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49-543: In the Poetic Edda poem Fjölsvinnsmál , the watchman Fjölsviðr presents a list of the maidens that attend the lady of the keep— Menglöð —that includes Eir, and states that they all sit on the hill Lyfjaberg (Old Norse "hill of healing" or "healing mountain"). The exchange between the hero Svipdagr and Fjölsviðr mentioning Eir is as follows: After the exchange, Svipdagr asks if these figures will give aid if blót are made to them. Fjölsviðr responds that Svipdagr

98-500: A collection of Old Norse folk-songs; Bidrag til den ældste skaldedigtnings historie (Christiania, 1894); Helge-digtene i den Ældre Edda (Copenhagen, 1896, Eng. trans., The Home of the Eddic Poems , 1899); Norsk Sagafortælling og Sagaskrivning i Island (Christiania, 1901), and various books on runic inscriptions. By 1902, Bugge's vision had become so poor that he could no longer read. Professor and linguist Magnus Olsen , who

147-515: A glorious Judge beneath the earth. In the beginning, when naught was, there was neither sand nor sea nor the cold waves, nor was earth to be seen nor heaven above. There was a Yawning Chasm [chaos], but grass nowhere, ( Vigfússon & Powell 1883 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFVigfússonPowell1883 ( help ) † I remember of yore   were born the Jötuns, they who aforetime   fostered me : nine worlds I remember,   nine in

196-485: A number of foreign societies. He was made honorary doctor at Uppsala University in 1877. He was appointed a Knight of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav in 1877, Commander Grand Cross 1890 and 1896. Bugge was married during 1869 to Karen Sophie Schreiner (1835–1897). His son, Alexander , became a noted historian. [REDACTED]   This article incorporates text from a publication now in

245-662: Is arguably the most important extant source on Norse mythology and Germanic heroic legends . Since the early 19th century, it has had a powerful influence on Scandinavian literature , not only through its stories, but also through the visionary force and the dramatic quality of many of the poems. It has also been an inspiration for later innovations in poetic meter , particularly in Nordic languages , with its use of terse, stress -based metrical schemes that lack final rhymes, instead focusing on alliterative devices and strongly concentrated imagery. Poets who have acknowledged their debt to

294-808: Is best known for his theories and his work on the runic alphabet and the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda . Bugge was born in Larvik , in Vestfold county, Norway . His ancestors had been merchants, ship owners and captains of the Larvik for several generations. Bugge was a Candidatus magisterii (1857) and research fellow in comparative linguistics and Sanskrit (1860). He was educated in Christiania , Copenhagen and Berlin . In 1866, he became professor of comparative philology, comparative Indo-European linguistics and Old Norse at Christiania University now

343-528: Is correct: In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur . High lists Eir third, and says no more about her other than noting that "she is an extremely good physician." In chapter 75 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál Eir appears within a list of valkyrie names, but Eir is not included in the list of ásynjur in

392-517: Is given below: Ek man jǫtna ár of borna, þás forðum mik fœdda hǫfðu ; níu mank hęima, níu ívíði, mjǫtvið mæran fyr mold neðan. Ár vas alda þars Ymir byggði, vasa sandr né sær, né svalar unnir ; jǫrð fansk æva né upphiminn ; gap vas ginnunga, ęn gras hvęrgi. ( Finnur 1932 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFFinnur1932 ( help ) (unchanged orthography) The Jötuns I remember early born, those who me of old have reared. I nine worlds remember, nine trees,

441-539: Is herself the Norse Hygeia . Compare this stanza to stanza 32." Poetic Edda The Poetic Edda is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems in alliterative verse . It is distinct from the closely related Prose Edda , although both works are seminal to the study of Old Norse poetry . Several versions of the Poetic Edda exist: especially notable

