Anglic:
83-609: More than 100 complete translations into English languages have been produced. Translations of Biblical books , especially passages read in the Liturgy can be traced back to the late 7th century, including translations into Old and Middle English . The Old English language started first from the Angle-Jute-Saxon invaders/settlers in the South and Eastern regions and evolved influenced by Anglo-Danish invaders/settlers in
166-674: A Proto-Anglo-Frisian language as disproven, as far as such postulates are falsifiable. Nevertheless, the close ties and strong similarities between the Anglic and the Frisian grouping are part of the scientific consensus . Therefore, the concept of Anglo-Frisian languages can be useful and is today employed without these implications. Geography isolated the settlers of Great Britain from Continental Europe , except from contact with communities capable of open water navigation. This resulted in more Old Norse and Norman language influences during
249-799: A West Saxon dialect of Old English. Produced in approximately 990, they are the first translation of all four gospels into English without the Latin text. In the 11th century, Abbot Ælfric translated much of the Old Testament into Old English. The Old English Hexateuch is an illuminated manuscript of the first six books of the Old Testament (the Hexateuch ). There are no known complete translations ( pandects ) from early in this period, when Middle English emerged after Anglo-Norman replaced Old English (Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Danish) as
332-604: A basis for translation, as some of the alternate sources do not include phrases (or sometimes entire verses) which are found only in the Textus Receptus. Some say the alternate sources were poorly representative of the texts used in their time, whereas others claim the Textus Receptus includes passages that were added to the alternate texts improperly. These controversial passages are not the basis for disputed issues of doctrine: they tend to be additional stories or snippets of phrases. Many modern English translations, such as
415-652: A central statement of belief of the Lollards, the Twelve Conclusions reveal certain basic Lollard ideas. Later, an expanded version the "Thirty Seven Conclusions" or "Remonstrances" was submitted in the late 1390s; the author is not known. Lollardy was a religion of vernacular scripture . Lollards opposed many practices of the Catholic church. Anne Hudson has written that a form of sola scriptura underpinned Wycliffe's beliefs, but distinguished it from
498-582: A different oath, which would have actually freed him; his denial of having taken that oath was taken as a re-canting by the bishop, preventing his attempted appeal to the Pope, so he was excommunicated, defrocked, imprisoned and eventually executed. Lollard teachings on the Eucharist are attested to in numerous primary source documents. It is the fourth of the Twelve Conclusions and the first of
581-638: A form of idolatry. Oaths, fasting and prayers for the dead were thought to have no scriptural basis . They had a poor opinion of the trappings of the Catholic Church, including holy water, bells, organs, and church buildings. They rejected the value of papal pardons . One group of Lollards petitioned Parliament with the Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards by posting them on the doors of Westminster Hall in February 1395. While by no means
664-554: A group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison. The extinction of two little-attested and presumably North Sea Germanic languages, Old Old Anglian and Old Jutish , in their homelands (modern southern Schleswig and Jutland respectively), mat have led to a form of " survivorship bias " in classification. Since Old Anglian and Jutish were, like Old Saxon, direct ancestors of Old English, it might follow that Old Saxon, Old Anglian and/or Jutish were more closely related to English than any of them
747-448: A priest named Richard Wyche was accused of false doctrine that corrupted the faith of Northumbrians, and left a letter detailing his version of the inquisitional proceedings, where a succession of theologians and others attempted to convince him of the Catholic position or to find some compromise wording that involved him not denying transubstantiation. When asked about transubstantiation during his questioning, he repeated only his belief in
830-705: A scholarly view of the New Testament text by conforming to the Nestle-Aland 27th edition and extensively annotating the translation to fully explain different textual sources and possible alternative translations. A Comparative Psalter ( ISBN 0-19-529760-1 ) edited by John Kohlenberger presents a comparative diglot translation of the Psalms of the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, using
