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178-493: The first francophones to enter the region were fur traders during the late 17th century, with the first French settlers arriving in the subsequent century. Francophones constituted the majority of the region's non- First Nations population until the mid 19th century, when anglophones became the linguistic majority. In 1869, the Red River Rebellion was sparked by a group of Métis francophones, eventually resulting in

356-551: A change in the public perception of the residential school system, as well as official government apologies, and a (controversial) legal settlement. Colonization had a significant impact on First Nations diet and health. According to the historian Mary-Ellen Kelm, "inadequate reserve allocations, restrictions on the food fishery, overhunting, and over-trapping" alienated First Nations from their traditional way of life, which undermined their physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health. As Canadian ideas of progress evolved around

534-616: A common past or present involvement with the Companies. While the end of the fur trade's inspired conflicts on the plains, the Red River settlement was able to grow in both population and economic importance with the expansion of commercially-oriented agriculture (raising of staple crops). The agricultural products, primarily wheat, began to rise in yearly yields. Flour production rose from over 9,100 kilograms (20,000 lb) annually from 1823 to 1829 to over 14,000 kg (30,000 lb) in

712-489: A compromise in which the separate school system would not be re-instituted, but religious and French language instruction would take place in the secular school system under certain conditions, and where francophone numbers warranted it. French language instruction continued to be permitted until March 1916, when the provincial legislature passed the Thornton Act , which repealed the aforementioned compromise, and forbade

890-482: A counter-balance to English and Protestant dominance in the Canadian Confederation, while some hoped the province would be a political entity centered or at least heavily influenced by indigenous or Métis communities. Once the rebellion was put down and Manitoba was admitted, thousands of largely Protestant, anglophone Ontarians quickly began migrating to the prairies, and their presence swiftly shifted

1068-528: A flood. Perhaps the most significant ecological disaster was the rapid depletion of the bison population. A vital food source, bison numbers had been dwindling since the 1760s due to heavy hunting pressure by Euroamerican traders as well as the aboriginal inhabitants of the prairies. In July 1811, Miles Macdonell sailed from Yarmouth , England to the Hudson's Bay post at York Factory with 36 primarily Irish and Scottish settlers. Due to persuasive efforts of

1246-595: A growing population, Macdonell, now governor of Red River, issued the Pemmican Proclamation in January 1814 to prevent the export of pemmican from the colony. In doing so, Macdonell undermined the security of Red River and plunged the colony into a conflict with the North West Company that would not end until 1821. The Pemmican War that was initiated by Macdonell's proclamation was only

1424-672: A legal challenge that all legislation from 1890 to 1979 passed only in English were unconstitutional. The resulting challenge caused significant tension between anglophones and Franco-Manitobans, with the Société franco-manitobaine offices firebombed in 1983. A reference question was eventually posed to the supreme court, who ruled in Reference Re Manitoba Language Rights , that all legislation not printed in English and French were invalid; although did provide

1602-488: A long-lasting tradition of a semi-annual, commercial, buffalo hunt that took place throughout the prairies starting in the mid-1700s with the western fur trade. The Hudson's Bay Company's journals and a number of witnesses to these events stated that the united caravan was commonly known as a brigade. These brigades did not just focus on buffalo hunting but were used by buffalo hunters to trade and freight during this time. Women were fundamental in both actively participating in

1780-678: A neutral Indian state in the American Old Northwest, and made this demand as late as 1814 at the peace negotiations at Ghent. The Americans rejected the idea, the British dropped it, and Britain's Indian allies lost British support. In addition, the Indians were no longer able to gather furs in American territory. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, Great Lakes-area natives ultimately assimilated into American society, migrated to

1958-814: A part of the Red River Colony following the signing of the Treaty of 1818 , in which the United Kingdom agreed to cede this territory to the United States . Growing up in Scotland in the wake of the Jacobite rising of 1745 , Lord Selkirk was constantly troubled by the plight of his Scottish kin. Selkirk was influenced by humanitarians including William Wilberforce and, following the forced displacement of Scottish farmers that took place during

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2136-421: A permanent presence in southern Manitoba. A number of francophone fur traders married à la façon du pays , wedding First Nations wives whose children eventually developed a unique Métis identity. Until the mid-19th century, fur traders continued to encompass the majority of Europeans in the region, with francophone French Canadians and Métis constituting the majority of the region's population. In 1869,

2314-623: A political voice and political implications upon Canadian federal government. This rebellion also led to the Métis emerging as a unique, acknowledged group within Canada, and ultimately, the disappearance of the Aboriginal rights paradigm in the public view of Red River. The rebellion was successful in a sense that it allowed the Métis to have a political voice, but it impacted the perception of how other Aboriginals would be viewed in Red River. Once