490-563: Is the medieval Icelandic manuscript Codex Regius , which contains 31 poems. The Eddic poems are composed in alliterative verse . Most are in fornyrðislag ("old story metre "), while málaháttr ("speech form") is a common variation. The rest, about a quarter, are composed in ljóðaháttr ("song form"). The language of the poems is usually clear and relatively unadorned. Kennings are often employed, though they do not arise as frequently, nor are they as complex, as those found in typical skaldic poetry . Like most early poetry,

539-773: The Codex Regius continues with heroic lays about mortal heroes, examples of Germanic heroic legend . The heroic lays are to be seen as a whole in the Edda , but they consist of three layers: the story of Helgi Hundingsbani , the story of the Nibelungs , and the story of Jörmunrekkr , king of the Goths . These are, respectively, Scandinavian, German, and Gothic in origin. As far as historicity can be ascertained, Attila , Jörmunrekkr , and Brynhildr actually existed, taking Brynhildr to be partly based on Brunhilda of Austrasia , but

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588-550: The Codex Regius include Vilhelm Ekelund , August Strindberg , J. R. R. Tolkien , Ezra Pound , Jorge Luis Borges , and Karin Boye . The Codex Regius was written during the 13th century, but nothing was known of its whereabouts until 1643, when it came into the possession of Brynjólfur Sveinsson , then Bishop of Skálholt . At the time, versions of the Prose Edda were known in Iceland, but scholars speculated that there once

637-894: The strophe in question, is the younger derivative work. The few demonstrably historical characters mentioned in the poems, such as Attila , provide a terminus post quem of sorts. The dating of the manuscripts themselves provides a more useful terminus ante quem . Individual poems have individual clues to their age. For example, Atlamál hin groenlenzku is claimed by its title to have been composed in Greenland and seems so by some internal evidence. If so, it must have been composed no earlier than about 985, since there were no Scandinavians in Greenland until that time. More certain than such circumstantial evidence are linguistic dating criteria. These can be arrived at by looking at Skaldic poems whose dates are more firmly known. For instance

686-549: The "Dvergatal" or "Roster of Dwarfs", is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation . The problem of dating the poems is linked with the problem of determining where they were composed. Iceland was not settled until approximately 870, so anything composed before that time would necessarily have been elsewhere, most likely in Scandinavia . More recent poems, on the other hand, are likely Icelandic in origin. Scholars have attempted to localize individual poems by studying

735-456: The 1670s. Some early translators relied on a Latin translation of the Edda , including Cottle . Opinions differ on the best way to translate the text, on the use or rejection of archaic language, and the rendering of terms lacking a clear English analogue. Still, Cottle's 1797 translation is now considered very inaccurate. A comparison of the second and third verses (lines 5–12) of the Vǫluspá

784-464: The Earth Ymir struck camp when time began. No land, sand or sea folding on itself, no sky, earth or grass swaying atop its girth, only the cavern of chaos's gaping gulf. ( Dodds 2014 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFDodds2014 ( help ) I remember giants born early in time those nurtured me long ago; I remember nine worlds, I remember nine giant women, the mighty Measuring-Tree below

833-469: The Eddic poems were minstrel poems, passed orally from singer to singer and from poet to poet for centuries. None of the poems are attributed to a particular author, though many of them show strong individual characteristics and are likely to have been the work of individual poets. While scholars have speculated on hypothetical authors, firm and accepted conclusions have never been reached. Accurate dating of

882-575: The Learned , a larger-than-life 12th century Icelandic priest. Modern scholars reject that attribution, but the name Sæmundar Edda is still sometimes associated with both the Codex Regius and versions of the Poetic Edda using it as a source. Bishop Brynjólfur sent the manuscript as a present to the Danish king, hence the Latin name Codex Regius, lit.   ' Royal Book ' . For centuries it

931-542: The Tree, the glorious Fate Tree   that springs 'neath the Earth. 'Twas the earliest of times   when Ymir lived ; then was sand nor sea   nor cooling wave, nor was Earth found ever,   nor Heaven on high, there was Yawning of Deeps   and nowhere grass : ( Bray 1908 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFBray1908 ( help ) I remember yet   the giants of yore, Who gave me bread   in

