandrian text-type (27th Nestle-Aland 2001). Calvinist conservative Statenvertaling retranslation. Old Testament based on Masoretic Text, consulting the Septuagint and the Dead Sea Scrolls. New Testament heavily dependent on

8580-409: The Dutch government remained reluctant to teach Dutch on a large scale for fear of destabilising the colony. Dutch, the language of power, was supposed to remain in the hands of the leading elite. After independence, Dutch was dropped as an official language and replaced by Indonesian , but this does not mean that Dutch has completely disappeared in Indonesia: Indonesian Dutch , a regional variety of

8712-415: The Dutch standard language is largely absent, and speakers of these Dutch dialects will use German or French in everyday speech. Dutch is not afforded legal status in France or Germany, either by the central or regional public authorities, and knowledge of the language is declining among younger generations. As a foreign language , Dutch is mainly taught in primary and secondary schools in areas adjacent to

8844-466: The Dutch standard language, it is not mutually intelligible with Dutch and considered a sister language of Dutch, like English and German. Approximate distribution of native Dutch speakers worldwide: Dutch is an official language of the Netherlands proper (not enshrined in the constitution but in administrative law ), Belgium, Suriname, the Dutch Caribbean municipalities (St. Eustatius, Saba and Bonaire), Aruba , Curaçao and Sint Maarten . Dutch

8976-408: The Dutch, was still spoken by about 500,000 half-blood in Indonesia in 1985. Yet the Indonesian language inherited many words from Dutch: words for everyday life as well as scientific and technological terms. One scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words can be traced back to Dutch words, many of which are transliterated to reflect phonetic pronunciation e.g. kantoor "office" in Indonesian

9108-488: The Franks. However, the language did experience developments of its own, such as very early final-obstruent devoicing . In fact, the find at Bergakker indicates that the language may already have experienced this shift during the Old Frankish period. Attestations of Old Dutch sentences are extremely rare. The language is mostly recorded on fragmentary relics, and words have been reconstructed from Middle Dutch and loan words from Old Dutch in other languages. The oldest recorded

9240-439: The Latin Vulgate and other translations. Liesvelt was executed for his 'heretical' editions in 1545. Mixed version authorised by secular authorities. 1528 OT based on 1526 Liesveltbijbel , NT on Luther's 1522 September Bible. 1531 NT derived from Erasmian Textus Receptus . Later editions increasingly relied on Latin Vulgate until all Vorstermanbijbels were banned by the Catholic Church in 1548. Catholic version authorised by

9372-441: The Low Countries and the German Rhineland amongst monks, nuns and wealthy burghers . The first nearly complete Middle Dutch translation from the Latin Vulgate was the Hernse Bijbel  [ nl ] or Zuid-Nederlandse Historiebijbel ("Southern Netherlands History Bible"). It was probably made at the Carthusian monastery in Herne, Belgium , in the second half of the fourteenth century, probably in 1360. Scholars refer to

9504-411: The Middle Ages pilgrimages to the grave of Saint Trudo were of great economic significance for the abbey and its surroundings, later the town of Sint-Truiden. In the 11th century the quantity of pilgrims became so great that it made necessary the building of a new abbey church to contain them. This took place in the third quarter of the 11th century under Abbot Adelardus II (abbot 1055-1082). The new church

9636-596: The NBG 1951, which would grow to become the new Protestant standard for the second half of the 20th century. Most Calvinist and Lutheran congregations adopted it. Only a minority of conservative Calvinist churches rejected it, favouring the old Statenvertaling instead. Catholics developed their own alternative, the Willibrordvertaling (1961–1978, authorised by the Catholic Church); the 1995 second edition

9768-576: The Netherlands and Flanders . In French-speaking Belgium , over 300,000 pupils are enrolled in Dutch courses, followed by over 23,000 in the German states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia , and about 7,000 in the French region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais (of which 4,550 are in primary school). At an academic level, the largest number of faculties of neerlandistiek can be found in Germany (30 universities), followed by France (20 universities) and

9900-412: The Netherlands and Belgium, the dialect spoken in and around the German town of Kleve ( Kleverlandish ) is historically and genetically a Low Franconian variety. In North-Western France, the area around Calais was historically Dutch-speaking (West Flemish), of which an estimated 20,000 are daily speakers. The cities of Dunkirk , Gravelines and Bourbourg only became predominantly French-speaking by

