Misplaced Pages

#219780

133-421: "The excellence of this practice and its fruitfulness for Christian virtue," preached Pope Pius X , "are clearly established by the teaching of the great masters of the spiritual life." St. Ignatius of Loyola considered the examination of conscience as the single most important spiritual exercise. In his Spiritual Exercises he presents different forms of it in the particular and general examination (24-43). Of

266-1025: A canonical coronation : Our Lady of Aparecida , Our Lady of the Pillar , Our Lady of the Cape , Our Lady of Chiquinquira of Colombia , Our Lady of San Juan de los Lagos , Our Lady of La Naval de Manila , Virgin of Help of Venezuela , Our Lady of Carmel of New York , the Marian icon of Santuario della Consolata and the Immaculate Conception within the Chapel of the Choir inside Saint Peter's Basilica were granted this prestigious honor. Within three months of his coronation, Pius X published his motu proprio Tra le sollecitudini . Classical and Baroque compositions had long been favoured over Gregorian chant in ecclesiastical music. The Pope announced

399-644: A canonically irregular , traditionalist fraternity, recommends the Catechism of Saint Pius X over the 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church . Canon law of the Catholic Church varied from region to region with no overall prescriptions. On 19 March 1904, Pope Pius X named a commission of cardinals to draft a universal set of laws. Two of his successors worked in the commission: Giacomo della Chiesa, who became Pope Benedict XV , and Eugenio Pacelli, who became Pope Pius XII . This first Code of Canon Law

532-476: A cardinal of the order of cardinal priests in a secret consistory on 12 June 1893. In a public consistory on 15 June, the pope gave him his cardinal's red galero , assigned him the titular church of San Bernardo alle Terme , and appointed him Patriarch of Venice . This caused difficulty, however, as the government of reunified Italy claimed the right to nominate the Patriarch, since the previous sovereign,

665-470: A " scorched earth " policy designed to reduce the power of the native rulers, the Dey , including massacres, mass rapes and other atrocities. Between 500,000 and 1,000,000, from approximately 3 million Algerians, were killed in the first three decades of the conquest. French losses from 1830 to 1851 were 3,336 killed in action and 92,329 dying in hospital. In 1834, Algeria became a French military colony. It

798-418: A cope and mitre at the end of the procession of prelates "almost hidden behind the double line of Palatine Guards through which he passed". Pope Leo XIII had sought to revive the inheritance of Thomas Aquinas , 'the marriage of reason and revelation', as a response to secular 'enlightenment'. Under Pius X, neo-Thomism became the blueprint for theology. Most controversially, Pius X vigorously condemned

931-450: A daily practice of the lives of early members of the clergy and those living a monastic life, such as the hermit St. Anthony , who was said to have examined his conscience every night, while St. Basil of Caesarea , St. Augustine of Hippo , St. Bernard of Clairvaux , and founders of religious orders generally made the examination of conscience a regular daily exercise of their followers. Lay members of congregations were encouraged to take up

1064-675: A defender of Algeria popularised the term; other well-known examples include Jawaharlal Nehru 's anonymous dissection of his own personality and drive in the Modern Review . Pius X Pope Pius X ( Italian : Pio X ; born Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto ; 2 June 1835 – 20 August 1914) was head of the Catholic Church from 4 August 1903 to his death. Pius X is known for vigorously opposing modernist interpretations of Catholic doctrine , and for promoting liturgical reforms and Thomist scholastic theology. He initiated

1197-633: A dissolved league, leading to Messali Hadj's 1937 founding of the Parti du peuple algérien (Algerian People's Party, PPA), which, no longer espoused full independence but only extensive autonomy. This new party was dissolved in 1939. Under Vichy France , the French State attempted to abrogate the Crémieux Decree to suppress the Jews' French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented. On

1330-784: A few months before had completed the liquidation of France's tete empire in Indochina , which set the tone of French policy for five years. He declared in the National Assembly, "One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic. They have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French. ... Between them and metropolitan France there can be no conceivable secession." At first, and despite

1463-399: A five-point devotional examination method in his 1524 work Spiritual Exercises . In the first point, followers thank God for the benefits received; in the second, they ask grace to know and correct their faults; in the third, they pass in review the successive hours of the day, noting what faults they have committed in deed, word, thought, or omission; in the fourth, they ask God's pardon; in

SECTION 10

#1732791846220

1596-537: A formal policy-making body to synchronize the movement's political and military activities. The highest authority of the FLN was vested in the thirty-four member National Council of the Algerian Revolution (Conseil National de la Révolution Algérienne, CNRA), within which the five-man Committee of Coordination and Enforcement ( Comité de Coordination et d'Exécution , CCE) formed the executive. The leadership of

1729-423: A four-year-old boy the day after the child was presented to him and demonstrated an exceptional understanding of the meaning of the sacrament. When people would criticize Pius X for lowering the age of reception, he simply quoted the words of Jesus, "let the little children come to me". Pius X said in his 1903 motu proprio Tra le sollecitudini , "The primary and indispensable source of the true Christian spirit

1862-551: A frenzy of throat-cutting and disemboweling broke out among confused and suspicious FLN cadres, nationalist slaughtered nationalist from April to September 1957 and did France's work for her." But this type of operation involved individual operatives rather than organized covert units. One organized pseudo-guerrilla unit, however, was created in December 1956 by the French DST domestic intelligence agency. The Organization of

1995-434: A large stack of hay caught fire near a cottage, and when Sarto arrived he addressed the frantic people, "Don't be afraid, the fire will be put out and your house will be saved!" At that moment, the flames turned in the other direction, sparing the cottage. Despite his many duties, Sarto often made time for an evening walk with children preparing their First Communion . In 1879, Bishop Federico Maria Zinelli died, and Sarto

2128-722: A last blessing", sensing that it would be the last time that they would see each other. Arriving in Venice, he was formally enthroned on 24 November 1894. As cardinal-patriarch, Sarto avoided politics, allocating his time to social works and strengthening parochial credit unions. However, in his first pastoral letter to the Venetians, Sarto argued that in matters pertaining to the pope, "There should be no questions, no subtleties, no opposing of personal rights to his rights, but only obedience." In April 1903, Pope Leo XIII reportedly said to Lorenzo Perosi : "Hold him very dear, Perosi, as in