980-434: The Tree. The wonderful Ash, way under the ground When Ymir lived long ago Was no sand or sea, no surging waves. Nowhere was there earth nor heaven above. But a grinning gap and grass nowhere. ( Auden & Taylor 1969 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFAudenTaylor1969 ( help ) I remember giants   of ages past, those who called me   one of their kin; I know how nine roots   form nine worlds under

1029-855: The University of Oslo. In addition to collecting Norwegian folksongs and traditions and writing on Runic inscriptions, he made considerable contributions to the study of the Celtic , Romance , Oscan , Umbrian and Etruscan languages. His scientific work was of fundamental importance for the Norse philology and runic research. In his 1880 work, Studies about the origin of Nordic mythological and heroic tales , Bugge theorized that nearly all myths in Old Norse literature derive from Christian and late classical concepts. Bugge's theories were generally vehemently rejected, but have had some influence. Bugge

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1078-549: The chronology has been reversed in the poems. Several of the legendary sagas contain poetry in the Eddic style. Their age and importance is often difficult to evaluate but the Hervarar saga , in particular, contains interesting poetic interpolations. The Elder or Poetic Edda has been translated numerous times, the earliest printed edition being that by Cottle 1797 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCottle1797 ( help ) , though some short sections had been translated as early as

1127-413: The days gone by ; Nine worlds I knew,   the nine in the tree With mighty roots   beaneath the mold. Of old was the age   when Ymir lived ; Sea nor cool waves   nor sand there were ; Earth had not been,   nor heaven above, But a yawning gap,   and grass nowhere. ( Bellows 1923 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFBellows1923 ( help ) I call to mind

1176-486: The earth   where the Ash Tree rises. Nothing was there   when time began, neither sands nor seas   nor cooling waves, Earth was not yet,   nor the high heavens, but a gaping emptiness   nowhere green. ( Terry 1990 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFTerry1990 ( help ) I, born of giants, remember very early those who nurtured me then; I remember nine worlds, I remember nine giant women,

1225-402: The earth. Early in time Ymir made his settlement, there was no sand nor sea nor cool waves; earth was nowhere nor the sky above, a void of yawning chaos, grass was there nowhere ( Larrington 2014 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFLarrington2014 ( help ) I remember the giants born so long ago; in those ancient days they raised me. I remember nine worlds, nine giantesses, and

1274-456: The existence of a goddess Eir is problematic". Rudolf Simek says that Eir may originally have been simply a valkyrie rather than a goddess, and lists the servant of Menglöð by the same name as a separate figure. Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that "virtually nothing" is known about Eir outside of her association with healing, and points out that she is "singled out as one of the Norns who shape

1323-452: The famed tree of fate down under the earth. It was early in ages when Ymir made his home, there was neither sand nor sea, nor cooling waves; no earth to be found, nor heaven above: a gulf beguiling, nor grass anywhere. ( Orchard 2011 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFOrchard2011 ( help ) I remember being reared by Jotuns, in days long gone. If I look back, I recall nine worlds, nine wood-witches, that renowned tree of fate below

1372-589: The former became r- around the year 1000, but in some Eddic poems the word vreiðr , younger form reiðr , is seen to alliterate with words beginning in an original v- . This was observed already by Olaf ‘White Skald’ Thordarson , the author of the Third Grammatical Treatise , who termed this v before r the vindandin forna ; 'the ancient use of vend '. In some cases, old poems may have been interpolated with younger verses or merged with other poems. For example, stanzas 9–16 of Völuspá ,

1421-423: The geography, flora, and fauna to which they refer. This approach usually does not yield firm results. For example, there are no wolves in Iceland, but we can be sure that Icelandic poets were familiar with the species. Similarly, the apocalyptic descriptions of Völuspá have been taken as evidence that the poet who composed it had seen a volcanic eruption in Iceland – but this is hardly certain. The Codex Regius