913-440: A servant girl found bacon in a pot of oatmeal on the first Saturday of Lent . Non-observance of dietary restrictions was used as evidence of heresy in another Norfolk case against Thomas Mone, where it was alleged that a piglet was eaten for Easter dinner when eating meat was forbidden. Special vows were considered to be in conflict with the divine order established by Christ and were regarded as anathema . Lollards had
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#1732790212915996-677: A small number of Greek texts, or on Latin translations, modern English translations of the Bible are based on a wider variety of manuscripts in the original languages, mostly Greek and Hebrew. The translators put much scholarly effort into cross-checking the various sources such as the Septuagint , Textus Receptus , and Masoretic Text . Relatively recent discoveries such as the Dead Sea scrolls provide additional reference information. Some controversy has existed over which texts should be used as
1079-712: A tendency toward iconoclasm . Some Lollards believed work was permissible on Sundays. Sixteenth-century martyrologist John Foxe reduced the main beliefs of Lollardy to four, to an extent eliding the Wycliffite doctrine of dominium : Although Lollardy was denounced as a heresy by the Catholic Church, initially Wycliffe and the Lollards were sheltered by politically-influential nobleman John of Gaunt and other anti-clerical nobility, who may have wanted to use Lollard-advocated clerical reform to acquire new sources of revenue from England's monasteries. The University of Oxford also protected Wycliffe and similar academics on
1162-499: A word or phrase admits of more than one meaning the Amplified Bible presents all the possible interpretations, allowing the reader to choose one. For example, the first two verses of the Amplified Bible read: In the beginning God (Elohim) created [by forming from nothing] the heavens and the earth. The earth was formless and void or a waste and emptiness, and darkness was upon the face of the deep [primeval ocean that covered
1245-659: Is concluded that this was printed in Antwerp and the colophon gives the date as 4 October 1535. This first edition was adapted by Coverdale for his first "authorised version", known as the Great Bible , of 1539. Other early printed versions were the Geneva Bible published by Sir Rowland Hill in 1560. This version is notable for being the first Bible divided into verses and which negated the Divine Right of Kings;
1328-859: Is considered disproved by some scholars. These are the words for the numbers one to 12 in the Anglo-Frisian languages, with Dutch, West-Flemish and German included for comparison: * Ae [eː] , [jeː] is an adjectival form used before nouns. North Sea Germanic , also known as Ingvaeonic, is a proposed grouping of the West Germanic languages that encompasses Old Frisian , Old English , and Old Saxon . The North Sea Germanic grouping may be regarded as an alternative to Anglo-Frisian, or as ancestral to it. Since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German – especially in its older stages such as Old Saxon – some scholars regard
1411-502: Is often reflected in non-Jewish translations. For example, Jewish translations translate עלמה ‘almâh in Isaiah 7:14 as young woman , while many Christian translations render the word as virgin . While modern biblical scholarship is similar for both Christians and Jews, there are distinctive features of Jewish translations, even those created by academic scholars. These include the avoidance of Christological interpretations, adherence to
1494-682: Is part of its mainland district of Pinneberg ). North Frisian has approximately 8,000 speakers. The East Frisian language is spoken by only about 2,000 people; speakers are located in Saterland in Germany. There are no known East Frisian dialects, but there are three dialects of West Frisian and ten of North Frisian. The following is a summary of the major sound changes affecting vowels in chronological order. For additional detail, see Phonological history of Old English . That these were simultaneous and in that order for all Anglo-Frisian languages
1577-689: Is the 'Lollards Pit' in Thorpe Wood, now Thorpe Hamlet , Norwich, Norfolk, " where men are customablie burnt ", including Thomas Bilney . Despite the debate about the extent of Lollard influence there are ample records of the persecution of Lollards from this period. In the Diocese of London , there are records of about 310 Lollards being prosecuted or forced to abjure from 1510 to 1532. In Lincoln diocese, 45 cases against Lollardy were heard in 1506–1507. In 1521, there were 50 abjurations and 5 burnings of Lollards. In 1511, Archbishop Warham presided over
