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81-539: Eocambrian is a loosely used, imprecisely defined term referring to the latest (youngest) portion of time in the Precambrian Eon or to the uppermost Precambrian sediments which were continuously deposited across the Precambrian– Cambrian time boundary. While the term had some usage in older literature, it does not appear on the official International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) time scale nor in

162-475: A few large-scale state farms in the late 1950s–early 1970s. By the mid-1970s, the state farms were further consolidated into just two, based in Lovozero and Krasnoshchelye . The consolidations were rationalized by the necessity to isolate the herders from the military installations, as well as by the need to flood some territories to construct hydroelectric plants . Fishing, being the traditional industry of

243-735: A possible 2450 Ma red alga from the Kola Peninsula , 1650 Ma carbonaceous biosignatures in north China, the 1600 Ma Rafatazmia , and a possible 1047 Ma Bangiomorpha red alga from the Canadian Arctic. The earliest fossils widely accepted as complex multicellular organisms date from the Ediacaran Period. A very diverse collection of soft-bodied forms is found in a variety of locations worldwide and date to between 635 and 542 Ma. These are referred to as Ediacaran or Vendian biota . Hard-shelled creatures appeared toward

324-411: A railway was also considered, but no action was taken at the time. Also in 1896, Alexandrovsk (now Polyarny ) was founded, and grew in size so rapidly that it was granted town status in 1899; Kolsky Uyezd was renamed Alexandrovsky on that occasion. During World War I (1914-1918), the still poorly-developed peninsula suddenly found itself in a strategic position, as communication between Russia and

405-662: A reindeer disease epidemic in their home lands in the southeast of the White Sea. The original administrative and economic center of the area was Kola , situated at the estuary of the Kola River into the Kola Bay . In 1916, Romanov-na-Murmane (now Murmansk) was founded and quickly became the largest city and port on the peninsula. Russian migration to the peninsula continued into the 16th century, when new settlements such as Kandalaksha and Porya-Guba were established. Kola

486-662: A result of this, a recreational fishery has been developed, with a number of remote lodges and camps available to host sport-fishermen. The Kandalaksha Nature Reserve , established in 1932 to protect the population of common eider , is organized in thirteen clusters located in the Kandalaksha Gulf of the Kola Peninsula and along the coasts of the Barents Sea. The Kola Peninsula has many small but fast-moving rivers with rapids. The most important of them are

567-555: A year. The waters of the Murman Coast remain warm enough to remain ice-free even in winter. Precipitation levels on the peninsula are rather high: 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in the mountains, 600–700 millimeters (24–28 in) on the Murman Coast, and 500–600 millimeters (20–24 in) in other areas. The wettest months are August through October, while March and April are the driest. The average temperature in January

648-561: Is a 95% reduction (compared to 2015) in SO2 by 2030 for its Polar Division on the Taimyr peninsula, which includes its Nadezhda smelter and Copper plant, partly through a SO2 capture solution. Other polluters of note include the thermal power stations in Apatity and Murmansk . The Rybachy Peninsula in the north of the Kola Peninsula was already settled in the 7th – 5th millennium BCE . In

729-475: Is a fairly solid record of bacterial life throughout the remainder (Proterozoic Eon) of the Precambrian. Complex multicellular organisms may have appeared as early as 2100 Ma. However, the interpretation of ancient fossils is problematic, and "... some definitions of multicellularity encompass everything from simple bacterial colonies to badgers." Other possible early complex multicellular organisms include

810-537: Is about −10 °C (14 °F), with lower temperatures typical in the central parts of the peninsula. The average temperature in July is about +11 °C (52 °F). Record lows reach −50 °C (−58 °F) in the central parts and −35 to −40 °C (−31 to −40 °F) on the coasts. Record highs exceed +30 °C (86 °F) almost on all the territory of the peninsula. First frosts occur as early as August and may last through May and even June. Most areas of