2492-508: A reflection of their conservative morals, many settlers in the colony also claimed to observe differences between European and indigenous women; Alexander Ross, a Scottish author who lived in the Red River Colony for a number of years, stated in a book written by him on the colony's history that a friend informed him that European women were required to be "graceful" unlike indigenous women, who were exempt from this due to their bashfulness. The mixed ethnicity of indigenous and European peoples at

2670-642: A result of health transfer was a factor that assisted the creation of the First Nations Health Authority in British Columbia. Red River Colony The Red River Colony (or Selkirk Settlement ), also known as Assiniboia , was a colonization project set up in 1811 by Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk , on 300,000 square kilometres (120,000 sq mi) of land in British North America . This land

2848-601: A result of several decisions made by the Supreme Court of Canada during the 1970s to 1990s. According to the 2016 Canadian Census , the number of people that reported French as a mother tongue in Manitoba was 46,055 (or 3.7 per cent of the population), making it the most common mother tongue in the province after English, German, and Tagalog . The majority of Franco-Manitobans are bilingual in English and French, with only 1,485 respondents (0.1 per cent of Manitobans) in

3026-532: A right of access." More than 6,000 First Nations, Inuit and Métis served with British forces during First World War and Second World War . A generation of young native men fought on the battlefields of Europe during the Great War and approximately 300 of them died there. When Canada declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939, the native community quickly responded to volunteer. Four years later, in May 1943,

3204-487: A sense, became pivotal for Red River because it allowed for the success of the Métis in their rebellion. In 1870, the elected Legislative Assembly of Assinboia was created by Red River inhabitants to take the place of the unelected Assiniboia Council. The Canadian government was forced to develop the negotiations that allowed for the Métis demands that were legally entrenched in the Manitoba Act which eventually led to

3382-535: A shadow ministry of education for Franco-Manitobans. The AÉCFM provided financial assistance for prospective francophone teachers, and encouraged francophone teachers to continue providing French language instruction illicitly. Francophone teachers who were able to continue teaching the French language were largely aided by the fact that the trustees of several school boards were effectively francophone-controlled. Additionally, many school inspectors that were sent to enforce

3560-499: A two decades many thousands of international migrants, largely ethnic Ukrainians and Germans, had come to the province as agricultural settlers. The Catholic Church also continued to encouraged migration and settlement from Quebec and francophone Ontario to Manitoba, however these settlers were far outnumbered by English settlers as well international migrants whose communities would be assimilated in Anglo-Canadian society. In

3738-599: A variant of Métis . The Métis as of 2013 predominantly speak English , with French a strong second language, as well as numerous Aboriginal tongues. Métis French is best preserved in Canada, Michif in the United States, notably in the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation of North Dakota , where Michif is the official language of the Métis that reside on this Chippewa reservation. The encouragement and use of Métis French and Michif

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3916-491: A wide range of chemical effects, including severe mercury poisoning. They suffered low birth rates, skewed birth-gender ratio, and health effects among the population. This led to legislation and eventually the Indian Health Transfer Policy that provided a framework for the assumption of control of health services by First Nations people, and set forth a developmental approach to transfer centred on

4094-575: Is a misnomer, given to Indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed in the East Indies . The use of the term Native Americans , which the government and others have adopted in the United States, is not common in Canada. It refers more specifically to the Indigenous peoples residing within the boundaries of the US. The parallel term Native Canadian

4272-598: Is growing due to outreach within the five provincial Métis councils after at least a generation of steep decline. Canada's Indian and Northern Affairs define Métis to be those persons of mixed First Nation and European ancestry. Allied with the French, the first nations of the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia fought six colonial wars against the British and their native allies (See the French and Indian Wars , Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War ). In

4450-545: Is guaranteed under section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , in addition to section 23 of the Manitoba Act . However, French language instruction was formally banned from the province from 1916 to 1947; although instruction of the language continued in some schools illicitly. French was reintroduced as an official language of the public education system in 1970, with Franco-Manitobans given

4628-786: Is not commonly used, but Native (in English) and Autochtone (in Canadian French ; from the Greek auto , own, and chthon , land) are. Under the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , also known as the "Indian Magna Carta , " the Crown referred to Indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized. Bands and nations may have slightly different meanings. Within Canada,

4806-513: Is not well defined. The earliest accounts of contact occurred in the late 10th century, between the Beothuk and Norsemen . According to the Sagas of Icelanders , the first European to see what is now Canada was Bjarni Herjólfsson , who was blown off course en route from Iceland to Greenland in the summer of 985 or 986 CE. The first European explorers and settlers of what is now Canada relied on

4984-568: Is on the west coast of Vancouver Island . In pre-contact and early post-contact times, the number of nations was much greater, but smallpox and other consequences of contact resulted in the disappearance of groups, and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. The Nuu-chah-nulth are relations of the Kwakwaka'wakw , the Haisla , and the Ditidaht . The Nuu-chah-nulth language is part of