1660-569: Is usually named as the translator of most of the Old Testament of the Wycliffean Middle English Bible . Lollards first faced serious persecution after the Peasants' Revolt in 1381. While Wycliffe and other Lollards opposed the revolt, one of the peasants' leaders, John Ball , preached Lollardy. Prior to 1382, Wycliffite beliefs were tolerated in government as they endorsed in royal superiority to bishops. However,
1743-711: The Sixteen Points on which the Bishops accuse Lollards . It is discussed in The Testimony of William Thorpe , the Apology for Lollard Doctrines , Jack Upland , and Opus Arduum . The Lollards did not believe that the church practices of baptism and confession were necessary for salvation . Believing in a universal priesthood , the Lollards challenged the Church's authority to invest or to deny
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#17327902129151826-828: The Bishop's Bible (1568), which was an attempt by Elizabeth I to create a new authorised version; and the Authorized King James Version of 1611. The first complete Catholic Bible in English was the Douay–Rheims Bible , of which the New Testament portion was published in Rheims in 1582 and the Old Testament somewhat later in Douay in Gallicant Flanders . The Old Testament was completed by
1909-539: The Crown of Castile . Paul Strohm has asked: "Was the Lollard a genuine threat or a political pawn, agent of destabilising challenge, or a hapless threat of self-legitimizing Lancastrian discourse?" A group of gentry active during the reign of Richard II (1377–99) were known as "Lollard Knights" either during or after their lives due to their acceptance of Wycliffe's claims. Henry Knighton , in his Chronicle, identifies
1992-619: The Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law , which is present in Low German as well, Anglo-Frisian brightening and palatalization of /k/ are for the most part unique to the modern Anglo-Frisian languages: The grouping is usually implied as a separate branch in regards to the tree model . According to this reading, English and Frisian would have had a proximal ancestral form in common that no other attested group shares. The early Anglo-Frisian varieties, like Old English and Old Frisian , and
2075-473: The Lollards . Theologian John Wycliffe (c. 1320s–1384) is popularly credited with translating what is now known as Wycliffe's Bible, though it is not clear how much of the translation he himself did. Released in 1382, this was the first known complete translation of the Bible into English. This translation came out in two different versions. The earlier version ("EV") is characterised by a strong adherence to
2158-583: The Masoretic Text (at least in the main body of the text, as in the new Jewish Publication Society (JPS) translation) and greater use of classical Jewish exegesis. Some translations prefer names transliterated from the Hebrew, though the majority of Jewish translations use the Anglicized forms of biblical names. The first English Jewish translation of the Bible into English was by Isaac Leeser in
2241-686: The Netherlands and Germany . West Frisian , by far the most spoken of the three main branches with 875,840 total speakers, constitutes an official language in the Dutch province of Friesland . North Frisian is spoken on some North Frisian Islands and parts of mainland North Frisia in the northernmost German district of Nordfriesland , and also in Heligoland in the German Bight , both part of Schleswig-Holstein state (Heligoland
2324-896: The New International Version , contain limited text notes indicating where differences occur in original sources. A somewhat greater number of textual differences are noted in the New King James Bible , indicating hundreds of New Testament differences between the Nestle-Aland , the Textus Receptus , and the Hodges edition of the Majority Text . The differences in the Old Testament are less well documented, but they do contain some references to differences between consonantal interpretations in
2407-587: The Torah and other portions in an ongoing project by Everett Fox , and the ArtScroll Tanakh. Modern translations take different approaches to the rendering of the original languages of approaches. The approaches can usually be considered to be somewhere on a scale between the two extremes: Some translations have been motivated by a strong theological distinctive. In the Sacred Name Bibles
2490-463: The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards . Early it became associated with uprisings and assassinations of high government officials, and was suppressed. Lollard , Lollardi , or Loller was the popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background, educated, if at all, only in English , who were reputed to follow the teachings of John Wycliffe in particular, and were energized by