891-485: Is developed in the region. The Kola Peninsula as a whole suffered major ecological damage, mostly as a result of pollution from the military (particularly naval) production, industrial mining of apatite , and military nuclear waste. About 137 active and 140 decommissioned or idle naval nuclear reactors, produced by the Soviet military, remain on the peninsula. For thirty years, nuclear waste had been dumped into

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972-604: Is known to occur during the RNA replication of extant coronaviruses . Evidence of the details of plate motions and other tectonic activity in the Precambrian is difficult to interpret. It is generally believed that small proto-continents existed before 4280 Ma, and that most of the Earth's landmasses collected into a single supercontinent around 1130 Ma. The supercontinent, known as Rodinia , broke up around 750 Ma. A number of glacial periods have been identified going as far back as

1053-593: Is one of the largest peninsulas of Europe . Constituting the bulk of the territory of Murmansk Oblast , it lies almost completely inside the Arctic Circle and is bordered by the Barents Sea to the north and by the White Sea to the east and southeast. The city of Murmansk , the most populous settlement on the peninsula, has a population of roughly 270,000 residents. While humans had already settled in

1134-557: Is one of the only places the rare Gray seals can be found. Greenland seals, or harp seals , also can be seen from time to time. Twenty-nine species of fresh water fish are recognized on the territory of peninsula, including trout , stickleback , northern pike , and European perch . The rivers are an important habitat for the Atlantic salmon , which return from Greenland and the Faroe Islands to spawn in fresh water. As

1215-609: Is steep and high, while the southern coast is flat. The western part of the peninsula is covered by two mountain ranges: the Khibiny Mountains and the Lovozero Massif ; the former contains the highest point of the peninsula— Yudychvumchorr . Mount Chasnachorr , the height of which is 1,191 meters (3,907 ft), had been formerly considered the highest point of the Khibiny. The Keyvy drainage divide lies in

1296-563: Is thought to have formed about 1300-900 Ma, to have included most or all of Earth's continents and to have broken up into eight continents around 750–600 million years ago. Kola Peninsula The Kola Peninsula ( Russian : Ко́льский полуо́стров , romanized :  Kólʹskij poluóstrov, Kolsky poluostrov ; Kildin Sami : Куэлнэгк нёа̄ррк ) is a peninsula located mostly in northwest Russia and partly in Finland and Norway . It

1377-588: The Allies via the Baltic and Black Sea was cut. Britain helped in the development of the ice-free harbors of the Murman Coast as the only practical means of sending Allied war supplies to the Eastern Front . In March 1915, the construction of the railroad was rushed, and the railroad was quickly opened in 1916, even though it was only partially completed and poorly built. In 1916, Romanov-na-Murmane (Romanov on

1458-595: The 3rd – 2nd millennium BCE , the peninsula was settled by the peoples who arrived there from the south (the territory of modern Karelia ). Bolshoy Oleny Island in the Kola Bay of the Barents Sea is the location of an important Bronze Age archaeological site where ancient DNA has been recovered. By the end of the 1st millennium CE , the peninsula was settled only by the Sami people , who did not have their own state, lived in clans ruled by elders , and were engaged mostly in reindeer herding and fishing. In

1539-484: The American Geosciences Institute (AGI) Glossary of Geology. This geochronology article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Precambrian The Precambrian is an informal unit of geologic time, subdivided into three eons ( Hadean , Archean , Proterozoic ) of the geologic time scale . It spans from the formation of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago ( Ga ) to

1620-680: The Grand Duchy of Moscow after the Battle of Shelon in 1471, and the republic itself ceased to exist in 1478 when Ivan III took the city of Novgorod. All Novgorod territories, including those on the Kola Peninsula, became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Novgorod Republic lost control of the peninsula to the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1471, but the Russian migration did not stop. Several new settlements were established during

1701-534: The Huronian epoch, roughly 2400–2100 Ma. One of the best studied is the Sturtian-Varangian glaciation, around 850–635 Ma, which may have brought glacial conditions all the way to the equator, resulting in a " Snowball Earth ". The atmosphere of the early Earth is not well understood. Most geologists believe it was composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other relatively inert gases, and