2261-438: A man examine himself, and so let him eat of that bread, and drink of that cup. For he that eateth and drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh damnation to himself.... For if we would judge ourselves, we should not be judged." ( 1 Corinthians 11:28–31 , KJV ). And, as the early Christians received Holy Communion very frequently, examination of conscience became a familiar exercise of their spiritual lives. In many cases, this became

2394-530: A measure that few took since it involved renouncing the right to be governed by sharia law in personal matters and was widely considered to be apostasy . Its first article stipulated: The indigenous Muslim is French; however, he will continue to be subjected to Muslim law. He may be admitted to serve in the army (armée de terre) and the navy (armée de mer). He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria. He may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy

2527-722: A member of the Communist Party and of its affiliated trade union, the Confédération générale du travail unitaire (CGTU), joined the following year. The North African Star broke from the Communist Party in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Paris's demand. Amid growing discontent from the Algerian population, the Third Republic (1871–1940) acknowledged some demands, and the Popular Front initiated

2660-474: A moral point of view, reflecting upon one’s responsibility and looking at one’s sins and weaknesses in preparation for repentance, in contrast with the examen of consciousness which does not focus on morality even if sins will emerge during the review of the day. Examination of conscience was commanded by the Apostle St. Paul to be performed by the faithful each time they received Holy Communion : "But let

2793-462: A new plan of seminary study. He also barred clergy from administering social organizations. Algerian War ~1,500,000 total Algerian deaths (Algerian historians' estimate) ~1,000,000 total Algerian deaths (Horne's estimate) ~400,000 total deaths (French historians' estimate) 1960s French Algeria (19th–20th centuries) Algerian War (1954–1962) 1990s– 2000s 2010s to present The Algerian War (also known as

SECTION 20

#1732791846220

2926-687: A physical body like every other man: and as savior of the human family, he had a spiritual and mystical body, the Church. This, the Pope argues has consequences for our view of the Blessed Virgin. She did not conceive the Eternal Son of God merely that He might be made man taking His human nature from her, but also, by giving him her human nature, that He might be the Redeemer of men. Mary, carrying

3059-565: A postal clerk, his favourite nephew stayed on as village priest, and his three single sisters lived together in humble circumstances in Rome. Giuseppe, nicknamed as "Bepi" by his mother, had so much natural exuberance that his teacher often had to cane his backside. Despite this, he was an excellent student who focused on homework before hobbies or recreations. In the evenings after sports or games with friends, he would spend ten minutes in prayer before returning home. He also served as an altar boy. By

3192-552: A return to earlier musical styles, championed by Lorenzo Perosi . Since 1898, Perosi had been Director of the Sistine Chapel Choir , a title which Pius X upgraded to "Perpetual Director". The Pope's choice of Joseph Pothier to supervise the new editions of chant led to the official adoption of the Solesmes edition of Gregorian chant. Pius X worked to increase devotion among both clergy and laity , particularly in

3325-668: A series of bloody, random massacres and bombings by Muslim Algerians in several towns and cities, the French Pieds-Noirs and urban French population began to demand that the French government engage in sterner countermeasures, including the proclamation of a state of emergency , capital punishment for political crimes, denunciation of all separatists, and most ominously, a call for 'tit-for-tat' reprisal operations by police, military, and para-military forces. Colon vigilante units, whose unauthorized activities were conducted with

3458-582: A short while after lunch, Pius X would then return to work before dining at 9:00pm and a final stint of work before sleep. In his 1904 encyclical Ad diem illum , he views Mary in the context of "restoring everything in Christ". He wrote: Spiritually we all are her children and she is the mother of us, therefore, she is to be revered like a mother. Christ is the Word made Flesh and the Savior of mankind. He had

3591-524: A significant part of the population of Algerians in France . The decision to capture Algiers was made by Charles X and his ministers in January 1830. An invasion had already been discussed in 1827 in part in reaction to Barbary pirates activities and their ransoming of Christian captives and slaves, and the refusal of Marseilles merchants to pay their debts to the Dey of Algiers. By early 1830 however,

3724-541: A special place for children, and his decision to require the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine in every parish was partly motivated by a desire to save children from religious ignorance. Noted for his humility and simplicity, he declared that he had not changed personally save for his white cassock. Aides consistently needed to remind him not to wipe his pen on the white cassock, as he had previously done on his black cassock which hid stains. The new pope's schedule

3857-548: A strong cult of devotion followed his reputation for piety and holiness. He was beatified in 1951 and canonized in 1954 by Pope Pius XII . A statue bearing his name stands within Saint Peter's Basilica , and his birth town was renamed Riese Pio X after his death. Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto was born in Riese , Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia , Austrian Empire (now in the province of Treviso , Veneto , Italy ), in 1835. He

3990-607: A strong organization in France to oppose the MNA. The " Café wars ", resulting in nearly 5,000 deaths, were waged in France between the two rebel groups throughout the years of the War of Independence. On the political front, the FLN worked to persuade—and to coerce—the Algerian masses to support the aims of the independence movement through contributions. FLN-influenced labor unions, professional associations, and students' and women's organizations were created to lead opinion in diverse segments of

4123-586: A student of Duchesne, denied that some parts of Scripture were literally rather than perhaps metaphorically true. In contradiction to Thomas Aquinas they argued that there was an unbridgeable gap between natural and supernatural knowledge. Its unwanted effects, from the traditional viewpoint, were relativism and scepticism. Modernism and relativism, in terms of their presence in the Church, were theological trends that tried to assimilate modern philosophers like Immanuel Kant as well as rationalism into Catholic theology. Anti-Modernists viewed these notions as contrary to

Examination of conscience - Misplaced Pages Continue

4256-556: A veto during a conclave. With the cardinals asking him to reconsider, he went into solitude in the Pauline Chapel , and after deep prayer he accepted the position. Cardinal Luigi Macchi announced Sarto's election at around 12:10pm. Sarto took as his papal name Pius X, out of respect for his recent predecessors of the same name, particularly Pope Pius IX (1846–1878), who had fought against theological liberals and for papal supremacy. He explained: "As I shall suffer, I shall take