5162-596: Is passed on through oral tradition of the Squamish indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast . Prior to colonization and the introduction of writing had only oral tradition as a way to transmit stories, law, and knowledge across generations. The writing system established in the 1970s uses the Latin alphabet as a base. Knowledgeable elders have the responsibility to pass historical knowledge to

5340-495: The Citizenship Act was amended to grant formal citizenship to Status Indians and Inuit, retroactively as of January 1947. In 1960, First Nations people received the right to vote in federal elections without forfeiting their Indian status. By comparison, Native Americans in the United States had been allowed to vote since the 1920s. In his 1969 White Paper , then- Minister of Indian Affairs , Jean Chrétien , proposed

5518-628: The Atlantic coast. Together with other Anicinàpek, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near Montreal. While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the St. Lawrence River , the Algonquins settled along the Ottawa River ( Kitcisìpi ), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation. A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not realized until after

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5696-608: The British Parliament's Slavery Abolition Act finally abolished slavery in all parts of the British Empire . Historian Marcel Trudel has documented 4,092 recorded slaves throughout Canadian history, of which 2,692 were Aboriginal people, owned by the French, and 1,400 blacks owned by the British, together owned by approximately 1,400 masters. Trudel also noted 31 marriages took place between French colonists and Aboriginal slaves. British agents worked to make

5874-763: The Cascadia earthquake of 1700 and the 18th-century Tseax Cone eruption. Written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers , traders , explorers , and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture. In addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics , have helped scholars piece together an understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Collectively, First Nations (Indians), Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Indigenous peoples in Canada , Indigenous peoples of

6052-689: The Columbia District for British North America. The party crossed the Rockies into the Columbia Valley , near present-day Radium Hot Springs , British Columbia; then travelled south. Despite such efforts, the British government eventually ceded all claim to land south of the 49th parallel of latitude west of the Rockies to the United States as a resolution to the Oregon boundary dispute . American expansionists became heavily interested in

6230-697: The Cowichan and Fraser rivers, and those from Saskatchewan managed to produce good harvests. Since 1881, those First Nations people living in the prairie provinces required permits from Indian Agents to sell any of their produce. Later the government created a pass system in the old Northwest Territories that required indigenous people to seek written permission from an Indian Agent before leaving their reserves for any length of time. Indigenous people regularly defied those laws, as well as bans on Sun Dances and potlatches, in an attempt to practice their culture. The 1930 Constitution Act or Natural Resources Acts

6408-547: The District of Saskatchewan under Riel against the Dominion of Canada, which they believed had failed to address their concerns for the survival of their people. In 1884, 2,000 Cree from reserves met near Battleford to organize into a large, cohesive resistance. Discouraged by the lack of government response but encouraged by the efforts of the Métis at armed rebellion, Wandering Spirit and other young militant Cree attacked

6586-613: The Francophone Community Enhancement and Support Act was passed with unanimous support, and no vocal opposition from the anglophone majority of Manitoba, signalling the acceptance of francophone linguistic rights within the province. The official language of the judiciary and legislature of Manitoba is English and French, under section 23 of the Manitoba Act . The following section does not extend toward provincial government services. However, efforts to provide French language services have been undertaken since

6764-668: The Great Lakes and the Illinois Country . The alliance involved French settlers on the one side, and on the other side were the Abenaki, Odawa, Menominee , Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Mississaugas , Illiniwek , Huron- Petun , Potawatomi etc. It allowed the French and the Indians to form a haven in the middle- Ohio valley before the open conflict between the European powers erupted. In the Royal Proclamation of 1763 ,

6942-593: The Highland Clearances , decided that emigration was the only viable option to improve the livelihood of the Scottish people. Upon inheriting his father's title in 1799, Selkirk focused the majority of his time and resources on establishing a Scottish colony in North America. Selkirk became interested in the Red River region after reading Alexander MacKenzie 's Voyages in 1801; however, Selkirk

7120-707: The Liberals began to back away from the 1969 White Paper, particularly after the Calder case decision in 1973. After the Canadian Supreme Court recognized that indigenous rights and treaty rights were not extinguished, a process was begun to resolve land claims and treaty rights and is ongoing today. In 1970, severe mercury poisoning , called Ontario Minamata disease , was discovered among Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation and Wabaseemoong Independent Nations people, who lived near Dryden, Ontario . There

7298-552: The Makah tribe practising death by starvation as punishment and Pacific coast tribes routinely performing ritualized killings of slaves as part of social ceremonies into the mid-1800s. Slave-owning tribes of the fishing societies, such as the Yurok and Haida lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California . Fierce warrior indigenous slave-traders of the Pacific Northwest Coast raided as far south as California. Slavery

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7476-586: The North Saskatchewan River and purchased a great deal of European trade goods through Cree middlemen from the Hudson's Bay Company . The lifestyle of this group was semi-nomadic, and they followed the herds of bison during the warmer months. They traded with European traders, and worked with the Mandan , Hidatsa , and Arikara tribes. In the earliest oral history , the Algonquins were from