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1782-560: The Jacob's River , which now is a part of Norway. The Sami population was forced to pay tribute. The Norwegians were also attempting to take control of these lands, resulting in armed conflicts. In 1251, a conflict between the Karelians, Novgorodians and the servants of the king of Norway led to the establishment of a Novgorodian mission in Norway. Also in 1251, the first treaty with Norway

1863-650: The Karelian Isthmus border and the border north of Lake Ladoga . Another treaty dealing the matters of the northern borders was the Treaty of Novgorod signed with Norway in 1326, which ended the decades of the Norwegian-Novgorodian border skirmishes in Finnmark. Per the terms of this treaty, Norway relinquished all claims to the Kola Peninsula. The treaty did not address the situation with

1944-640: The Moon (see Giant-impact hypothesis ). A stable crust was apparently in place by 4,433 Ma, since zircon crystals from Western Australia have been dated at 4,404 ± 8 Ma. The term "Precambrian" is used by geologists and paleontologists for general discussions not requiring a more specific eon name. However, both the United States Geological Survey and the International Commission on Stratigraphy regard

2025-790: The Ponoy , the Varzuga , the Umba , the Teriberka , the Voronya , and the Yokanga . Most rivers originate from lakes and swamps and collect their waters from melting snow. The rivers become icebound during the winter, although the areas with strong rapids freeze later or not at all. Major lakes include Imandra , Umbozero , and Lovozero . There are no lakes with an area smaller than 0.01 square kilometers (0.0039 sq mi). Recreational fishery

2106-521: The Tsardom of Russia cede the peninsula. Russia declined, and in order to organize adequate defenses established the position of a voyevoda . The voyevoda sat in Kola, which became the administrative center of the region. Prior to that, the administrative duties were performed by the tax collectors from Kandalaksha. Newly established Kolsky Uyezd covered most of the territory of the peninsula (with

2187-667: The Turiy Peninsula . Kolo Volost lay to the west of that line, while Tre was situated to the east of it. By the 13th century, a need to formalize the border between the Novgorod Republic and the Scandinavian countries became evident. The Novgorodians, along with the Karelians who came from the south, reached the coast of what now is Pechengsky District and the portion of the coast of Varangerfjord near

2268-462: The okrug was separated from Leningrad Oblast, merged with Kandalakshsky District of the Karelian ASSR , and transformed into modern Murmansk Oblast . All in all, the Soviet period saw a significant increase in population (from 15,000 in 1913 to 1,150,000 in 1989), although most of the population remained concentrated in the urban localities along the railroads and the sea coast. Most of

2349-482: The oxygen catastrophe . At first, oxygen would have quickly combined with other elements in Earth's crust, primarily iron, removing it from the atmosphere. After the supply of oxidizable surfaces ran out, oxygen would have begun to accumulate in the atmosphere, and the modern high-oxygen atmosphere would have developed. Evidence for this lies in older rocks that contain massive banded iron formations that were laid down as iron oxides. A terminology has evolved covering

2430-575: The 1251 treaty. The treaty led to a short period of peace, but the armed conflicts resumed soon thereafter. Chronicles document attacks by the Novgorodians and the Karelians on Finnmark and northern Norway as early as 1271, and continuing well into the 14th century. The official border between the Novgorod lands and the lands of Sweden and Norway was established by the Treaty of Nöteborg on August 12, 1323. The treaty primarily focused on

2511-537: The 12th century, Russian Pomors from the shores of the Onega Bay and in the lower reaches of the Northern Dvina discovered the peninsula and its game and fish riches. The Pomors organized regular hunting and fishing visits and started barter trade with the Sami. They also called the White Sea coast of the peninsula Tersky Coast ( Те́рский бе́рег ) or Terskaya Land ( Те́рская земля́ ). By