4389-491: Is participation in the most holy mysteries and in the public, official prayer of the Church." He also sought to modify papal ceremonies to underscore their religious significance by eliminating occasions for applause. For example, when entering his first public consistory for the creation of cardinals in November 1903, he was not carried above the crowds on the sedia gestatoria as was traditional. He arrived on foot wearing

4522-508: The Toussaint Rouge (Red All-Saints' Day ). From Cairo , the FLN broadcast the declaration of 1 November 1954 written by the journalist Mohamed Aïchaoui calling on Muslims in Algeria to join in a national struggle for the "restoration of the Algerian state – sovereign, democratic and social – within the framework of the principles of Islam." It was the reaction of Premier Pierre Mendès France ( Radical-Socialist Party ), who only

4655-623: The Algerian Revolution or the Algerian War of Independence ) was a major armed conflict between France and the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria winning its independence from France. An important decolonization war , it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare and war crimes. The conflict also became a civil war between

4788-580: The Aurès , the Kabylie , and other mountainous areas around Constantine and south of Algiers and Oran . In these places, the FLN established a simple but effective—although frequently temporary—military administration that was able to collect taxes and food and to recruit manpower. But it was never able to hold large, fixed positions. The loss of competent field commanders both on the battlefield and through defections and political purges created difficulties for

4921-621: The Battle of the borders , the ALN failed to penetrate these defence lines. The French military command ruthlessly applied the principle of collective responsibility to villages suspected of sheltering, supplying, or in any way cooperating with the guerrillas. Villages that could not be reached by mobile units were subject to aerial bombardment. FLN guerrillas that fled to caves or other remote hiding places were tracked and hunted down. In one episode, FLN guerrillas who refused to surrender and withdraw from

5054-620: The Blum-Viollette proposal in 1936, which was supposed to enlighten the Indigenous Code by giving French citizenship to a small number of Muslims. The pieds-noirs (Algerians of European origin) violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party also opposed it, leading to its abandonment. The pro-independence party was dissolved in 1937, and its leaders were charged with the illegal reconstitution of

5187-570: The Breviary , which he reformed considerably , and the Mass . Besides restoring to prominence Gregorian chant , he placed a renewed liturgical emphasis on the Eucharist , saying, "Holy Communion is the shortest and safest way to Heaven." To this end, he encouraged frequent reception of Holy Communion. This also extended to children who had reached the "age of discretion", though he did not permit

5320-540: The Constantine wilaya /region, however, decided a drastic escalation was needed. The killing by the FLN and its supporters of 123 people, including 71 French, including old women and babies, shocked Jacques Soustelle into calling for more repressive measures against the rebels. The French authorities stated that 1,273 guerrillas died in what Soustelle admitted were "severe" reprisals. The FLN subsequently claimed that 12,000 Muslims were killed. Soustelle's repression

5453-838: The Emperor of Austria , had exercised that power. The poor relations between the Roman Curia and the Italian civil government since the annexation of the Papal States in 1870 placed additional strain on the appointment. The number of vacant sees soon grew to 30. Sarto was finally permitted to assume the position of patriarch in 1894. In regard to being named as a cardinal, Sarto told a local newspaper that he felt "anxious, terrified and humiliated". After being named cardinal and before leaving for Venice, he visited his mother. Overwhelmed with emotion, she asked: "My son, give your mother

Examination of conscience - Misplaced Pages Continue

5586-544: The Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency. The brutality of the methods employed by the French forces failed to win hearts and minds in Algeria, alienated support in metropolitan France, and discredited French prestige abroad. As the war dragged on, the French public slowly turned against it and many of France's key allies, including the United States, switched from supporting France to abstaining in

5719-571: The Holy Office cleared him of all charges. In 1905, Pius X in his letter Acerbo nimis mandated the establishment of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine (catechism class) in every parish in the world. The Catechism of Pius X is his realisation of a simple, plain, brief, popular catechism for uniform use throughout the whole world; it was used in the ecclesiastical province of Rome and for some years in other parts of Italy; it

5852-532: The Muslim community acceptable to the French through whom a compromise or reforms within the system might be achieved. As the FLN campaign of influence spread through the countryside, many European farmers in the interior (called Pieds-Noirs ), many of whom lived on lands taken from Muslim communities during the nineteenth century, sold their holdings and sought refuge in Algiers and other Algerian cities. After

5985-489: The Sétif massacre of 8 May 1945, and the pro-Independence struggle before World War II, most Algerians were in favor of a relative status-quo. While Messali Hadj had radicalized by forming the FLN, Ferhat Abbas maintained a more moderate, electoral strategy. Fewer than 500 fellaghas (pro-Independence fighters) could be counted at the beginning of the conflict. The Algerian population radicalized itself in particular because of

6118-791: The Vietnam War . The French also used napalm . The French army resumed an important role in local Algerian administration through the Special Administration Section ( Section Administrative Spécialisée , SAS), created in 1955. The SAS's mission was to establish contact with the Muslim population and weaken nationalist influence in the rural areas by asserting the "French presence" there. SAS officers—called képis bleus (blue caps)—also recruited and trained bands of loyal Muslim irregulars, known as harkis . Armed with shotguns and using guerrilla tactics similar to those of

6251-414: The age of discretion . The pope lowered the age because he wished to impress the event on the minds of children and stimulate their parents to new religious observance; this decree was found unwelcome in some places due to the belief that parents would withdraw their children early from Catholic schools, now that First Communion was carried out earlier. Pius X even personally distributed First Communion to

6384-572: The pulpit , a rare practice at the time. After the 1908 Messina earthquake he filled the Apostolic Palace with refugees, long before the Italian government acted. He rejected any kind of favours for his family, and his close relatives chose to remain in poverty, living near Rome. He also undertook a reform of the Roman Curia with the Apostolic Constitution Sapienti consilio in 1908. After his death,

6517-618: The tonsure from his parish priest, who wrote to the Cardinal of Venice to secure Sarto a scholarship to the Seminary of Padua , "where he finished his classical, philosophical, and theological studies with distinction". On 18 September 1858, Sarto was ordained a priest by Giovanni Antonio Farina , Bishop of Treviso (later canonized), and became a chaplain at Tombolo . While there, Sarto expanded his knowledge of theology, studying Thomas Aquinas and canon law , while carrying out most of