7654-552: The North-West Territories . Offended by the concepts of the treaties, Cree chiefs resisted them. Big Bear refused to sign Treaty 6 until starvation among his people forced his hand in 1882. His attempts to unite Indigenous nations made progress. In 1884 the Métis (including the Anglo-Métis) asked Louis Riel to return from the United States, where he had fled after the Red River Rebellion , to appeal to

7832-594: The Northwest Angle had also been ceded. The rivalling Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company were forced to merge in 1821 by the British government , and from then until 1870 the area was under the jurisdiction of the Assinboia Council , an appointed body with representatives of various sections of Red River society (francophone and anglophone, Roman Catholic and Protestant officials, Métis, Scottish, Irish, French-Canadian, etc.), all sharing

8010-422: The Red River Rebellion , the American annexationists hoped to take advantage of the disruption caused by these political conflicts and present themselves in the forefront as the ideal leaders of the Red River land. The annexation was led by Minnesota senator Alexander Ramsey, and was backed by Zachariah Chandler and Jacob M. Howard- who were both senators of Michigan and represented Detroit merchants. They all shared

8188-831: The Seine and Red River of the North towards Lake Manitoba . Four out of five francophones in Manitoba reside in either the Winnipeg Capital Region or Eastman Region : 58 per cent in the Winnipeg Capital Region, 22 per cent in Eastman Region. Approximately 90 per cent of all Franco-Manitobans live within an hour's drive from Winnipeg . There also exist francophone communities outside those regions, including Notre-Dame-de-Lourdes , St. Claude , Sainte Rose du Lac , and St. Laurent . Including

8366-449: The Supreme Court of Canada ruled that the 1890 act that made English the only language of the legislature, and judiciary, was unconstitutional, as it conflicted with section 23 of the Manitoba Act . The decision effectively made the province a bilingual province again. However, the provincial government continued to move slowly in re-instituting bilingual programs, resulting in another Franco-Manitoban to use his own parking ticket to launch

8544-409: The Thornton Act ignored infractions by francophone teachers; as they often relied on the AÉCFM to support their positions as inspectors. Formally however, French language instruction was not reintroduced in Manitoba's public school system until 1947, when it was introduced as a second language for secondary schools, and in 1955 for elementary schools. Use of the French language to teach other subjects

8722-424: The Three Sisters ( maize / beans / squash ), the Iroquois became powerful because of their confederacy. Gradually the Algonquians adopted agricultural practises enabling larger populations to be sustained. The Assiniboine were close allies and trading partners of the Cree, engaging in wars against the Gros Ventres alongside them, and later fighting the Blackfoot. A Plains people, they went no further north than

8900-405: The Treaty of Tordesillas , these two kingdoms decided to draw the dividing line running north–south, 370 leagues (from 1,500 to 2,200 km (930 to 1,370 mi) approximately depending on the league used) west of the Cape Verde Islands. Land to the west would be Spanish, to the east Portuguese. Given the uncertain geography of the day, this seemed to give the "new founde isle" to Portugal. On

9078-477: The Wakashan language group. In 1999 the discovery of the body of Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi provided archaeologists with significant information on indigenous tribal life prior to extensive European contact. Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi (meaning "Long Ago Person Found" in Southern Tutchone ), or "Canadian Ice Man", is a naturally mummified body that a group of hunters found in Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park in British Columbia. Radiocarbon dating of artifacts found with

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9256-482: The 1502 Cantino map , Newfoundland appears on the Portuguese side of the line (as does Brazil). An expedition captured about 60 Aboriginal people as slaves who were said to "resemble gypsies in colour, features, stature and aspect; are clothed in the skins of various animals ...They are very shy and gentle, but well formed in arms and legs and shoulders beyond description ...." Some captives, sent by Gaspar Corte-Real , reached Portugal. The others drowned, with Gaspar, on

9434-424: The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries and Europeans , mainly French. The Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Nehiyaw women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and Northern Dene women ( Anglo-Métis ). The Métis spoke or still speak either Métis French or a mixed language called Michif . Michif , Mechif or Métchif is a phonetic spelling of the Métis pronunciation of Métif ,

9612-410: The 19th century, the Canadian Indian residential school system was intended to force the assimilation of Aboriginal and First Nations people into European-Canadian society. The purpose of the schools, which separated children from their families, has been described by commentators as "killing the Indian in the child." Funded under the Indian Act by Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, a branch of

9790-520: The 2015–16 academic year. The Université de Saint-Boniface , located in Winnipeg, is western Canada 's only francophone post-secondary university. The institution operates as an affiliated university of the publicly-funded University of Manitoba . In 2016 there were approximately 2,000 students enrolled with the Université de Saint-Boniface. The Franco-Manitoban community is served by Radio-Canada 's CKSB ( Ici Radio-Canada Première ), CKSB-FM ( Ici musique ) and CBWFT-DT ( Ici Radio-Canada Télé ),