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2592-625: The 16th century, and the Sami and Pomor people were forced into serfdom . In the second half of the 16th century, the peninsula became a subject of dispute between the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway , which resulted in the strengthening of the Russian position. By the end of the 19th century, the indigenous Sami population had been mostly forced north by the Russians as well as by newly arriving Izhma Komi and Kominized Nenets (so-called Yaran people ), who migrated here to escape

2673-420: The 1930s–1950s, and in 2007 over two thousand people—descendants of those forcibly sent there—still live on the peninsula. A significant portion of the people deported to Kola were peasants from southern Russia subjected to dekulakization . Prisoner labor was often used when building new factories and for manning those which were operational: in 1940, for example, the whole Severonikel Metallurgy Mining Complex

2754-573: The 2010 Census, the population consisted mostly of Russians (89.0%), Ukrainians (4.8%), and Belarusians (1.7%). Other groups of note include Komi (~1,600 inhabitants), Sami (~1,600), and Karelians (~1,400). The indigenous Sami people are mostly concentrated in Lovozersky District . During the 15th–16th centuries, the main occupations of the Tersky Coast population were Atlantic salmon fishing, seal hunting, and

2835-530: The Kola Peninsula are subarctic climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfc ). The nearby islands usually belong to tundra ( Köppen climate classification : ET ). The peninsula is covered by taiga in the south and tundra in the north. In the tundra, cold and windy conditions and permafrost limit the growth of the trees, resulting in a landscape dominated by grasses, wildflowers, and shrubs such as dwarf birch and cloudberry . In northern coastal areas, stony and shrub lichens are common. The taiga in

2916-542: The Kola Peninsula gradually became a part of the Novgorodian lands. A 1265 treaty of Yaroslav Yaroslavich with Novgorod mentions Tre Volost ( волость Тре ), which is later also mentioned in other documents dated as late as 1471. In addition to Tre, Novgorodian documents of the 13th–15th centuries also mention Kolo Volost , which bordered Tre approximately along the line between Kildin Island and Turiy Headland of

2997-550: The Murman: modern Murmansk ) was founded as the terminal point of the new railroad; the town quickly grew to become the largest one on the peninsula. Soviet power was established on the territory of the peninsula on November 9 [ O.S. October 26], 1917, but the territory was occupied by the forces of Russia's pre-war allies in March 1918–March 1920. Alexandrovsky Uyezd was transformed into Murmansk Governorate by

3078-546: The Precambrian (e.g. stromatolites ) are of limited biostratigraphic use. This is because many Precambrian rocks have been heavily metamorphosed , obscuring their origins, while others have been destroyed by erosion, or remain deeply buried beneath Phanerozoic strata. It is thought that the Earth coalesced from material in orbit around the Sun at roughly 4,543 Ma, and may have been struck by another planet called Theia shortly after it formed, splitting off material that formed

3159-403: The Sami people paying tribute to both Norway and Novgorod, and the practice continued until 1602. While the 1326 treaty did not define the border in detail, it confirmed the 1323 border demarcation, which remained more or less unchanged for the next six hundred years, until 1920. In the 15th century, Novgorodians started to establish permanent settlements on the peninsula. Umba and Varzuga ,

3240-475: The Sami population had mostly been forced north, with ethnic Russians settling in the south of the peninsula. In 1894, the peninsula was visited by the Russian Minister of Finance, Sergei Witte , who became convinced of the region's economic potential. Consequently, in 1896 telephone and a telegraph communications were extended to Kola, improving links with the mainland. The possibility of building

3321-782: The Soviet government in June 1921. On August 1, 1927, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) issued two Resolutions: "On the Establishment of Leningrad Oblast" and "On the Borders and Composition of the Okrugs of Leningrad Oblast", according to which Murmansk Governorate was transformed into Murmansk Okrug (which was divided into six districts) and included into Leningrad Oblast . This arrangement existed until May 28, 1938, when