10032-539: The Netherlands, although there are recognisable differences in pronunciation, comparable to the pronunciation differences between standard British and standard American English. In 1980 the Netherlands and Belgium concluded the Language Union Treaty . This treaty lays down the principle that the two countries must gear their language policy to each other, among other things, for a common system of spelling. Dutch belongs to its own West Germanic sub-group,

10164-557: The Protestant Reformation, based on the 1526 (Lutheran) Liesveltbijbel and 1534 Luther Bible , which derived from the Textus Receptus . Calvinist ( de facto ), authorised by the Dutch Republic government. Old Testament based on Masoretic Text, consulting the Septuagint. New Testament heavily dependent on the Textus Receptus , a Byzantine text-type. Lutheran translation derived from the Luther Bible, which used

10296-652: The Romanesque monastic buildings and the tomb of Saint Trudo. Hubertus van Sutendael (1638–63) built inter alia the still extant Baroque church portal and Nieuwenhoven Castle . Abbot Joseph van Herck (1751–80) commissioned the Neo-classical gatehouse of the abbot's lodging, the Emperor's Hall and the late Baroque tower crown. The arrival of the French Revolutionary forces in 1794 meant the end of

10428-674: The United Kingdom (5 universities). Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost 350 years, as the Asian bulk of the Dutch East Indies , the Dutch language has no official status there and the small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession such as historians, diplomats, lawyers, jurists and linguists/polyglots, as certain law codes are still only available in Dutch. Dutch

10560-621: The West Indies, slaves were forbidden to speak Dutch, with the effect that local creoles such as Papiamento and Sranan Tongo which were based not on Dutch but rather other European languages, became common in the Dutch West Indies. However, as most of the people in the Colony of Surinam (now Suriname ) worked on Dutch plantations, this reinforced the use of Dutch as a means for direct communication. In Suriname today, Dutch

10692-466: The abbey mill. In 1999 the outline of the Romanesque abbey church on the site (the Kerkveld ) was made visible by means of gabions . In addition, eight steel pillars mark the position and the height (18 metres) of the former pillars in the south aisle. The towers and the crypt were made accessible at the same time by an electronic access system, whereby a code is issued on receipt of payment which opens

10824-613: The abbey was much under the influence of the bishops of Metz , who also appointed the abbots of Sint-Truiden. Bishops Drogo of Metz (c. 820) and Adalbero I of Metz (ca 944-962) both lived for long periods in Sint-Truiden, but apparently not as abbots. Significant mediaeval abbots included Adelardus II (1055–82), who built among other things the Romanesque abbey church and the Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk (Church of Our Lady) in Sint-Truiden, and Wiricus (1155–80), who built

10956-469: The abbey was sacked at least once. Under abbot Wiricus (abbot 1155-1180) the conventual buildings were modernised, a task which according to the Gesta abbatum Trudosensium (the annals of Sint-Truiden) lasted three-quarters of a century. First the dormitory and refectory of the monks were modernised, then the abbot's lodgings and finally those of the provost . In particular, Wiricus' own apartment, situated on

11088-412: The abbey, which was suppressed, plundered and reused as a military hospital. The Romanesque church, which was severely damaged by fire in 1794, was demolished in 1798. The building materials, including stones, tiles, slates, beams and porphyry columns, were sold. Only the church towers, the crypt, the gatehouse, the abbot's lodgings and a few service buildings remained. Through various individual proprietors

11220-425: The anonymous author as the " Bible translator of 1360  [ nl ] "; some identify Petrus Naghel as the translator, but others are not convinced. Around 1390, an anonymous " Northern Netherlands New Testament Translation  [ nl ] " also emerged: the oldest surviving manuscript from 1391 had no gospels, but a 1399 manuscript contains the entire New Testament. Scholars find it highly probable that it

11352-724: The area known as the Low Countries goes back further in time, with the Romans referring to the region as Germania Inferior ("Lower" Germania). It is a reference to the Low Countries' downriver location at the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta near the North Sea . From 1551, the designation Nederlands received strong competition from the name Nederduytsch (literally "Low Dutch", Dutch being used in its archaic sense covering all continental West Germanic languages). It