2573-479: The printing press – this enabled the distribution of several thousand copies of his New Testament translation throughout England. Tyndale did not complete his Old Testament translation. The first printed English translation of the whole Bible was produced by Miles Coverdale in 1535, using Tyndale's work together with his own translations from the Latin Vulgate or German text. After much scholarly debate it
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2656-493: The "foster-child" of the Wycliffite heresy. Scholars debate whether Protestants actually drew influence from Lollardy, or whether they referred to it to create a sense of tradition. Other martyrs for the Lollard cause were executed during the next century, including the Amersham Martyrs in the early 1500s and Thomas Harding in 1532, one of the last Lollards to be persecuted. A gruesome reminder of this persecution
2739-653: The 10th century an Old English translation of the Gospels was made in the Lindisfarne Gospels : a word-for-word gloss inserted between the lines of the Latin text by Aldred , Provost of Chester-le-Street . This is the oldest extant translation of the Gospels into an English language . The Wessex Gospels (also known as the West-Saxon Gospels ) are a full translation of the four gospels into
2822-590: The 19th century. The JPS produced two of the most popular Jewish translations, namely the JPS The Holy Scriptures of 1917 and the NJPS Tanakh (first printed in a single volume in 1985, second edition in 1999). Since the 1980s there have been multiple efforts among Orthodox publishers to produce translations that are not only Jewish, but also adhere to Orthodox norms. Among these are The Living Torah and Nach by Aryeh Kaplan and others,
2905-461: The Bible were first translated from the Latin Vulgate by a few monks and scholars. Such translations were generally in the form of prose or as interlinear glosses (literal translations above the Latin words). Very few complete translations existed during that time. Most of the books of the Bible existed separately and were read as individual texts. Translations of the Bible often included
2988-521: The Bible. Jewish English Bible translations are modern English Bible translations that include the books of the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh ) according to the Masoretic Text , and according to the traditional division and order of Torah , Nevi'im , and Ketuvim . Jewish translations often also reflect traditional Jewish interpretations of the Bible, as opposed to the Christian understanding that
3071-538: The English church." It was associated with Lollard missionary William White. Lollards were effectively absorbed into Protestantism during the English Reformation , in which Lollardy played a role. Since Lollards had been underground for more than a hundred years, the extent of Lollardy and its ideas at the time of the Reformation is uncertain and a point of debate. Ancestors of Blanche Parry ,
3154-464: The Lollard movement was small with little appeal to the upper classes, who liked the anti-clerical politics but not the religious doctrines. "Notices of Lollardy after the death of Wycliffe are scattered and meagre. Sixteenth century Protestantism invested the Lollards with a posthumous renown, but there can be little doubt that, when their first energy had spent itself, they speedily became an obscure sect, destitute of living leaders, and vaguely re-echoing
3237-555: The Masoretic Text, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Septuagint. Even with these hundreds of differences, however, a more complete listing is beyond the scope of most single-volume Bibles. While most Bible translations are made by committees of scholars in order to avoid bias or idiosyncrasy, translations are sometimes made by individuals. The following, selected translations are largely the work of individual translators: Others, such as N. T. Wright , have translated portions of
3320-497: The North Sea Germanic classification as more meaningful than a sharp division into Anglo-Frisian and Low German. In other words, because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence at an early stage, it lost some North Sea Germanic features, that it had previously shared with Old English and Old Frisian. North Sea Germanic is not thought of as a monolithic proto-language , but rather as
3403-579: The North and Eastern Danelaw , to the extent that an Icelandic saga around the year 1000 said the language of England was the same as Norway and Denmark. It largely replaced the Neo-Brittonic languages and residual Anglo-Latin-using pockets. While there were no complete translations of the Bible in the Old English period, there were many translations of large portions during this time. Parts of