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3402-418: The average July temperature of only 11 °C (52 °F). The peninsula is covered by taiga in the south and by tundra in the north, where permafrost limits the growth of trees, resulting in landscape dominated by shrubs and grasses. The peninsula supports a small variety of mammals, and its rivers are an important habitat for the Atlantic salmon . The Kandalaksha Nature Reserve , established to protect

3483-539: The beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 538.8 million years ago ( Ma ), when hard-shelled creatures first appeared in abundance. Relatively little is known about the Precambrian, despite it making up roughly seven-eighths of the Earth's history , and what is known has largely been discovered from the 1960s onwards. The Precambrian fossil record is poorer than that of the succeeding Phanerozoic , and fossils from

3564-509: The central part. The mountainous reliefs of the Murman and Kandalaksha Coasts stretch from southeast to northwest, mirroring the peninsula's main orographic features. Administratively , the territory of the peninsula consists of Lovozersky and Tersky Districts , parts of Kandalakshsky and Kolsky Districts , as well as the territories subordinated to the cities and towns of Murmansk , Ostrovnoy , Severomorsk , Kirovsk , and parts of

3645-494: The country arriving to the peninsula to trade with the merchants from Western Europe. In 1585 the trade was moved to Archangel , although the settlement of Kola was still permitted to trade locally produced goods. During the 17th century, the salt extraction activities gradually went into decline as the locally produced salt was uncompetitive with cheap salt produced in the Kama River regions. Extensive poaching also led to

3726-486: The cultural center of the Sami people in Russia. Those Sami resisting the collectivization were subject to forced labor or death. Various forms of repression against the Sami continued until Stalin 's death in 1953. In the 1990s, 40% of the Sami lived in urbanized areas, although some herd reindeer across much of the region. The Sami were not the only people subject to repressions. Thousands of people were sent to Kola in

3807-401: The current scheme based upon numerical ages. Such a system could rely on events in the stratigraphic record and be demarcated by GSSPs . The Precambrian could be divided into five "natural" eons, characterized as follows: The movement of Earth's plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent containing most or all of

3888-554: The early 21st century, and is considered the most industrially developed and urbanized region in northern Russia. Despite the peninsula's northerly location, its proximity to the North Atlantic Current (an extension of the Gulf Stream ) leads to unusually high temperatures in winter, but also results in high winds due to the temperature variations between land and the Barents Sea. Summers are rather chilly, with

3969-505: The early years of the Earth's existence, as radiometric dating has allowed absolute dates to be assigned to specific formations and features. The Precambrian is divided into three eons: the Hadean (4567.3–4031 Ma), Archean (4031-2500 Ma) and Proterozoic (2500-538.8 Ma). See Timetable of the Precambrian . It has been proposed that the Precambrian should be divided into eons and eras that reflect stages of planetary evolution, rather than

4050-760: The end of that time span, marking the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon. By the middle of the following Cambrian Period, a very diverse fauna is recorded in the Burgess Shale , including some which may represent stem groups of modern taxa. The increase in diversity of lifeforms during the early Cambrian is called the Cambrian explosion of life. While land seems to have been devoid of plants and animals, cyanobacteria and other microbes formed prokaryotic mats that covered terrestrial areas. Tracks from an animal with leg-like appendages have been found in what

4131-600: The end of the 12th century, the Pomors explored all of the northern coast of the peninsula and reached Finnmark (an area in the north of Norway ), necessitating the Norwegians to support a naval guard in that area. The name given by the Pomors to the northern coast was Murman —a distorted form of Norman meaning "Norwegian". Pomors were soon followed by tribute collectors from the Novgorod Republic , and

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4212-581: The exception of Varzuzhskaya and Umbskaya Volosts, which were a part of Dvinsky Uyezd ), as well as the northern part of Karelia all the way to Lendery . Despite the economic activity, permanent settlement of the peninsula did not intensify until the 1860s, and even then it remained sporadic until 1917. The population of Kola in 1880, for example, was only around 500 inhabitants living in 80 households, compared to 1,900 inhabitants in 300 households living there in 1582. Transportation facilities were virtually non-existent and communication with