11484-624: The borders of other standard language areas. In most cases, the heavy influence of the standard language has broken the dialect continuum . Examples are the Gronings dialect spoken in Groningen as well as the closely related varieties in adjacent East Frisia (Germany). Kleverlandish is a dialect spoken in southern Gelderland , the northern tip of Limburg , and northeast of North Brabant (Netherlands), but also in adjacent parts of North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany). Limburgish ( Limburgs )

11616-479: The case with the Gronings dialect , which is considered a variety of the Dutch Low Saxon regional language, but it is relatively distinct from other Dutch Low Saxon varieties. Also, some Dutch dialects are more remote from the Dutch standard language than some varieties of a regional language are. Within the Netherlands, a further distinction is made between a regional language and a separate language, which

11748-553: The close of the 18th century, with (Hoog)Duytsch establishing itself as the Dutch exonym for German during this same period. In the 19th century Germany saw the rise of the categorisation of dialects, with German dialectologists terming the German dialects spoken in the mountainous south of Germany as Hochdeutsch ("High German"). Subsequently, German dialects spoken in the north were designated as Niederdeutsch ("Low German"). The names for these dialects were calqued by Dutch linguists as Nederduits and Hoogduits . As

11880-624: The commission's president that it became known as the " Visscherbijbel  [ nl ] ". After 1951, most Lutherans switched to the NBG 1951  [ nl ] . In order to replace the outdated Statenvertaling with a more accurate, modern, critical edition that was acceptable to all Protestant churches in the Netherlands, the Nederlands Bijbelgenootschap (NBG, "Dutch Bible Society") set up two commissions with experts and representatives from most denominations to produce

12012-520: The community were also declared saints, among them Eucherius of Orléans and Libert of Saint-Trond . In the 9th century, probably soon after 817, the monastery adopted the Rule of St. Benedict . In 883 it was laid waste by the Normans . The first monastery probably comprised a stone church and wooden conventual buildings. In about 950 Bishop Adalbero I of Metz , who was also abbot of Sint-Truiden, ordered

12144-501: The construction of a new three-aisled church 50 metres long and 24 metres wide, which for the time was enormous. Until the 13th century the abbey was subject to interference from the diocese of Metz , which had acquired influence in the region because Trudo had given them Zerkingen (and probably also Webbekom and Zelem in return for his studies with bishop Chlodulf of Metz . The abbey had rights of patronage over many parish churches, many of which were dedicated to Saint Clement , who

12276-472: The course of fifteen centuries. During that period, they forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, and influenced or even replaced Old Saxon spoken in the east (contiguous with the Low German area). On the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in present-day France and Germany. The division into Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, since

12408-540: The declaration of independence of Indonesia, Western New Guinea , the "wild east" of the Dutch East Indies , remained a Dutch colony until 1962, known as Netherlands New Guinea . Despite prolonged Dutch presence, the Dutch language is not spoken by many Papuans, the colony having been ceded to Indonesia in 1963. Dutch-speaking immigrant communities can also be found in Australia and New Zealand. The 2011 Australian census showed 37,248 people speaking Dutch at home. At

12540-603: The development of a separate Dutch language. It was spoken by the descendants of the Salian Franks who occupied what is now the southern Netherlands , northern Belgium , part of northern France, and parts of the Lower Rhine regions of Germany. The High German consonant shift, moving over Western Europe from south to west, caused a differentiation with the Central and High Franconian in Germany. The latter would as

12672-474: The devil? ... I forsake the devil"). If only for its poetic content, the most famous Old Dutch sentence is probably Hebban olla vogala nestas hagunnan, hinase hic enda tu, wat unbidan we nu ("All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for"), is dated to around the year 1100, written by a Flemish monk in a convent in Rochester , England . Since the sentence speaks to

12804-489: The end of the 19th century. In the countryside, until World War I , many elementary schools continued to teach in Dutch, and the Catholic Church continued to preach and teach the catechism in Dutch in many parishes. During the second half of the 19th century, Dutch was banned from all levels of education by both Prussia and France and lost most of its functions as a cultural language. In both Germany and France,