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3486-628: The Old Testament even though it does not appear in the Greek text. While most translations attempt to synthesize the various texts in the original languages, some translations also translate one specific textual source, generally for scholarly reasons. A single volume example for the Old Testament is The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible ( ISBN 0-06-060064-0 ) by Martin Abegg, Peter Flint and Eugene Ulrich. The Comprehensive New Testament ( ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5 ) by T. E. Clontz and J. Clontz presents
3569-528: The Real Presence. When asked if the host was still bread even after consecration, he answered only: "I believe that the host is the real body of Christ in the form of bread". Throughout his questioning he insisted that he was "not bound to believe otherwise than Holy Scripture says" and resorted to various loopholes. Following the questioning, he claimed he had been allowed to swear an oath on his heart; later his inquisitors denied this, saying he had sworn
3652-498: The Reformation. The Roman Catholic Church used art as an anti-Lollard weapon. Lollards were represented on misericords as foxes dressed as monks or priests preaching to a flock of geese . These representations alluded to the story of the preaching fox found in popular medieval literature such as The History of Reynard the Fox and The Shifts of Raynardine . The fox lured the geese closer and closer with its eloquent words, until it
3735-706: The Revised Standard Version and the New English Translation of the Septuagint. R. A. Knox's Translation of the Vulgate into English is another example of a single source translation. Most translations make the translators' best attempt at a single rendering of the original, relying on footnotes where there might be alternative translations or textual variants. An alternative is taken by the Amplified Bible . In cases where
3818-536: The Study of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University and Purdue University found that Americans read versions of the Bible as follows: Anglo-Frisian languages#Anglic languages Frisian : The Anglo-Frisian languages are the Anglic ( English , Scots , Fingallian †, and Yola †) and Frisian ( North Frisian , East Frisian , and West Frisian ) varieties of the West Germanic languages . The Anglo-Frisian languages are distinct from other West Germanic languages due to several sound changes : besides
3901-399: The Wycliffite/Lollard teaching. He advocated closing of all monasteries, and notably provided economic estimates of the revenues of various monastic and church institutions. The extent of Lollardy in the general populace at this time is unknown. The prevalence of Protestant iconoclasm in England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence if Huldrych Zwingli was not
3984-405: The abjuration of 41 Lollards from Kent and the burning of 5. In 1529, Simon Fish wrote an incendiary pamphlet Supplication for the Beggars , including his denial of purgatory and teachings that priestly celibacy was an invention of the Antichrist . He argued that earthly rulers have the right to strip Church properties, and that tithing was against the Gospel , Protestant views that echo
4067-433: The aristocratic and secular court languages (1066), with Latin still the religious, diplomatic, scientific and ecclesiastical court language, and with parts of the country still speaking Cornish, and perhaps Cumbric. The Ormulum is in Middle English of the 12th century. Like its Old English precursor from Ælfric , an abbot of Eynsham, it includes very little Biblical text, and focuses more on personal commentary. This style
4150-526: The beginning of the 14th century who were akin to the Fraticelli , Beghards , and other sectaries similar to the recusant Franciscans . Originally the Dutch word was a colloquial name for a group of buriers of the dead during the Black Death , in the 14th century, known as Alexians , Alexian Brothers or Cellites. These were known colloquially as lollebroeders (Middle Dutch for "mumbling brothers"), or Lollhorden , from Old High German : lollon ("to sing softly"), from their chants for
4233-404: The closest person to Elizabeth I for 56 years, and of Blanche Milborne , who raised Edward VI and Elizabeth I, had Lollard associations. Many critics of the Reformation, including Thomas More , equated Protestants with Lollards. Leaders of the English Reformation , including Archbishop Thomas Cranmer , referred to Lollardy as well, and Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall of London called Lutheranism