9968-493: The 2016 census reporting they only had proficiency in the French language. There were 108,455 Manitobans or 8.6 per cent of the population that reported that they were bilingual in English and French, although that figure includes Manitobans that speak French as a second language . Nearly three quarters of all Franco-Manitobans (74 per cent of the population) were born in the province. Approximately 15 per cent of francophones in Manitoba were born in Canada outside of Manitoba; while

10146-445: The 20th century of cultural genocide and ethnocide . There was widespread physical and sexual abuse . Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of tuberculosis , and death rates of up to 69%. Details of the mistreatment of students had been published numerous times throughout the 20th century, but following the closure of the schools in the 1960s, the work of indigenous activists and historians led to

10324-414: The Americas , or " first peoples ". First Nation as a term became officially used by the government beginning in 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. The First Nations people had begun to identify by this term during 1970s activism, in order to avoid using the word Indian , which some considered offensive. No legal definition of

10502-449: The Atlantic coast were the Beothuk , Maliseet , Innu , Abenaki and Mi'kmaq . The Blackfoot Confederacy resides in the Great Plains of Montana and Canadian provinces of Alberta , British Columbia and Saskatchewan . The name Blackfoot came from the dye or paint on the bottoms of their leather moccasins . One account claimed that the Blackfoot Confederacies walked through the ashes of prairie fires, which in turn blackened

10680-491: The Beothuk disappeared entirely. There are reports of contact made before Christopher Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. Even in Columbus' time there was much speculation that other Europeans had made the trip in ancient or contemporary times; Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés records accounts of these in his General y natural historia de las Indias of 1526, which includes biographical information on Columbus. Aboriginal first contact period

10858-422: The British agents discouraged any warlike activities or raids on American settlements, but the Americans became increasingly angered, and this became one of the causes of the War of 1812 . In the war, the great majority of First Nations supported the British, and many fought under the aegis of Tecumseh . But Tecumseh died in battle in 1813 and the Indian coalition collapsed. The British had long wished to create

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11036-417: The British ceded the Old Northwest to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, it kept fortifications and trading posts in the region until 1795. The British then evacuated American territory, but operated trading posts in British territory, providing weapons and encouragement to tribes that were resisting American expansion into such areas as Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois and Wisconsin. Officially,

11214-471: The British recognized the treaty rights of the indigenous populations and resolved to only settle those areas purchased lawfully from the indigenous peoples. Treaties and land purchases were made in several cases by the British, but the lands of several indigenous nations remain unceded and/or unresolved. First Nations routinely captured slaves from neighbouring tribes. Sources report that the conditions under which First Nations slaves lived could be brutal, with

11392-403: The Canadian government in Regina. His death provoked outcry among the French Canadian, First Nations and Métis communities, with particular uproar in Québec in reaction to the execution of a French-speaking, Catholic political leader, and Riel's death was seen on all sides (among those who saw Riel as a traitor who was rightly punished and those outraged at his arrest and execution) as symbolic of

11570-453: The Canadian government, which was predominantly led by English-Canadian conservatives, initiated the Manitoba Act in 1870. They believed that this act would accomplish two purposes: this would be able to crush the rebellion, while at the same time, appeasing the French demands of increasing French influence in Canada because the act would create a Western province that was constitutionally supportive of French Canadian language and culture. This

11748-485: The Canadians against the Americans' colonization projects and sentiments of their Manifest Destiny ideologies. The early Manitoba provincial government initially struggled to be effective. Everything around it felt rushed because the Manitoba Act was mostly created to prevent another Red River Rebellion. Many of the government officials were inexperienced – especially the three delegates who went to Ottawa to negotiate union terms. None of them had experience with diplomacy or

11926-412: The Carolinas all stimulated destructive wars over land with their immediate Indian neighbors...Settlement patterns in New France also curtailed the kind of relentless and destructive expansion and land-grabbing that afflicted many British colonies." The Métis (from French métis – "mixed") are descendants of unions between Cree , Ojibwe , Algonquin , Saulteaux , Menominee and other First Nations in

12104-473: The Centre culturel Franco-Manitobain in Winnipeg. First Nations in Canada First Nations ( French : Premières Nations ) is a term used to identify Indigenous peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis . Traditionally, First Nations in Canada were peoples who lived south of the tree line , and mainly south of the Arctic Circle . There are 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands across Canada. Roughly half are located in

12282-418: The Clergymen to benefit, in their opinion, from instruction in religion and civilization. Although these schools took in all children of the colony, mixed-ancestry children were a large focus due to them being tied to the fur trading post by their European fathers. John Halkett, a Committee member, wanted Metis families of retired HBC employees to be brought to Red River (from other nearby posts) to be put under