6650-418: The ALN. France, which had just lost French Indochina , was determined not to lose the next colonial war, particularly in its oldest and nearest major colony, which was regarded as a part of Metropolitan France (rather than a colony), by French law. In the early morning hours of 1 November 1954, FLN maquisards (guerrillas) attacked military and civilian targets throughout Algeria in what became known as

6783-841: The Algerian Manifesto (UDMA) in 1946 and was elected as a deputy. Founded in 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) created an armed wing, the Armée de Libération Nationale (National Liberation Army) to engage in an armed struggle against French authority. Many Algerian soldiers who served for the French Army in the First Indochina War had strong sympathy for the Vietnamese fighting against France and took up their experience to support

SECTION 50

#1732791846220

6916-517: The Algerian Manifesto (UDMA), the ulema , and the Algerian Communist Party (PCA) maintained a friendly neutrality toward the FLN. The communists , who had made no move to cooperate in the uprising at the start, later tried to infiltrate the FLN, but FLN leaders publicly repudiated the support of the party. In April 1956, Abbas flew to Cairo , where he formally joined the FLN. This action brought in many évolués who had supported

7049-527: The Algerian situation was out of control and that what was viewed officially as a pacification operation had developed into a war. By 1956, there were more than 400,000 French troops in Algeria. Although the elite airborne infantry units of the Troupes coloniales and the Foreign Legion bore the brunt of offensive counterinsurgency combat operations, approximately 170,000 Muslim Algerians also served in

7182-405: The FLN external political leaders arrested and imprisoned for the duration of the war. This action caused the remaining rebel leaders to harden their stance. France opposed Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser 's material and political assistance to the FLN, which some French analysts believed was the revolution's main sustenance. This attitude was a factor in persuading France to participate in

7315-570: The FLN, but aimed to compete with that organisation. The Armée de Libération Nationale (ALN), the military wing of the FLN, subsequently wiped out the MNA guerrilla operation in Algeria, and Messali Hadj's movement lost what weak influence it had had there. However, the MNA retained the support of many Algerian workers in France through the Union Syndicale des Travailleurs Algériens (the Union of Algerian Workers). The FLN also established

7448-488: The FLN, the harkis , who eventually numbered about 180,000 volunteers, more than the FLN activists, were an ideal instrument of counterinsurgency warfare. Harkis were mostly used in conventional formations, either in all-Algerian units commanded by French officers or in mixed units. Other uses included platoon or smaller size units, attached to French battalions, in a similar way as the Kit Carson Scouts by

7581-411: The FLN. Moreover, power struggles in the early years of the war split leadership in the wilayat, particularly in the Aurès. Some officers created their own fiefdoms, using units under their command to settle old scores and engage in private wars against military rivals within the FLN. Despite complaints from the military command in Algiers, the French government was reluctant for many months to admit that

7714-463: The French Algerian Resistance (ORAF), a group of counter-terrorists had as its mission to carry out false flag terrorist attacks with the aim of quashing any hopes of political compromise. But it seemed that, as in Indochina, "the French focused on developing native guerrilla groups that would fight against the FLN", one of whom fought in the Southern Atlas Mountains , equipped by the French Army. The FLN also used pseudo-guerrilla strategies against

7847-417: The French Army on one occasion, with Force K, a group of 1,000 Algerians who volunteered to serve in Force K as guerrillas for the French. But most of these members were either already FLN members or were turned by the FLN once enlisted. Corpses of purported FLN members displayed by the unit were in fact those of dissidents and members of other Algerian groups killed by the FLN. The French Army finally discovered

7980-412: The French did not realize the seriousness of the challenge they faced until 1955, when the FLN moved into urbanized areas. An important watershed in the War of Independence was the massacre of Pieds-Noirs civilians by the FLN near the town of Philippeville (now known as Skikda ) in August 1955. Before this operation, FLN policy was to attack only military and government-related targets. The commander of

8113-429: The French electorate approved the Évian Accords. The final result was 91% in favor of the ratification of this agreement and on 1 July, the Accords were subject to a second referendum in Algeria, where 99.72% voted for independence and just 0.28% against. The planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis. This included various assassination attempts on de Gaulle as well as some attempts at military coups . Most of

SECTION 60

#1732791846220

8246-427: The French government to negotiate a cease-fire. In 1957, it became common knowledge in France that the French Army was routinely using torture to extract information from suspected FLN members. Hubert Beuve-Méry , the editor of Le Monde , declared in an edition on 13 March 1957: "From now on, Frenchman must know that they don't have the right to condemn in the same terms as ten years ago the destruction of Oradour and

8379-574: The French were disarmed and left behind, as the agreement between French and Algerian authorities declared that no actions could be taken against them. However, the Harkis in particular, having served as auxiliaries with the French army, were regarded as traitors and many were murdered  [ fr ] by the FLN or by lynch mobs, often after being abducted and tortured. About 20,000 Harki families (around 90,000 people) managed to flee to France, some with help from their French officers acting against orders, and today they and their descendants form

8512-552: The Lord's Flock"), which characterized Modernism as the "synthesis of all heresies." Following these, Pius X ordered that all clerics take the Anti-Modernist oath , Sacrorum antistitum . Pius X's aggressive stance against Modernism caused some disruption within the Church, although only about 40 clerics refused to take the oath. Catholic scholarship with Modernistic tendencies was substantially discouraged, and theologians who wished to pursue lines of inquiry in line with Secularism, Modernism, or Relativism had to stop or face conflict with

8645-421: The November 1956 attempt to seize the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis . During 1957, support for the FLN weakened as the breach between the internals and externals widened. To halt the drift, the FLN expanded its executive committee to include Abbas, as well as imprisoned political leaders such as Ben Bella. It also convinced communist and Arab members of the United Nations (UN) to put diplomatic pressure on

8778-491: The Polish Cardinal Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko from Kraków , in the name of Emperor Franz Joseph (1848–1916) of Austria-Hungary , proclaimed a veto ( jus exclusivae ) against Rampolla's election. Many in the conclave protested, and it was even suggested to disregard the veto. However, the third vote had already begun, resulting in no clear winner but increasing support for Sarto, with 21 votes. The fourth vote showed Rampolla with 30 votes and Sarto with 24. It seemed clear that