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#17327902129154316-443: The conviction that God's name be preserved in a Semitic form is followed. The Purified Translation of the Bible promotes the idea that Jesus and early Christians drink grape juice not wine. The Jehovah's Witnesses ' New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures renders the tetragrammaton as Jehovah throughout the Old Testament, and it uses the form Jehovah in the New Testament including — but not limited to — passages quoting
4399-490: The dead. Middle English loller (akin to the verb loll , lull , the English cognate of Dutch lollen "to mutter, mumble") is recorded as an alternative spelling of Lollard , while its generic meaning "a lazy vagabond, an idler, a fraudulent beggar" is not recorded before 1582. Two other possibilities for the derivation of Lollard are mentioned by the Oxford English Dictionary : According to scholar Margaret Aston, as Wycliffe's academic theology percolated to
4482-491: The development of Late Modern English , whereas the modern Frisian languages developed under contact with the southern Germanic populations, restricted to the continent. The proposed Anglo-Frisian family tree is: Anglic , Insular Germanic , or English languages encompass Old English and all the linguistic varieties descended from it. These include Middle English , Early Modern English , and Late Modern English ; Early Scots , Middle Scots , and Modern Scots ; and
4565-593: The divine authority to make a man a priest. Denying any special status to the priesthood, Lollards thought confession to a priest was unnecessary since according to them priests did not have the ability to forgive sins. However, while it is beneficial to confess to a good priest, it is perilous to confess to a bad one. Lollards challenged the practice of clerical celibacy and believed priests should not hold government positions as such temporal matters would likely interfere with their spiritual mission. They considered praying to saints and honouring of their images to be
4648-400: The extinct Fingallian and Yola dialects in Ireland . English-based creole languages are not generally included, as mainly only their lexicon and not necessarily their grammar, phonology, etc. comes from Early Modern English and Late Modern English . The Frisian languages are a group of languages spoken by about 500,000 Frisian people on the southern fringes of the North Sea in
4731-427: The forme of brede Howe it is there/ it nedeth not stryve Whether it be subgette or accydent But as Christ was/ when he was on-lyve So is he there verament. [In modern English:] I say the truth through true understanding: His flesh and blood, through his subtle works, Is there in the form of bread. In what manner it is present need not be debated, Whether as subject or accident , But as Christ
4814-505: The formulation of transubstantiation , which the Roman Catholic Church required the faithful not to deny. Wycliffite teachings on the Eucharist were declared heresy at the Blackfriars Council of 1382, and later by the Pope and the Council of Constance . " The Plowman's Tale ", a 16th-century Lollard poem, argues that theological debate about orthodox doctrine is less important than the Real Presence : I say sothe thorowe trewe rede His flesh and blode, through his mastry Is there/ in
4897-478: The government and royals were hesitant, as they did not want to encourage subjects to criticize religious powers. After 1382, royalty and nobility found Lollardy to be a threat not only to the Church, but to English society in general. The Lollards' small measure of protection evaporated. This change in status was also affected by the departure of John of Gaunt (Duke of Lancaster, patron of Chaucer and protector of John Wycliffe ) who left England in 1386 to pursue
4980-423: The grounds of academic freedom and, initially, allowed such persons to retain their positions despite their controversial views. Two primary religious opponents of the Wycliffites were Archbishop of Canterbury William Courtenay and his successor Thomas Arundel , assisted by bishops like Henry le Despenser of Norwich , whom the chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised for his zeal. Historian T. Waugh suggests
5063-499: The masses, it changed measureably, some parts strengthening and others weakening. Historian John Thomson is paraphrased "Rather than a specific creed of well thought out theological doctrine, Lollard beliefs are more aptly described as a set of consistent attitudes." With regard to the Eucharist , Lollards such as John Wycliffe , William Thorpe and John Oldcastle taught a view of the mystical real presence of Christ in Holy Communion known as " consubstantiation " but did not accept
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#17327902129155146-434: The more radical ideology that anything not permitted by scripture is forbidden. Instead, Hudson notes that Wycliffe's sola scriptura held the Bible to be "the only valid source of doctrine and the only pertinent measure of legitimacy." Later Lollards believed that people deserved access to a copy of their own Bible. Many attempted to distribute English copies. Due to the lack of a printing press and low literacy levels, it