12460-435: The Creator, or in the Squamish language keke7nex siyam . He called this man his brother. It was from these two men that the population began to rise and the Squamish spread back through their territory. The Iroquois influence extended from northern New York into what are now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec. The Iroquois Confederacy is, from oral tradition, formed circa 1142. Adept at cultivating

12638-401: The Cree nation are thought to have come into contact with French and later French-Canadian traders bringing Catholic priests and missionaries in their wake, later Scottish traders and the Company brought Protestant missionaries and clergy into Ojibwe-dominated areas. This division into a Cree-French-Catholic oriented group and an Ojibwe-Scottish-Protestant oriented group can be seen in the rise of

12816-480: The English language the sole official language of the province. In the same year, the province moved to eliminate its separate school system, used predominantly by the francophone Catholic population of Manitoba. The resulting issue, the Manitoba Schools Question , became a contentious national issue between English and French Canada . In 1896, the provincial and federal governments reached

12994-728: The First Nations into military allies of the British, providing supplies, weapons, and encouragement. During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) most of the tribes supported the British. In 1779, the Americans launched a campaign to burn the villages of the Iroquois in New York State. The refugees fled to Fort Niagara and other British posts, with some remaining permanently in Canada. Although

13172-478: The First Nations peoples, for resources and trade to sustain a living. The first written accounts of interaction show a predominantly Old world bias, labelling the indigenous peoples as "savages", although the indigenous peoples were organized and self-sufficient. In the early days of contact, the First Nations and Inuit populations welcomed the Europeans, assisting them in living off the land and joining forces with

13350-618: The French and British in their various battles. It was not until the colonial and imperial forces of Britain and France established dominant settlements and, no longer needing the help of the First Nations people, began to break treaties and force them off the land that the antagonism between the two groups grew. The Portuguese Crown claimed that it had territorial rights in the area visited by Cabot. In 1493 Pope Alexander VI – assuming international jurisdiction – had divided lands discovered in America between Spain and Portugal. The next year, in

13528-480: The Governor submitting a plan to gather up a number of children to care for and educate. He stated that he created this plan when he saw these children being raised in a way he deemed ignorant and idle. The above-mentioned differences in religion, ways of life, and ethnic origins largely followed a pattern based on the initial contact between individuals, groups, and institutions. For example large communities within

13706-404: The Hudson's Bay Company. This would lead Riel into becoming the leader of the provisional government, and he composed and sent a list of rights to Ottawa. The demands mainly consisted of the Métis wanting Red River to be entered into Canadian confederation as a province, security for their land claims, making English and French the official languages of the colony, as well as financial support for

13884-525: The Hudson's Bay or North West Company , the dominant fur trading companies at the time, was essential to the establishment of a colony at Red River. By 1811, the Hudson's Bay Company had reconsidered Selkirk's proposal and granted Selkirk 300,000 km (116,000 sq mi), an area five times the size of Scotland, to establish an agricultural settlement in the region of Red River. Supplies of "produce, such as flour, beef, pork and butter..." would be affordable to manufacture in this colony, and would reduce

14062-478: The Métis to no longer be considered as Canadian Aboriginals – they became regarded as their own social group, and were distinct from other Aboriginal groups. In order to pacify the Métis resistance further, the Canadian government gave them generous land grants in 1869–70 that were carefully structured to be given in severalty, rather than in common. Red River was now developing its own provincial government that had

14240-494: The NWC for trade relations, it was a common practice among European employees of both companies due to the various policies by the companies which only allowed males to emigrate to fur trading outposts. When female settlers did eventually start emigrating to the settlement, tensions between the European and indigenous communities were heightened due to the highly restrictive gender norms these women brought with them from Europe. In part

14418-502: The Nor'Wester proposals. The following year Semple and twenty other settlers were killed in the Battle of Seven Oaks and the settlement was abandoned once again. The imminent arrival of Selkirk in 1817, who had been en route to the colony prior to the incident at Seven Oaks, prompted the settlers to return to the colony shortly after. Travelling with a force of approximately 100 soldiers from

14596-436: The North West Company with a decisive advantage prior to 1810. After 1810, the combination of new management within the Hudson's Bay Company and the approval of a company-sponsored colony at Red River put the North West Company on the defensive. The establishment of a Hudson's Bay colony in the Red River region denied the Nor'Westers access to vital supplies and restricted the company's ability to expand westwards. Additionally,

14774-587: The North West Company, only 18 settlers actually arrived at Red River in August 1812. As the planting season had ended before the settlers could complete the construction of Fort Douglas , they were forced to hunt bison for food and were completely unprepared for the arrival of 120 additional settlers in October. More settlers were scheduled to arrive in 1813, but due to a fever outbreak on their ship, they did not arrive until June 21, 1814. Dogged by poor harvests and