12936-508: The entire Bible into Dutch. The Vorstermanbijbel (Antwerp, 1528 several later editions) was a semi-authorised version with a mix of Latin Vulgate and Textus Receptus translations that is difficult to classify as either 'Catholic' or 'Protestant'; later editions generally removed Reformationist passages and followed the Vulgate ever more closely, aligning it more with Catholicism. Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde (1538–1598), who

13068-461: The former abbey grounds became the property in 1824 of the Onze-Lieve-Vrouwekerk (Church of Our Lady) in Sint-Truiden, which sold the whole complex in 1839 to the diocese of Liège . In 1843 the diocese built a seminary on the site, to replace the former diocesan seminary in Rolduc , which as a result of the separation of Belgium and the Netherlands in 1838 had come to be in a different country. Part

13200-598: The general public, as the liturgical language was Latin. A later example is the Rijmbijbel of Jacob van Maerlant (1271), a poetic edition of the Petrus Comestor 's Historia scholastica (c. 1173). It was not a literal translation, but a so-called "history Bible": a freely translated compilation of texts from the " historical books " of the Bible mixed with extrabiblical sources and traditions. Another example

13332-530: The highest point of the terrain with a panoramic view across the town, was comfortably appointed, with fireplaces and a piped water supply system. According to the Gesta the walls of the cloisters were covered with polished hardstone panels and groups of columns, either in pairs or in fours, made of black stone and porphyry , with sculpted capitals. Another building, intended for the accommodation of high-ranking guests, had richly decorated ceilings. The burial chapel of Saint Wiro and companions, also built during

13464-415: The imagination, it is often erroneously stated as the oldest Dutch sentence. Old Dutch naturally evolved into Middle Dutch . The year 1150 is often cited as the time of the discontinuity, but it actually marks a time of profuse Dutch writing; during this period a rich Medieval Dutch literature developed. There was at that time no overarching standard language ; Middle Dutch is rather a collective name for

13596-711: The influence of the Burgundian Ducal Court in Dijon ( Brussels after 1477). The dialects of Flanders and Brabant were the most influential around this time. The process of standardisation became much stronger at the start of the 16th century, mainly based on the urban dialect of Antwerp . The 1585 fall of Antwerp to the Spanish army led to a flight to the northern Netherlands, where the Dutch Republic declared its independence from Spain. This influenced

13728-563: The language now known as Dutch. In the Low Countries Dietsch or its Early Modern Dutch form Duytsch as an endonym for Dutch gradually went out of common use and was gradually replaced by the Dutch endonym Nederlands . This designation (first attested in 1482) started at the Burgundian court in the 15th century, although the use of neder , laag , bas , and inferior ("nether" or "low") to refer to

13860-629: The least (adults 15%, children 1%). The decline of the West Frisian language in Friesland occupies a middle position (adults 44%, children 22%). Dialects are most often spoken in rural areas, but many cities have a distinct city dialect. For example, the city of Ghent has very distinct "g", "e" and "r" sounds that greatly differ from its surrounding villages. The Brussels dialect combines Brabantian with words adopted from Walloon and French . Some dialects had, until recently, extensions across

13992-440: The middle towers of the abbey church. These were replaced in 1779 by a single Baroque crown, which was dislodged by a storm in 1953, restored and then destroyed by the fire in 1975. Under abbot Willem van Brussel in about 1520 the perimeter wall, parts of which survive, surrounding the abbey complex was built, and the abbot's lodgings were refurbished (of which the cellars and the present Emperor's Hall remain). The Baroque gateway

14124-437: The modern standard languages . In this age no standard languages had yet developed, while a perfect West Germanic dialect continuum remained present; the division reflects the contingent future contribution dialect groups would have to the later languages. The early form of Dutch was a set of Franconian dialects spoken by the Salian Franks in the 5th century. These happened to develop through Middle Dutch to Modern Dutch over

14256-595: The oldest known biblical fragments in 'Dutch'. Although found in Munsterbilzen Abbey by Flemish humanist Justus Lipsius in the late 16th century, these texts most likely originated in the Dutch–German borderlands between the Meuse and Rhine rivers in the 9th or 10th century. Although the texts' language is Old Dutch, Psalms 1 to 3 show clear Central Franconian characteristics. It is generally assumed that