8911-400: The Pope in 1903 devoted his papacy to Instaurare Omnia in Christo , "to restore all things in Christ." In his first encyclical ( E supremi apostolatus , 4 October 1903), he stated his overriding policy: "We champion the authority of God. His authority and Commandments should be recognized, deferred to, and respected." Continuing his simple origins, he wore a pectoral cross of gilded metal on

9044-407: The Pope; what more can I do for them?" He developed a reputation as being very friendly with children. He carried candy in his pockets for the street urchins in Mantua and Venice, and taught them catechism . During papal audiences, he would gather children around him and talk about things that interested them. His weekly catechism lessons in the courtyard of San Damaso in the Vatican always included

9177-517: The Savior within her, also carried all those whose life was contained in the life of the Savior. Therefore, all the faithful united to Christ, are members of His body, of His flesh, and of His bones from the womb of Mary like a body united to its head. Through a spiritual and mystical fashion, all are children of Mary, and she is their Mother. Mother, spiritually, but truly Mother of the members of Christ (S. Aug. L. de S. Virginitate, c. 6). During Pius X's pontificate, many famed Marian images were granted

9310-465: The U.S. in Vietnam. A third use was an intelligence gathering role, with some reported minor pseudo-operations in support of their intelligence collection. U.S. military expert Lawrence E. Cline stated, "The extent of these pseudo-operations appears to have been very limited both in time and scope. ... The most widespread use of pseudo type operations was during the 'Battle of Algiers' in 1957. The principal French employer of covert agents in Algiers

9443-444: The UDMA in the past. The AUMA also threw the full weight of its prestige behind the FLN. Bendjelloul and the pro-integrationist moderates had already abandoned their efforts to mediate between the French and the rebels. After the collapse of the MTLD , the veteran nationalist Messali Hadj formed the leftist Mouvement National Algérien (MNA), which advocated a policy of violent revolution and total independence similar to that of

9576-599: The UN debate on Algeria. After major demonstrations in Algiers and several other cities in favor of independence (1960) and a United Nations resolution recognizing the right to independence, Charles de Gaulle , the first president of the Fifth Republic, decided to open a series of negotiations with the FLN. These concluded with the signing of the Évian Accords in March 1962. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and

9709-582: The age of ten, he had completed the two elementary classes of his village school, as well as Latin study with a local priest; henceforth he had to walk four miles to the gymnasium in Castelfranco Veneto for further classes. For the next four years, he would attend Mass before breakfast and his long walk to school. He often carried his shoes to make them last longer. As a poor boy, he was often teased for his meager lunches and shabby clothes, but never complained to his teachers. In 1850 he received

9842-427: The almost 100-year-old Catechism of Saint Pius X was still valid, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger said: "The faith as such is always the same. Hence the Catechism of Saint Pius X always preserves its value. Whereas ways of transmitting the contents of the faith can change instead. And hence one may wonder whether the Catechism of Saint Pius X can in that sense still be considered valid today." The Society of Saint Pius X ,

9975-643: The ancient Eastern practice of infant communion . He also emphasized frequent recourse to the Sacrament of Penance so that Holy Communion would be received worthily. Pius X's devotion to the Eucharist would eventually earn him the honorific of "Pope of the Blessed Sacrament", by which he is still known among his devotees. In 1910, he issued the decree Quam singulari , which changed the age at which Communion could be received from 12 to 7 years old,

10108-549: The cardinals were moving toward Sarto. The following morning, the fifth vote gave Rampolla 10 votes, Gotti 2, and Sarto 50. Thus, on 4 August 1903, Sarto was elected to the pontificate. This marked the last known exercise of a papal veto by a Catholic monarch. At first, it is reported, Sarto declined the nomination, feeling unworthy. He had been deeply saddened by the Austro-Hungarian veto and vowed to rescind these powers and excommunicate anyone who communicated such

10241-527: The city and to find and eliminate terrorists. Using paratroopers, he broke the strike and, in the succeeding months, destroyed the FLN infrastructure in Algiers. But the FLN had succeeded in showing its ability to strike at the heart of French Algeria and to assemble a mass response to its demands among urban Muslims. The publicity given to the brutal methods used by the army to win the Battle of Algiers, including

10374-536: The conflict. A major success was the conversion of Jacques Soustelle , who went to Algeria as governor general in January 1955 determined to restore peace. Soustelle, a one-time leftist and by 1955 an ardent Gaullist, began an ambitious reform program (the Soustelle Plan ) aimed at improving economic conditions among the Muslim population. The FLN adopted tactics similar to those of nationalist groups in Asia, and

10507-411: The custody of the French Army led to the case becoming a cause célèbre as his widow aided by the historian Pierre Vidal-Naquet determinedly sought to have the men responsible for her husband's death prosecuted. Existentialist writer, philosopher and playwright Albert Camus , native of Algiers, tried unsuccessfully to persuade both sides to at least leave civilians alone, writing editorials against

10640-464: The day of his coronation; and when his entourage was horrified, the new pope declared he always wore it and had brought no other with him. He was well known for reducing papal ceremonies. He also abolished the custom of the pope dining alone, since the time of Pope Urban VIII , and invited his friends to eat with him. When chided by Rome's social leaders for refusing to make his peasant sisters papal countesses, he responded: "I have made them sisters of

10773-490: The desire for independence or, at the very least, autonomy and self-rule . Within that context, Khalid ibn Hashim , a grandson of Abd el-Kadir , spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and was a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party . In 1926, he founded the Étoile Nord-Africaine ("North African Star"), to which Messali Hadj , also

10906-533: The different communities and within the communities. The war took place mainly on the territory of Algeria , with repercussions in metropolitan France . Effectively started by members of the FLN on 1 November 1954, during the Toussaint Rouge ("Red All Saints' Day "), the conflict led to serious political crises in France, causing the fall of the Fourth Republic (1946–58), to be replaced by

11039-439: The dogmas and traditions of the Catholic Church. In the decree entitled Lamentabili sane exitu ("A Lamentable Departure Indeed") of 3 July 1907, Pius X formally condemned 65 propositions, mainly drawn from the works of Alfred Loisy and concerning the nature of the Church, revelation , biblical exegesis , the sacraments , and the divinity of Christ. That was followed by the encyclical Pascendi dominici gregis (or "Feeding