14952-547: The Port Royal settlement. Champlain persuaded First Nations to allow him to settle along the St. Lawrence, where in 1608 he would found France's first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec City. The colony of Acadia grew slowly, reaching a population of about 5,000 by 1713. New France had cod -fishery coastal communities, and farm economies supported communities along the St. Lawrence River. French voyageurs travelled deep into

15130-474: The Red River Colony, known as Metis, were not always referred to by that name in the beginning years of their existence. Augustus Chetlain , an author who lived in the colony, wrote in his book that they were often called "Brules, Metifs, or half-breeds, the bastard sons of Indian concubines". The culture and lifestyle of the Metis community living in Red River were not only present at the colony. Metis people had

15308-519: The Red River people. The Americans became too acquisitive because they were eager to create a political union. This ultimately caused the annexation of the North West to fail, despite it being almost within reach. All this ultimately benefited the cause of Riel and the Rebellion. As a result, the Metis were able to successfully defy Canadian expansion into Rupert's Land. This political chaos, in

15486-399: The Red River population. Riel hoped to accomplish a sense of equality for the Métis; he wanted to present them as a civilized people that were deserving of the same rights of any British subject. The rebellion became a pivotal moment in acquiring land rights and a political voice for the Métis, who were constantly disregarded for their Aboriginal status. The aftermath of the rebellion caused

15664-462: The Selkirk's success at Red River and resulted in the colony becoming the central focus of seven years of inter-company warfare. Red River first came under attack from the North West Company in the summer of 1815. Convinced that Macdonell's proclamation was a deliberate attempt to block Northwest trade, the company destroyed Fort Douglas and burned down all of the surrounding buildings. The fort

15842-577: The US because it embodied the popular Manifest Destiny ideology. This was meant to help the cause of annexation, the idea being that their support of the Red River Rebellion would encourage local resistance against the Canadian government, and help swing local opinion in favour of independence – then ultimately America would step in to offer the protection of the United States government to the Red River Métis and assert themselves as

16020-554: The Woods and Rainy River . West of the Selkirk Concession, it is roughly formed by the current boundary between Saskatchewan and Manitoba. These covered portions consisted of present-day southern Manitoba , northern Minnesota , and eastern North Dakota , in addition to small parts of eastern Saskatchewan , northwestern Ontario , and northeastern South Dakota . The lands south of the 49th parallel north ceased to be

16198-626: The abolition of the Indian Act of Canada, the rejection of Aboriginal land claims , and the assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population with the status of "other ethnic minorities" rather than as a distinct group. Harold Cardinal and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta responded with a document entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as the "Red Paper". In it, they explained Status Indians' widespread opposition to Chrétien's proposal. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and

16376-479: The admittance of the Red River Colony as a bilingual province of Canada. However, the provincial government moved to revoke the linguistic rights accorded to francophones late 19th and early 20th centuries. Restoration of these linguistic rights did not begin until 1970, when French was made an official language of its public education system. The linguistic rights of Franco-Manitobans was also furthered as

16554-602: The age of 35 ). By 1790 the abolition movement was gaining ground in Canada and the ill intent of slavery was evidenced by an incident involving a slave woman being violently abused by her slave owner on her way to being sold in the United States. The Act Against Slavery of 1793 legislated the gradual abolition of slavery: no slaves could be imported; slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, no new slaves could be brought into Upper Canada , and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at age 25. The act remained in force until 1833 when

16732-401: The area. A notable example would be James W. Taylor: he was an American special agent and Winnipeg consul who used his political power to shape the destiny of the valley, which called for the removal of all English-Canadian influence. The Canadian government, however, did not allow these attempts at U.S. expansionism to succeed. The proposal was met with a significant amount of resistance from

16910-520: The authority of the Roman Catholic Mission or Church Missionary Society. This plan was largely related to keeping retired Metis employees from continuing trade with the Indigenous peoples; however, its effect led to Christianity being a prominent part of culture for the Metis community. The Chaplain of the Hudson's Bay Company, John West , was also interested in the religious educating of Metis children. According to his book, he wrote to

17088-419: The betterment of his colonial venture and ironically it was Selkirk's death in the spring of 1820 that ultimately ended Northwest aggression against his beloved colony. The lands south of the 49th parallel north ceased to be a part of the Red River Colony following the signing of the Treaty of 1818 , in which the United Kingdom agreed to cede this territory to the United States . It was later discovered that

17266-472: The body placed the age of the find between 1450 AD and 1700 AD. Genetic testing showed that he was a member of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations . Aboriginal people in Canada interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD, but prolonged contact came only after Europeans established permanent settlements in the 17th and 18th centuries. European written accounts noted friendliness on

17444-460: The bottoms of their moccasins. They had migrated onto the Great Plains (where they followed bison herds and cultivated berries and edible roots) from the area of now eastern Canada and the northeastern United States. Historically, they allowed only legitimate traders into their territory, making treaties only when the bison herds were exterminated in the 1870s. Pre-contact Squamish history