1470-454: The great central tree, beneath the earth. There was in times of old, where Ymir dwelt, nor sand nor sea, nor gelid waves ; earth existed not, nor heaven above, 'twas a chaotic chasm, and grass nowhere, ( Thorpe 1866 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFThorpe1866 ( help ) I remember the Giants born of yore, who bred me up long ago. I remember nine Worlds, nine Sibyls,

1519-418: The ground. It was early in the ages when Ymir made his dwelling: There was not sand nor sea nor chill waves. Earth was not to be found nor above it heaven: a gulf was there of gaping voids and grass nowhere, ( Dronke 1997 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFDronke1997 ( help ) I recall those giants, born early on, who long ago brought me up; nine worlds I recall, nine wood-dwelling witches,

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1568-400: The house, guarding both men and women." She additionally draws a link between these spirits and Lyfjaberg: Lyfjaberg is where the goddess sits surrounded by her helpful spirits. Although healing by a goddess—or indeed by a god either—has left little mark on Norse myths as they have come down to us, there is no doubt that the healing power of goddesses was of enormous importance in daily life in

1617-502: The kin of etins which long ago did give me life. Nine worlds I know, the nine abodes of the glorious world-tree the ground beneath. In earliest times did Ymir live: was nor sea nor land nor salty waves, neither earth was there nor upper heaven, but a gaping nothing, and green things nowhere. ( Hollander 1962 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFHollander1962 ( help ) I tell of Giants from times forgotten. Those who fed me in former days: Nine worlds I can reckon, nine roots of

1666-431: The lives of children". Davidson adds that "no satisfactory conclusions" have been drawn from her name, and considers all mentions of Eir as of the same figure. Davidson says that, in reference to Eir's appearance among Menglöð's maidens, that the names of these maidens "suggest that they are guardian spirits, and [they are] said to 'shelter and save' those who make offerings of them. They could be akin to protective spirits of

1715-461: The mighty Measuring-Tree below the earth. Young were the years when Ymir made his settlement, there was no sand nor sea nor cool waves; earth was nowhere nor the sky above, chaos yawned, grass was there nowhere. ( Larrington 1996 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFLarrington1996 ( help ) I remember giants born early in time, who long ago had reared me Nine worlds I remember, nine wood-ogresses, glorious tree of good measure, under

1764-505: The particle of , corresponding to ga- or ge- in other old Germanic languages, has been shown to occur more frequently in Skaldic poems of earlier date. Applying this criterion to Eddic poetry, Bjarne Fidjestøl found large variation, indicating that some of the poems were much older than others. Other dating criteria include the use of the negative adverb eigi 'not', and alliteration of vr- with v- . In western dialects of Old Norse

1813-632: The poems are also quoted in Snorri 's Prose Edda , but usually only in bits and pieces. What poems are included in an edition of the Poetic Edda depends on the editor. Those not found in the Codex Regius are sometimes called the "eddic appendix". Other Eddic-like poems not usually published in the Poetic Edda are sometimes called Eddica minora and were compiled by Andreas Heusler and Wilhelm Ranisch in their 1903 book titled Eddica minora: Dichtungen eddischer Art aus den Fornaldarsögur und anderen Prosawerken . English translators are not consistent on

1862-491: The poems has long been a source of scholarly debate. Firm conclusions are difficult to reach; lines from the Eddic poems sometimes appear in poems by known poets. For example, Eyvindr skáldaspillir composed in the latter half of the 10th century, and he uses a couple of lines in his Hákonarmál that are also found in Hávamál . It is possible that he was quoting a known poem, but it is also possible that Hávamál , or at least