11172-445: The duties of one's state of life, the nine ways of partaking in the sin of others. Among secular intellectuals, particularly Marxists , the term autocritique , borrowed from the French , is used. This is particularly applied to a public "methodological attempt to step away from themselves through a process of self-objectification," and was popular in France following the Algerian War . Edgar Morin 's questioning of his own motives as

11305-535: The end of that month the conclave convened to elect his successor. Before the conclave, Sarto had reportedly said, "rather dead than pope", when people discussed his chances for election. In one of the meetings held just before the conclave, Cardinal Victor-Lucien-Sulpice Lécot spoke with Sarto in French, however, Sarto replied in Latin, "I'm afraid I do not speak French". Lécot replied, "But if Your Eminence does not speak French you have no chance of being elected because

11438-411: The fifth read: "A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined." Some Algerian intellectuals, dubbed oulémas , began to nurture

11571-616: The fifth, they consider amendment. The devotional examination of conscience is distinct from that required as a proximate preparation for the Sacrament of Reconciliation which is intended specifically to identify all sins requiring repentance. Various more elaborate methods might be used in the examination for confession, using the Ten Commandments of God, the Commandments of the Church, the Seven Capital Sins,

11704-513: The former were carried out by the Organisation armée secrète (OAS), an underground organization formed mainly from French military personnel supporting a French Algeria, which committed a large number of bombings and murders both in Algeria and in the homeland to stop the planned independence. The war caused the deaths of between 400,000 and 1.5 million Algerians, 25,600 French soldiers, and 6,000 Europeans. War crimes committed during

11837-454: The functions of the sickly parish priest Constantini. Often, Sarto sought to improve his sermons by the advice of Constantini, who referred to one of his earliest as "rubbish". In Tombolo, Sarto's reputation for holiness grew so much that some of the people call him "Don Santo". In 1867, he was named archpriest of Salzano . He restored the local church and expanded the hospital, the funds coming from his own begging, wealth and labour. He won

11970-427: The future he will be able to do much for you. We firmly believe he will be our successor". As a cardinal, he was considered by the time of his papal election as one of the most prominent preachers in the Church despite his lesser fame globally. In his role as a cardinal, Sarto held membership in the congregations for Bishops and Regulars , Rites , and Indulgences and Sacred Relics . Leo XIII died 20 July 1903, and at

12103-508: The general examination he writes; "The first point is to give thanks to God our Lord for the favors received" (43). This point has become a highly developed part of Ignatian spirituality in modern times, and has led to many more positive practices, generally called examen of consciousness . In twice-daily "examens" one might review the ways God has been present through one to others, and to oneself through others, and how one has responded, and to proceed with one's day with gratitude, more aware of

12236-565: The instances of FLN terrorism but tied down a large number of troops in static defense. Salan also constructed a heavily patrolled system of barriers to limit infiltration from Tunisia and Morocco. The best known of these was the Morice Line (named for the French defense minister, André Morice ), which consisted of an electrified fence, barbed wire, and mines over a 320-kilometer stretch of the Tunisian border. Despite ruthless clashes during

12369-492: The motto of his pontificate. He advanced the Liturgical Movement by formulating the principle of participatio actuosa (active participation of the faithful) in his motu proprio , Tra le sollecitudini (1903). He encouraged the frequent reception of Holy Communion , and he lowered the age for First Communion , which became a lasting innovation of his papacy. Like his predecessors, he promoted Thomism as

12502-841: The name of those Popes who also suffered". Pius X's traditional coronation took place the following Sunday, 9 August 1903. As pope, he became ex officio Grand Master of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem , prefect of the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office , and prefect of the Sacred Consistorial Congregation . The pontificate of Pius X was noted for conservative theology and reforms in liturgy and Church law. In what became his motto,

12635-481: The official thesis of an ordinary accident (a quick open-and-shut case) left more than a few observers doubtful. His widow claimed that Camus, though discreet, was in fact an ardent supporter of French Algeria in the last years of his life. To increase international and domestic French attention to their struggle, the FLN decided to bring the conflict to the cities and to call a nationwide general strike and also to plant bombs in public places. The most notable instance

12768-611: The other hand, the nationalist leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union ( Union populaire algérienne ) in 1938. In 1943, Abbas wrote the Algerian People's Manifesto ( Manifeste du peuple algérien ). Arrested after the Sétif and Guelma massacre of May 8, 1945, when the French Army and pieds-noirs mobs killed between 6,000 and 30,000 Algerians, Abbas founded the Democratic Union of

12901-574: The papacy, and possibly even excommunication . Pius X's attitude toward the Modernists was uncompromising. Speaking of those who counseled compassion, he said: "They want them to be treated with oil, soap and caresses. But they should be beaten with fists. In a duel, you don't count or measure the blows, you strike as you can." He also instituted the Sodalitium Pianum (or League of Pius V), an anti-Modernist network of informants, which

13034-478: The passive cooperation of police authorities, carried out ratonnades (literally, rat-hunts , raton being a racist term for denigrating Muslim Algerians) against suspected FLN members of the Muslim community. By 1955, effective political action groups within the Algerian colonial community succeeded in convincing many of the Governors General sent by Paris that the military was not the way to resolve

13167-659: The people's affection when he worked to assist the sick during the cholera outbreak of the early 1870s. He was appointed a canon of the cathedral and chancellor of the Diocese of Treviso , also acting as spiritual director and rector of the Treviso seminary and examiner of the clergy. As chancellor he made it possible for public school students to receive religious instruction. As a priest and later bishop, he often struggled to bring religious instruction to rural and urban youth who could not attend Catholic schools. At one stage,

13300-426: The pope must speak French", to which Sarto said, "Deo Gratias! I have no desire to be pope". According to historians, the favorite was the late pope's secretary of state , Cardinal Mariano Rampolla . On the first ballot, Rampolla received 24 votes, Gotti had 17 votes, and Sarto 5 votes. On the second ballot, Rampolla had gained five votes, as did Sarto. The next day, it seemed that Rampolla would be elected. However,