5229-457: The most popular Jewish version would not compete with rankings of a larger audience. Sales data can be affected by the method of marketing. Some translations are directly marketed to particular denominations or local churches, and many Christian booksellers only offer Protestant Bibles , so books in other biblical canons (such as Catholic and Orthodox Bibles) may not appear as high on the CBA rank. A study published in 2014 by The Center for
5312-414: The name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of the Bishop of Worcester against five "poor preachers", nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , it most likely derives from Middle Dutch lollaerd ("mumbler, mutterer"), from a verb lollen ("to mutter, mumble"). The word is much older than its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at
5395-423: The period of Early Modern English . This was the first major period of Bible translation into the English language. This period began with the introduction of the Tyndale Bible . The first complete edition of his New Testament was in 1526. William Tyndale used the Greek and Hebrew texts of the New Testament (NT) and Old Testament (OT) in addition to Jerome 's Latin translation. He was the first translator to use
5478-449: The principal Lollard Knights as Thomas Latimer, John Trussell, Lewis Clifford, Sir John Peche (son of John Peche of Wormleighton), Richard Storey, and Reginald Hilton. Thomas Walsingham 's Chronicle adds William Nevil and John Clanvowe to the list, and other potential members of this circle have been identified by their wills, which contain Lollard-inspired language about how their bodies are to be plainly buried and permitted to return to
5561-403: The revolting Lollards, the law De heretico comburendo was enacted in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV ; traditionally heresy had been defined as an error in theological belief, but this statute equated theological heresy with sedition against political rulers. By the early 15th century, stern measures were undertaken by Church and state which drove Lollardy underground. One such measure
5644-504: The soil whence they came. There is little indication that the Lollard Knights were specifically known as such during their lifetimes. They were men of discretion, and unlike Sir John Oldcastle years later, rarely gave any hint of open rebellion. However, they displayed a remarkable ability to retain important positions, without falling victim to the prosecutions of Wycliffe's followers during their lifetimes. Religious and secular authorities strongly opposed Lollardy. In eventual response to
5727-407: The source, as Lutheranism did not advocate iconoclasm. Lollards were persecuted again between 1554 and 1559 during the Revival of the Heresy Acts under the Catholic Mary I , which specifically suppressed heresy and Lollardy. The similarity between Lollards and later English Protestant groups, such as the Baptists , Puritans , and Quakers , also suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through
5810-524: The teaching of a deceased founder whom they only half understood." The initial Lollards were a small group of scholars, particularly at Merton College , Oxford University, some with important positions, who came under the influence of Wycliffe in the 1360s and 1370s. After Wycliffe's natural death, all of them eventually submitted to Archbishop of Canterbury William Courtenay to renounce Wycliffe's contentious doctrines, and none suffered long-term consequences. These notably included Nicholas Hereford , who
5893-551: The third Ingvaeonic group at the time, the ancestor of Low German Old Saxon , were spoken by intercommunicating populations. While this has been cited as a reason for a few traits exclusively shared by Old Saxon and either Old English or Old Frisian, a genetic unity of the Anglo-Frisian languages beyond that of an Ingvaeonic subfamily cannot be considered a majority opinion. In fact, the groupings of Ingvaeonic and West Germanic languages are highly debated, even though they rely on much more innovations and evidence. Some scholars consider
5976-546: The time the New Testament was published but, due to extenuating circumstances and financial issues, it was not published until nearly three decades later, in two editions: the first released in 1609, and the rest of the OT in 1610. In this version, the seven deuterocanonical books are amongst the other books, as in the Latin Vulgate , rather than kept separate in an appendix. While early English Bibles were generally based on