1911-530: The pre-Christian period, as was that of many women saints in Christian times. The goddess who presided over childbirth was held to possess power over life and death, and was revered as a lifegiver, both in the family home and in the courts of kings, though she might also pass sentence of death. Henry Adams Bellows proposes a relationship between Eir and the place name Lyfjaberg , which he translates as "hill of healing". Bellows notes that manuscripts vary about

1960-468: The same chapter. In skaldic poetry , the name Eir is frequent in kennings for women. A sample construction is Eir aura ("Eir of riches"), occurring in Gísla saga . The name is already used in this way by the 10th century poets Kormákr Ögmundarson and Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld . Similarly, the name Eir is used in a woman kenning in a runic inscription inscribed on a stick from Bergen , Norway around

2009-414: The seed from which Yggdrasil sprang. It was at the very beginning, it was Ymir's time, there was no sand, no sea, no cooling waves, no earth, no sky, no grass, just Ginnungagap. Sophus Bugge Elseus Sophus Bugge (5 January 1833 – 8 July 1907) was a Norwegian philologist and linguist. His scholarly work was directed to the study of runic inscriptions and Norse philology. Bugge

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2058-480: The seemingly three different, seemingly conflicting, mentions of Eir, Andy Orchard says that the etymology of the name Eir may appear to fit the role of Eir as a goddess and servant of Menglöð best, but that one should consider that the valkyries also have the ability to waken the dead. John Lindow is skeptical of there having been a belief in Eir as a goddess, stating that "whether we should trust Snorri and imagine

2107-411: The spelling of the place name, and that he, like others, has followed 19th-century scholar Sophus Bugge 's choice. Bellows states that the stanza mentioning Lyfjaberg "implies that Mengloth is a goddess of healing, and hence, perhaps an hypostasis of Frigg , as already intimated by her name [...]. In stanza 54, Eir appears as one of Mengloth's handmaidens, and Eir, according to Snorri ( Gylfaginning, 35 )

2156-654: The translations of the names of the Eddic poems or on how the Old Norse forms should be rendered in English. Up to three translated titles are given below, taken from the translations of Bellows , Hollander , and Larrington with proper names in the normalized English forms found in John Lindow 's Norse Mythology and in Andy Orchard's Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend . After the mythological poems,

2205-479: The year 1300. The stick records a common mercantile transaction followed by a verse from a displeased scribe (edits applied per the translator's notes): Mindy Macleod and Bernard Mees posit that the first line of the inscription essentially means "women make me miserable" or potentially "marriage makes me miserable," whereas the second line means "women often take a lot of sleep from me." The name remained frequently used in woman kennings in rímur poetry. Regarding

2254-585: Was Bugge's assistant and successor, read and described new discoveries of inscriptions. Bugge's final works regarding original rune scripture were not completed before he died. They were released between 1910 and 1913 through the efforts of Professor Olsen. Bugge was a member of the Scientific Society of Christiania (now The Norwegian Academy of Science ) from 1858 (vice president 1884), The Royal Norwegian Scientific Society in Trondheim (1865) and

2303-401: Was another Edda, an Elder Edda , which contained the pagan poems that Snorri quotes in his Prose Edda . When Codex Regius was discovered, it seemed that the speculation had proved correct, but modern scholarly research has shown that the Prose Edda was likely written first and that the two were, at most, connected by a common source. Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to Sæmundr

2352-645: Was stored in the Royal Library in Copenhagen , but in 1971 it was returned to Iceland. Because air travel at the time was not entirely trustworthy with such precious cargo, it was transported by ship, accompanied by a naval escort. Poems similar to those found in the Codex Regius are also included in many editions of the Poetic Edda . Important manuscripts containing these other poems include AM 748 I 4to , Hauksbók , and Flateyjarbók . Many of

2401-427: Was the author of a very large number of books on philology and folklore . His principal work, a critical edition of the Poetic Edda ( Norrœn Fornkvæði ), was published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that the Eddic poems and the earlier sagas were largely founded on Christian and Latin tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by way of England . His writings also include Gamle Norske Folkeviser (1858),

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