13433-406: The population, but here too, violent coercion was widely used. Frantz Fanon , a psychiatrist from Martinique who became the FLN's leading political theorist, provided a sophisticated intellectual justification for the use of violence in achieving national liberation. From Cairo , Ahmed Ben Bella ordered the liquidation of potential interlocuteurs valables , those independent representatives of

13566-465: The practice as a salutary measure to advance in virtue. St. Bernard had taught: "As a searching investigator of the integrity of your own conduct, submit your life to a daily examination. Consider carefully what progress you have made or what ground you have lost. Strive to know yourself. Place all your faults before your eyes. Come face to face with yourself, as though you were another person, and then weep for your faults." St. Ignatius of Loyola described

13699-477: The preparation of the 1917 Code of Canon Law , the first comprehensive and systemic work of its kind, which would ultimately be promulgated by his successor . He is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church. Pius X was devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary under the title of Our Lady of Confidence ; while his papal encyclical Ad diem illum took on a sense of renewal that was reflected in

13832-428: The presence of God in one's life. In general, there is a distinction between the particular examen , which aims to change one particular feature or defect in one's behavior, the examen of consciousness , which is a more nuanced reflection, and the general examination of conscience as used before the sacrament of penance.” This last method is called examination of conscience because it is a review of one’s actions from

13965-581: The principal philosophical method to be taught in Catholic institutions. He vehemently opposed various 19th-century philosophies that he viewed as an intrusion of secular errors incompatible with Catholic dogma , especially modernism, which he critiqued as the synthesis of every heresy . Pius X was known for his firm demeanour and sense of personal poverty, reflected by his membership of the Third Order of Saint Francis . He regularly gave sermons from

14098-517: The real motive was to distract and assuage with a foreign conquest French opinion hostile to the increasingly authoritarian king. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French attacked and captured Algiers in June 1830. In following years the conquest spread to the interior. Directed by Marshall Bugeaud , who became the first Governor-General of Algeria , the conquest was violent and marked by

14231-554: The regular FLN forces based in Tunisia and Morocco ("externals"), including Ben Bella, knew the conference was taking place but by chance or design on the part of the "internals" were unable to attend. In October 1956, the French Air Force intercepted a Moroccan DC-3 plane bound for Tunis , carrying Ahmed Ben Bella , Mohammed Boudiaf , Mohamed Khider and Hocine Aït Ahmed , and forced it to land in Algiers. Lacoste had

14364-418: The regular French army, most of them volunteers. France also sent air force and naval units to the Algerian theater, including helicopters. In addition to service as a flying ambulance and cargo carrier, French forces utilized the helicopter for the first time in a ground attack role in order to pursue and destroy fleeing FLN guerrilla units. The American military later used the same helicopter combat methods in

14497-538: The rights of a French citizen; in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France. Prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians. The 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux Decree , which granted French nationality to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the Code de l'Indigénat made the discrimination official by creating specific penalties for indigènes and organising

14630-487: The seizure or appropriation of their lands. After World War II , equality of rights was proclaimed by the ordonnance of 7 March 1944 and later confirmed by the loi Lamine Guèye of 7 May 1946, which granted French citizenship to all subjects of France's territories and overseas departments, and by the 1946 Constitution. The Law of 20 September 1947 granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, who were not required to renounce their Muslim personal status. Algeria

14763-540: The terrorist acts of French-sponsored Main Rouge (Red Hand) group, which targeted anti-colonialists in all of the Maghreb region (Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria), killing, for example, Tunisian activist Farhat Hached in 1952. The FLN uprising presented nationalist groups with the question of whether to adopt armed revolt as the main course of action. During the first year of the war, Ferhat Abbas 's Democratic Union of

14896-529: The theological movement he termed ' Modernism ', which he regarded as a heresy endangering the Catholic faith . The movement was linked especially to certain Catholic French scholars such as Louis Duchesne , who applied modern methods to Church history, drawing together archaeology and topography to supplement literature and setting ecclesiastical events with contexts of social history. Alfred Loisy ,

15029-536: The torture by the Gestapo ." Another case that attracted much media attention was the murder of Maurice Audin , a member of the outlawed Algerian Communist party, mathematics professor at the University of Algiers and a suspected FLN member whom the French Army arrested in June 1957. Audin was tortured and killed and his body was never found. As Audin was French rather than Algerian, his "disappearance" while in

15162-570: The use of torture in Combat newspaper. The FLN considered him a fool, and some Pieds-Noirs considered him a traitor. Nevertheless, in his speech when he received the Nobel Prize in Literature , Camus said that when faced with a radical choice he would eventually support his community. This statement made him lose his status among left-wing intellectuals; when he died in 1960 in a car crash,

15295-440: The use of torture, strong movement control and curfew called quadrillage and where all authority was under the military, created doubt in France about its role in Algeria. What was originally " pacification " or a "public order operation" had turned into a colonial war accompanied by torture. During 1956 and 1957, the FLN successfully applied hit-and-run tactics in accordance with guerrilla warfare theory. Whilst some of this

15428-476: The war included massacres of civilians, rape, and torture ; the French destroyed over 8,000 villages and relocated over 2 million Algerians to concentration camps . Upon independence in 1962, 900,000 European-Algerians ( Pieds-noirs ) fled to France within a few months for fear of the FLN's revenge. The French government was unprepared to receive such a vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. The majority of Algerian Muslims who had worked for

15561-467: The war ruse and tried to hunt down Force K members. However, some 600 managed to escape and join the FLN with weapons and equipment. Late in 1957, General Raoul Salan , commanding the French Army in Algeria, instituted a system of quadrillage (surveillance using a grid pattern), dividing the country into sectors, each permanently garrisoned by troops responsible for suppressing rebel operations in their assigned territory. Salan's methods sharply reduced

15694-453: The work of his administration, and he undertook the rule of Algeria by decree. He favored stepping up French military operations and granted the army exceptional police powers—a concession of dubious legality under French law—to deal with the mounting political violence. At the same time, Lacoste proposed a new administrative structure to give Algeria some autonomy and a decentralized government. Whilst remaining an integral part of France, Algeria

15827-562: Was aimed at military targets, a significant amount was invested in a terror campaign against those in any way deemed to support or encourage French authority. This resulted in acts of sadistic torture and brutal violence against all, including women and children. Specializing in ambushes and night raids and avoiding direct contact with superior French firepower, the internal forces targeted army patrols, military encampments, police posts, and colonial farms, mines, and factories, as well as transportation and communications facilities. Once an engagement