4293-541: The extraction of salt from the sea water. The salt extraction in Kandalaksha and Kola was mostly carried out by the monasteries in Pechenga and Solovki , and for a long time remained the only "industry" on the peninsula. By the mid-16th century, Atlantic cod fishing developed on the Murman Coast in the north. The 1560s saw a rapid growth of international trade, with the Russian merchants from different regions of

4374-463: The first documented permanent settlements of the Novgorodians, date back to 1466. Over time, all coastal areas to the west of the Pyalitsa River had been settled, creating a territory where the population was mostly Novgorodian. Administratively, this territory was divided into Varzuzhskaya and Umbskaya Volosts , which were governed by a posadnik from the area of the Northern Dvina . The Novgorod Republic lost control of both of these volosts to

4455-541: The landmass. The earliest known supercontinent was Vaalbara . It formed from proto-continents and was a supercontinent 3.636 billion years ago. Vaalbara broke up c. 2.845–2.803 Ga ago. The supercontinent Kenorland was formed c. 2.72 Ga ago and then broke sometime after 2.45–2.1 Ga into the proto-continent cratons called Laurentia , Baltica , Yilgarn craton and Kalahari . The supercontinent Columbia , or Nuna, formed 2.1–1.8 billion years ago and broke up about 1.3–1.2 billion years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia

4536-403: The north of the peninsula in the 7th–5th millennium BCE, the rest of its territory remained uninhabited until the 3rd millennium BCE, when various peoples started to arrive from the south. By the 1st millennium CE only the Sami people remained. This changed in the 12th century, when Russian Pomors discovered the peninsula's rich resources of game and fish. Soon after, the Pomors were followed by

4617-466: The northeastern edge of the Baltic Shield . The western border of the peninsula stretches along the meridian from the Kola Bay through the valley of the Kola River , Lake Imandra , and the Niva River to the Kandalaksha Gulf , although some sources push it all the way west to Russia's border with Finland. Under a more restrictive definition, the peninsula covers an area of about 100,000 square kilometers (39,000 sq mi). The northern coast

4698-456: The origin of life has not been determined. Carbon found in 3.8 billion-year-old rocks (Archean Eon) from islands off western Greenland may be of organic origin. Well-preserved microscopic fossils of bacteria older than 3.46 billion years have been found in Western Australia . Probable fossils 100 million years older have been found in the same area. However, there is evidence that life could have evolved over 4.280 billion years ago. There

4779-459: The peninsula became heavily industrialized and militarized, largely due to its strategic position (as the pre-eminent Soviet ice-free Atlantic coast) and to the discovery of the vast apatite deposits in the 1920s. As a result, the peninsula suffered major ecological damage . After the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union , the economy went into decline. Its population fell from 1,150,000 in 1989 to 795,000 in 2010. The peninsula recovered somewhat in

4860-552: The peninsula to the Gulf Stream leads to unusually high temperatures in winter for the region, resulting in significant temperature variations between land and the Barents Sea and in fluctuating temperatures during high winds. Cyclones are typical during the cold seasons, while the warm seasons are characterized by anticyclones . Monsoon winds are common in most areas, with south and southwesterly winds prevailing in winter months and with somewhat more pronounced easterly winds in summer. Strong storm winds blow for 80–120 days

4941-464: The peninsula, mostly along the shores. However, the discovery of the vast natural resource deposits and industrialization efforts led to an explosive population growth during the Soviet times. By 1970, the population of the peninsula was around 799,000. The trend reverted in the 1990s, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union . The population of the whole Murmansk Oblast went down from 1,150,000 in 1989 to 890,000 in 2002 to 795,000 in 2010. As of

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5022-452: The peninsula. Beluga whales are the only cetacean being common around the peninsula. Other dolphins, including Atlantic white-sided dolphins , white-beaked dolphins , and harbor porpoises , as well as large whales, such as bowhead , humpback , blue , and finback , also visit the area. The coasts of the Kandalaksha Gulf and the Barents Sea are important breeding grounds for bearded seals and ringed seals . The Barents Sea