14388-533: The original Dutch language version dating from colonial times remains the authoritative version. Up to half a million native speakers reside in the United States, Canada and Australia combined, and historical linguistic minorities on the verge of extinction remain in parts of France and Germany. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English, and is colloquially said to be "roughly in between" them. Dutch, like English, has not undergone

14520-666: The origins of these writings; although a number of scholars associate it with the German Rhineland , possibly the Werden Abbey , this remains undetermined. The oldest partial translation which can with certainty be called 'Dutch' is the Southern Netherlands Gospel Translation  [ nl ] . This text is only attested in four 14th-century manuscripts, but probably dates from around 1200. C.C. de Bruin (1935) concluded that it

14652-527: The predominant colloquial language out of the area's 22 million Dutch-speakers. Limburgish , spoken in both Belgian Limburg and Netherlands Limburg and in adjacent parts in Germany, is considered a dialect in Belgium, while having obtained the official status of regional language in the Netherlands. Limburgish has been influenced by the Ripuarian varieties like the Colognian dialect , and has had

14784-411: The provinces of Gelderland , Flevoland , Friesland and Utrecht . This group, which is not Low Franconian but instead Low Saxon and close to neighbouring Low German, has been elevated by the Netherlands (and by Germany) to the legal status of streektaal ( regional language ) according to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . It is regarded as Dutch for a number of reasons. From

14916-515: The rest of the text lack any consensus. The Franks emerged in the southern Netherlands ( Salian Franks ) and central Germany ( Ripuarian Franks ), and later descended into Gaul . The name of their kingdom survives in that of France. Although they ruled the Gallo-Romans for nearly 300 years, their language, Frankish , became extinct in most of France and was replaced by later forms of the language throughout Luxembourg and Germany in around

15048-423: The rights of Dutch speakers, mostly referred to as "Flemish". However, the dialect variation was a serious disadvantage in the face of the standardised francophony . Since standardisation is a lengthy process, Dutch-speaking Belgium associated itself with the standard language that had already developed in the Netherlands over the centuries. Therefore, the situation in Belgium is essentially no different from that in

15180-526: The rule of Abbot Wiricus in 1169–72, must have been exceptional. According to the chronicler, this structure surpassed all others far and wide. Of the Romanesque conventual buildings and this monument nothing remains, except possibly for some capitals found on the site, probably from the workshop of some stone carver in Liege. Further building and extensions took place in the 15th and early 16th centuries, during which inter alia Late Gothic points were added to

15312-524: The same branch of the West Germanic languages as Old English (i.e. Anglo-Frisian ) and are therefore genetically more closely related to English and Scots than to Dutch. The different influences on the respective languages, however, particularly that of Norman French on English and Dutch on West Frisian, have rendered English quite distinct from West Frisian, and West Frisian less distinct from Dutch than from English. Although under heavy influence of

15444-455: The set of Franconian dialects (i.e. West Germanic varieties that are assumed to have evolved from Frankish ) spoken in the Low Countries during the Early Middle Ages , from around the 5th to the 12th century. Old Dutch is mostly recorded on fragmentary relics, and words have been reconstructed from Middle Dutch and Old Dutch loanwords in French. Old Dutch is regarded as the primary stage in

15576-490: The texts as handed down are an Old Dutch redaction of a Central Franconian original. Another contender is the Rhinelandic Rhyming Bible , a series of fragments of biblical histories translations into an apparent mix of Old High German , Old Saxon , and Old Dutch from the early 12th century. However, due to the paucity of evidence, it's difficult to date, linguistically classify and geographically pinpoint

15708-545: The time are generally split into three dialect groups: Ingvaeonic (North Sea Germanic), Istvaeonic (Weser–Rhine Germanic) and Irminonic (Elbe Germanic). It appears that the Frankish tribes fit primarily into the Istvaeonic dialect group with certain Ingvaeonic influences towards the northwest, which are still seen in modern Dutch. The Frankish language itself is not directly attested, the only possible exception being

15840-466: The transition between them was very gradual. One of the few moments when linguists can detect something of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. The development of the Dutch language is illustrated by the following sentence in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch: Among the Indo-European languages , Dutch is grouped within the Germanic languages , meaning it shares