15960-498: Was an early cause of the Algerian population's rallying to the FLN. After Philippeville, Soustelle declared sterner measures and an all-out war began. In 1956, demonstrations by French Algerians caused the French government to not make reforms. Soustelle's successor, Governor General Robert Lacoste , a socialist, abolished the Algerian Assembly . Lacoste saw the assembly, which was dominated by pieds-noirs , as hindering

16093-576: Was appointed to the honorary position of assistant at the pontifical throne on 19 June 1891. Sarto required papal dispensation from Pope Leo XIII before episcopal consecration as he lacked a doctorate, making him the last pope without a doctorate until Pope Francis . When Sarto travelled back to his hometown from Rome after his consecration, he immediately went to visit his mother. There, she repeatedly kissed his ring and said to him: "But you would not have this fine ring, son, if I did not have this", showing him her wedding ring . Pope Leo XIII made him

16226-417: Was broken off, the guerrillas merged with the population in the countryside, in accordance with Mao's theories. Although successfully provoking fear and uncertainty within both communities in Algeria, the revolutionaries' coercive tactics suggested that they had not yet inspired the bulk of the Muslim people to revolt against French colonial rule. Gradually, however, the FLN gained control in certain sectors of

16359-626: Was declared by the Constitution of 1848 to be an integral part of France and was divided into three departments : Alger , Oran and Constantine . Many French and other Europeans (Spanish, Italians, Maltese and others) later settled in Algeria. Under the Second Empire (1852–1871), the Code de l'indigénat (Indigenous Code) was implemented by the sénatus-consulte of 14 July 1865. It allowed Muslims to apply for full French citizenship,

16492-491: Was elected vicar capitular to care for the diocese until the installation of a new bishop in June 1880. After 1880, Sarto taught dogmatic theology and moral theology at the seminary in Treviso. On 10 November 1884, he was appointed bishop of Mantua by Pope Leo XIII . He was consecrated six days later in Rome in the church of Sant'Apollinare alle Terme Neroniane-Alessandrine , Rome , by Cardinal Lucido Parocchi , assisted by Pietro Rota , and by Giovanni Maria Berengo. He

16625-573: Was much criticized due to its accusations of heresy on the flimsiest evidence. This campaign was run by Monsignor Umberto Benigni in the Department of Extraordinary Affairs in the Secretariat of State, which distributed anti-Modernist propaganda and gathered information on "culprits". In Benigni's secret code, Pius X was known as Mama . Among those it investigated was the teacher of church history, Angelo Roncalli (later Pope John XXIII), but

16758-578: Was not, however, prescribed for use throughout the universal Church. The characteristics of Pius X were "simplicity of exposition and depth of content. Also because of this, Pius X's catechism might have friends in the future." The catechism was extolled as a method of religious teaching in his encyclical Acerbo nimis of April 1905. The Catechism of Saint Pius X was issued in 1908 in Italian, as Catechismo della dottrina Cristiana, Pubblicato per Ordine del Sommo Pontifice San Pio X . An English translation runs to more than 115 pages. Asked in 2003 whether

16891-478: Was promulgated by Benedict XV on 27 May 1917, with an effective date of 19 May 1918, and remained in effect until Advent 1983, when Pope John Paul II , promulgated the contemporary canon law . Pius X reformed the Roman Curia with the constitution Sapienti Consilio (29 June 1908) and specified new rules enforcing a bishop's oversight of seminaries in the encyclical Pieni l'animo . He established regional seminaries (closing some smaller ones), and promulgated

17024-407: Was quite similar each day. He rose at 4:00am before celebrating Mass at 6:00am. He was at his desk at 8:00am to receive private audiences. On his desk stood statues of John Vianney and Joan of Arc , both of whom he beatified in his papacy. At noon, he conducted a general audience with pilgrims, then had lunch at 1:00pm with his two secretaries or whomever else he invited to dine with him. Resting for

17157-463: Was the Battle of Algiers, which began on September 30, 1956, when three women, including Djamila Bouhired and Zohra Drif , simultaneously placed bombs at three sites including the downtown office of Air France . The FLN carried out shootings and bombings in the spring of 1957, resulting in civilian casualties and a crushing response from the authorities. General Jacques Massu was instructed to use whatever methods deemed necessary to restore order in

17290-578: Was the Fifth Bureau, the psychological warfare branch. "The Fifth Bureau" made extensive use of 'turned' FLN members, one such network being run by Captain Paul-Alain Leger of the 10th Paras. " Persuaded " to work for the French forces included by the use of torture and threats against their family; these agents "mingled with FLN cadres. They planted incriminating forged documents, spread false rumors of treachery and fomented distrust. ... As

17423-697: Was the second born of ten children of Giovanni Battista Sarto (1792–1852), the village postman , and Margherita Sanson (1813–1894). He was baptised 3 June 1835. Though poor, his parents valued education, and Giuseppe walked 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) to school each day. Giuseppe had three brothers and six sisters: Giuseppe Sarto (born 1834; died after six days), Angelo Sarto (1837–1916), Teresa Parolin-Sarto (1839–1920), Rosa Sarto (1841–1913), Antonia Dei Bei-Sarto (1843–1917), Maria Sarto (1846–1930), Lucia Boschin-Sarto (1848–1924), Anna Sarto (1850–1926), Pietro Sarto (born 1852; died after six months). As Pope, he rejected any kind of favours for his family: his brother remained

17556-476: Was to be divided into five districts, each of which would have a territorial assembly elected from a single slate of candidates. Until 1958, deputies representing Algerian districts were able to delay the passage of the measure by the National Assembly of France . In August and September 1956, the leadership of the FLN guerrillas operating within Algeria (popularly known as "internals") met to organize

17689-560: Was unique to France because unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, Algeria was considered and legally classified to be an integral part of France. Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War II and fought for France. Algerian Muslims served as tirailleurs (such regiments were created as early as 1842 ) and spahis ; and French settlers as Zouaves or Chasseurs d'Afrique . US President Woodrow Wilson 's 1918 Fourteen Points had

#219780