6059-481: The translation of the Bible into the English language. By the mid-15th century, "lollard" had come to mean a heretic in general. The alternative, "Wycliffite", is generally accepted to be a more neutral term covering those of similar opinions, but having an academic background. The term is said to have been coined by the Anglo-Irish cleric Henry Crumpe , but its origin is uncertain. The earliest official use of
6142-485: The unformed earth]. The Spirit of God was moving (hovering, brooding) over the face of the waters. The Evangelical Christian Publishers Association release monthly and annual statistics regarding the popularity of different Bibles sold by their members in the United States. In 2023, the top 10 best-selling translations were the following: Sales are affected by denomination and religious affiliation. For example,
6225-524: The word order of Latin, and is more difficult for native English speakers to comprehend. The later version ("LV") made more concessions to the native grammar of English. Around the same period there were several other translations, which partially survive, such as the Paues Fortheenth Century Middle English New Testament . Early Modern English Bible translations are of between about 1500 and 1800,
6308-583: The writer's own commentary on passages in addition to the literal translation. Aldhelm , Bishop of Sherborne and Abbot of Malmesbury (639–709), is thought to have written an Old English translation of the Psalms . Bede ( c. 672–735) produced a translation of the Gospel of John into Old English, which he is said to have prepared shortly before his death. This translation is lost; we know of its existence from Cuthbert of Jarrow's account of Bede's death. In
6391-513: Was a proto-Protestant Christian religious movement that was active in England from the mid-14th century until the 16th-century English Reformation . It was initially led by John Wycliffe , a Catholic theologian who was dismissed from the University of Oxford in 1381 for heresy . The Lollards' demands were primarily for reform of Western Christianity . They formulated their beliefs in
6474-665: Was adopted by many of the original English translators. For example, the story of the Wedding at Cana is almost 800 lines long, but fewer than 40 lines are in the actual translation of the text. An unusual characteristic is that the translation mimics Latin verse, and so is similar to the better known and appreciated 14th-century English poem Cursor Mundi . Richard Rolle (1290–1349) wrote an English Psalter. Many religious works are attributed to Rolle, but it has been questioned how many are genuinely from his hand. Many of his works were concerned with personal devotion, and some were used by
6557-405: Was difficult to accomplish this goal. However, a notable feature of some Lollard inquisitions was the common claim of illiteracy, or vision impairment, as a defence against the suspicion of Lollardy raised by possession of vernacular texts. Lollards did not observe fasting and abstinence in the Catholic Church . In heresy proceedings against Margery Baxter it was presented as evidence that
6640-472: Was the 1410 burning at the stake of John Badby , a layman and craftsman who refused to renounce his Lollardy. He was the first layman to suffer capital punishment in England for the crime of heresy. John Oldcastle , a close friend of Henry V of England and the basis for Falstaff in the Shakespearean history Henry IV, Part 1 , was brought to trial in 1413 after evidence of his Lollard beliefs
6723-557: Was to Frisian (or vice versa). North Sea Germanic, as a hypothetical grouping, was first proposed in Nordgermanen und Alemannen (1942) by the German linguist and philologist Friedrich Maurer (1898–1984), as an alternative to the strict tree diagrams that had become popular following the work of the 19th-century linguist August Schleicher and which assumed the existence of an Anglo-Frisian group. Lollards Lollardy
6806-483: Was uncovered. Oldcastle escaped from the Tower of London and organized an insurrection, which included an attempted kidnapping of the king. The rebellion failed, and Oldcastle was executed. Oldcastle's revolt made Lollardy seem even more threatening to the state, and persecution of Lollards became more severe. An insurrection was nipped in the bud in 1428, feared to involve several thousand Lollards, intent on "destroying
6889-404: Was when he was alive, So He is truly there. William Sawtry , a priest, was reportedly burned in 1401 for his preaching that "bread remains in the same nature as before" after consecration by a priest. A suspect in 1517 summed up the Lollards' position: "Summe folys cummyn to churche thynckyng to see the good Lorde – what shulde they see there but bredde and wyne?" In the mid 15th century
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