5103-589: The peninsula. The main industrial pollution source is Norilsk Nickel in Monchegorsk —the large smelters responsible for over 80% of the sulfur dioxide emissions and for nearly all nickel and copper emissions. Since 1998, SO 2 emissions in the area have dropped by almost 60%, from 88.3 thousand tonnes to 37.3 thousand tonnes in 2016, according to Norilsk Nickel. Based on its new ‘Sulphur programme 2.0', Norilsk Nickel has set itself staged targets in cutting down sulphur dioxide emissions, which can have negative health and environmental effects. The ultimate aim

5184-416: The population of common eider , is located in the Kandalaksha Gulf . The peninsula is also the site of the Kola Superdeep Borehole , the deepest hole drilled into the Earth. The peninsula is located in the far northwest of Russia, almost completely inside the Arctic Circle and is bordered by the Barents Sea in the north and the White Sea in the east and southeast. Geologically, the peninsula occupies

5265-402: The practice of peat production from the Norwegians and started using peat for heating. Timber cutting industry developed in the region at the end of the 19th century; mostly in Kovda and Umba. The Soviet era saw drastic industrialization and militarization of the peninsula. In 1925–1926, significant deposits of apatite were discovered in the Khibiny Mountains, and the first apatite batch

5346-414: The rest of Russia was irregular. 1887 saw an influx of Izhma Komi and Nenets people who were migrating to the peninsula to escape a reindeer-disease epidemic in their homelands and brought their large deer herds with them, resulting in increased competition for the grazing lands, a conflict between the Komi and the Sami, and in marginalization of the local Sami population. By the end of the 19th century,

5427-427: The sea by the Northern Fleet and Murmansk Shipping Company . There is also evidence of contamination from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster , with contaminants being found in the flesh of reindeer and other animals, and from the 1972 and 1984 controlled nuclear explosions 21 kilometers (13 mi) northwest of Kirovsk . Additionally, several nuclear weapons test ranges and radioactive waste storage facilities exist on

5508-505: The significantly reduced outputs from pearl hunting . Commercial deer herding became more popular, although its share in the economy remained negligible until the 19th century. By the end of the 17th century, the practice of seasonal fishing and hunting settlements in the north of the peninsula became very common. Peter the Great , recognizing the political and economical importance of the peninsula, promoted its industries and commerce. The region fell into neglect after St. Petersburg

5589-551: The southern areas is composed mostly of pine trees and spruces . Reindeer herds visit the grasslands in summer. Other animals include red and Arctic foxes , wolverines , moose , otters , and lynx in the southern areas. American minks , which were released near the Olenitsa River in 1935–1936, are now common throughout the peninsula and are commercially hunted. Beavers , which became endangered by 1880, were re-introduced in 1934–1957. All in all, thirty-two species of mammals and up to two hundred bird species inhabit

5670-404: The sparsely populated territories outside the urbanized areas were used for deer herding. This region is also home to the Kola Superdeep Borehole . In 1920–1940, the town of Kirovsk and several work settlements were established on the peninsula. The Sami peoples were subject to forced collectivization , with more than half of their reindeer herds collectivized in 1928–1930. In addition,

5751-430: The term as informal. Because the span of time falling under the Precambrian consists of three eons (the Hadean , the Archean , and the Proterozoic ), it is sometimes described as a supereon , but this is also an informal term, not defined by the ICS in its chronostratigraphic guide. Eozoic (from eo- "earliest") was a synonym for pre-Cambrian , or more specifically Archean . A specific date for

5832-618: The territories subordinated to Apatity , Olenegorsk , and Polyarnye Zori . Because the last ice age removed the top sediment layer of the soil, the surface of Kola Peninsula is extremely rich in various ores and minerals, including apatites and nephelines ; copper , nickel , and iron ores ; mica ; kyanites ; ceramic materials , as well as rare-earth elements and non-ferrous ores. Deposits of construction materials such as granite , quartzite , and limestone are also abundant. Diatomaceous earth deposits are common near lakes and are used to produce insulation . Proximity of