15972-420: The urban dialects of the province of Holland . In 1637, a further important step was made towards a unified language, when the Statenvertaling , the first major Bible translation into Dutch, was created that people from all over the new republic could understand. It used elements from various, even Dutch Low Saxon , dialects but was predominantly based on the urban dialects of Holland of post 16th century. In

16104-688: Was among the leaders of the Dutch Revolt , and Pieter Datheen were tasked in 1578 by the second national synod of the Reformed church in Dort to produce a translation into Dutch, although this did not result in a translation. Philips of Marnix was again asked to translate the Bible in 1594 and 1596, but he was unable to finish this work before he died in 1598. His translation influenced the later Statenvertaling or Statenbijbel . The first authorised Bible translation into Dutch directly from Greek (using

16236-402: Was an enormous Romanesque structure 100 metres long and 26 metres wide, of which only the two west towers and parts of the crypt remain. In time of war the towers served as donjons , whereby wooden stellages were built round the towers, from where the enemy could be bombarded. This happened among other occasions in conflicts between the abbey and the neighbouring town of Brustem , during which

16368-437: Was an example of a very poor translation of the four canonical gospels from the Latin Vulgate : he thought that the author likely neither mastered Latin nor his own native tongue in writing. Later scholars developed more nuanced positions; this gospel translation might just have been a tool for Latin-knowing clerics to explain to their congregations the texts' meaning in the vernacular. It was not meant to be read by or in front of

16500-466: Was completed in 1665 on the occasion of the thousand-year anniversary of the abbey's foundation. Some of the service buildings were also renewed at this time. Finally, at the end of the 18th century, abbot Joseph van Herck had the abbey buildings refurbished in Neo-classical style. It is not clear whether Saint Trudo himself (c. 630-693), the abbey's founder, was also its abbot. For a long period

16632-457: Was housed in existing buildings, and part was newly built on the foundations of demolished abbey buildings to plans by Louis Roelandt . In 1845 a new Neo-classical seminary church was built on the site of Saint Trudo's original, the fourth in this place. In 1975 a catastrophic fire severely damaged the Baroque abbey buildings and destroyed the 1845 seminary church. In 1992 an explosion destroyed

16764-592: Was never authorised by the Catholic Church, but a special edition of it with a 'Protestant' ordering of chapters was adopted by a few Protestant churches. Some other examples of modern Dutch language translations are Groot Nieuws Bijbel (GNB, 1996), and the International Bible Society 's Het Boek (1987). In 2004, the Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling (NBV) translation appeared, which was produced by an ecumenical translation team, and

16896-500: Was replaced by Afrikaans , a separate but partially mutually intelligible daughter language of Dutch. Afrikaans, depending on the definition used, may be considered a sister language , spoken, to some degree, by at least 16 million people, mainly in South Africa and Namibia , and evolving from Cape Dutch dialects. In South America, it is the native language of the majority of the population of Suriname , and spoken as

17028-527: Was under foreign control. In the 19th century, the East Indies trade started to dwindle, and with it the importance of Malacca as a trading post. The Dutch state officially ceded Malacca to the British in 1825. It took until 1957 for Malaya to gain its independence. Despite this, the Dutch language is rarely spoken in Malacca or Malaysia and only limited to foreign nationals able to speak the language. After

17160-461: Was used in the Dutch East Indies (now mostly Indonesia ) by a limited educated elite of around 2% of the total population, including over 1 million indigenous Indonesians, until it was banned in 1957, but the ban was lifted afterwards. About a fifth of the Indonesian language can be traced to Dutch, including many loan words . Indonesia's Civil Code has not been officially translated, and

17292-566: Was venerated in the abbey. From private gifts over the centuries the abbey also acquired extensive estates in the area. In 1107 it is mentioned that it even owned a number of villages in North Brabant . There were financial problems nevertheless, resulting from the financial exploitation of the abbey by its voogde , the Dukes of Limburg , and under-voogde , the Counts of Duras . In

17424-705: Was written by the Windesheim monk Johan Scutken (died 1423). The Hernse Bijbel served as a template for the oldest print translation of Biblical books into the Middle Dutch language: the Delft Bible ( Delftse Bijbel ), printed in Delft in 1477. This translation from the Latin Vulgate only included the Old Testament with Apocrypha but without the Psalms. Around the same time, parts of the history Bible of Johan Scutken  [ nl ] were also printed:

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