5913-415: The traditional Sami herding practices were phased out in favor of the more economically profitable Komi approach, which emphasized permanent settlements over free herding. Since the Sami culture is strongly tied to the herding practices, this resulted in the Sami people gradually losing their language and traditional herding knowledge. Most Sami were forced to settle in the village of Lovozero , which became

5994-539: The tribute collectors from the Novgorod Republic , and the peninsula gradually became a part of the Novgorodian lands. The Novgorodians, however, established no permanent settlements until the 15th century. The Soviet period (1917–1991) saw a rapid population increase, although most of the new arrivals remained confined to urbanized territories along the sea coast and the railroads. The Sami people were subject to forced collectivization , including forced relocation to Lovozero and other centralized settlements, and overall

6075-408: Was first mentioned in 1565. In the end of the 15th century, the Pomors and the Sami people were forced into serfdom , mostly by the monasteries. Monastery votchiny greatly expanded during the 17th century, but were abolished in 1764, when all of the Kola Peninsula peasants became state peasants . In the second half of the 16th century, King Frederick II of Denmark–Norway demanded that

6156-480: Was founded in 1703 and most of the shipping trade shifted there. In 1732, large deposits of silver in native form were discovered on Medvezhy Island in the Kandalaksha Gulf and copper, silver, and gold deposits were found in the lower reaches of the Ponoy River. Despite the efforts ongoing for the next two centuries, there was no commercial success. At the end of the 18th century, the local population learned

6237-482: Was lacking in free oxygen . There is, however, evidence that an oxygen-rich atmosphere existed since the early Archean. At present, it is still believed that molecular oxygen was not a significant fraction of Earth's atmosphere until after photosynthetic life forms evolved and began to produce it in large quantities as a byproduct of their metabolism . This radical shift from a chemically inert to an oxidizing atmosphere caused an ecological crisis , sometimes called

6318-852: Was mud 551 million years ago. The RNA world hypothesis asserts that RNA evolved before coded proteins and DNA genomes. During the Hadean Eon (4,567–4,031 Ma) abundant geothermal microenvironments were present that may have had the potential to support the synthesis and replication of RNA and thus possibly the evolution of a primitive life form. It was shown that porous rock systems comprising heated air-water interfaces could allow ribozyme - catalyzed RNA replication of sense and antisense strands that could be followed by strand-dissociation, thus enabling combined synthesis, release and folding of active ribozymes. This primitive RNA replicative system also may have been able to undergo template strand switching during replication ( genetic recombination ) as

6399-577: Was shipped only a few years later, in 1929. In 1930, sulfide deposits were discovered in the Moncha area ; in 1932–1933 iron ore deposits were found near the upper streams of the Iona River ; in 1935, significant deposits of titanium ores were discovered in the area of modern Afrikanda . The collectivization efforts in the 1930s led to the concentration of the reindeer herds in kolkhozes (collective farms), which in turn were further consolidated into

6480-545: Was signed in Novgorod regarding the Sami lands and the system of tribute collections, making the Sami people pay tribute to both Novgorod and Norway. By the terms of the treaty, Novgorodians could collect tribute from the Sami as far as the Lyngen fjord in the west, while Norwegians could collect tribute on the territory of the whole Kola Peninsula except in the eastern part of Tersky Coast. No state borders were established by

6561-522: Was turned over to the NKVD system. Until the 1800s, the Kola Peninsula was extremely sparsely populated, with only 5,200 inhabitants in 1858. In 1868 the Russian government created incentives for settlement and not only Russians but also Finns , Norwegians and Karelians moved to the peninsula. By the 1897 census 9,291 people were counted in the Kola uyezd ; 63% Russian, 19% Sami, 11% Finnish and 3% Karelian. By 1913 about 13,000–15,000 people lived in

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