17622-585: The brigade hunts or trade, as well as the bringing together of people prior to the excursion. By studying the social network of the Trottier Brigade, a community of people from the White Horse Plains in Red River, it is notable that biologically related women brought the majority of the men together. Throughout the time that Metis people were a part of the Red River community they developed into several different identities, rather than just

17800-514: The canoe routes west and a land route to the west coast. According to the oral history, seven great miigis (radiant/iridescent) beings appeared to the peoples in the Waabanakiing to teach the peoples of the mide way of life. One of the seven great miigis beings was too spiritually powerful and killed the peoples in the Waabanakiing when the people were in its presence. The six great miigis beings remained to teach while

17978-449: The capital, there are 15 communities in the province that are officially designated as bilingual areas. The first French speakers to visit Manitoba occurred in the 1660s, with French fur traders and explorers exploring the region around Hudson's Bay . However, the first attempts by francophones to settle the area did not occur until the 1730s, with French explorer Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye and his sons establishing

18156-436: The case; however, Corbett was freed from jail shortly after by a group of settlers who were opposed to the trial. The courts did not challenge this, fearing a possible insurrection, demonstrating the weakness of the colonial authorities in the nascent colony. In the establishing years of the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company, male settlers frequently took a First Nations or Metis spouse. Though only encouraged by

18334-487: The colony's entry into Canadian Confederation , including land provisions for the Métis, and linguistic and religious rights for its francophone Catholic population. The Canadian government eventually consented to the terms, with Manitoba formally made a province of confederation in the Manitoba Act in 1870, with English and French made the province's official language. In 1871, there were about 5,500 francophones in

18512-435: The common depiction of the bison-hunting French Catholic Metis. Metis identity, at that time as it is today, was diverse and complex due to the different livelihoods and practices followed. Metis who chose not to live on prairies and hunt buffalo for the winter remained on lakes such as Manitoba, Winnipegosis, and Winnipeg to ice fish. Over the course of the first half of the 19th century, up to forty households had developed on

18690-544: The community radio station CKXL-FM and the weekly newspaper La Liberté . In 1925, the Franco-Manitoban community founded Le Cercle Molière . It is the oldest French-language theatre organization in Canada. The Festival du Voyageur , held annually since 1970 in Saint-Boniface, is a major celebration in the Franco-Manitoban community. Cinémental is an annual French-language film festival, staged at

18868-439: The company. Historians seeking to defend this claim have argued that although Selkirk did buy a considerable number of Hudson's Bay shares between 1811 and 1812, Selkirk received his initial grant in 1811. The early settlement of the Red River region was marked by a long series of crises and ecological disasters and within the first decade of settling the region it had already suffered renewed warfare, epidemics, prairie fires and

19046-433: The concept of self-determination in health. Through this process, the decision to enter into transfer discussions with Health Canada rests with each community. Once involved in transfer, communities are able to take control of health programme responsibilities at a pace determined by their individual circumstances and health management capabilities. The capacity, experience and relationships developed by First Nations as

19224-428: The conflict between Hudson's Bay and Montreal, at that point represented by the predominantly Scottish North West Company, intensified. The conflict reached its peak in 1801 and witnessed both companies expending more resources on out-competing each other than were expended on the exploration of new fur grounds. Between 1803 and 1804, Hudson's Bay morale had plummeted in the face of fierce Northwest competition and forced

19402-501: The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway brought large numbers of European settlers west who encroached on Indigenous territory. European Canadians established governments, police forces, and courts of law with different foundations from indigenous practices. Various epidemics continued to devastate Indigenous communities. All of these factors had a profound effect on Indigenous people, particularly those from

19580-479: The costly shipments from Britain. The grant was also pending the annual provision of 200 men to the company and Selkirk's assurance that the colony would remain out of the fur trade. Selkirk, who once mocked the fur trade for rarely grossing more than £200,000 and only having three ships employed in its service, gladly agreed to the terms. Selkirk referred to this new territory as the District of Assiniboia . At

19758-488: The creation of new governments. Due to the hurried nature of the creation of this province, the officials of this new government presented themselves as overwhelmed and unprepared, and this shows that Manitoba was essentially created to re-stabilize political unrest within Canada. Many in French Canada had seen the establishment of Manitoba, officially bilingual and with a large francophone and Catholic population, as

19936-409: The creation of the province of Manitoba. The political disputes put the Métis on a platform to voice their disapproval of Americans ignoring their concerns over these land disputes. They had legitimate claims to the land and they stated that they were the "descendants of the lords of the soil.". Also, under Louis Riel's leadership, the Metis rebels were able to capture Fort Garry – a fortified post of

20114-643: The danger that could result from contesting Canadian government policy. Riel would subsequently be claimed as a hero and martyr by the French-Canadian, Métis, and various First Nations for decades. The Canadian government was starting to punish the rebels for their defiance, but the rebellion is still considered a success in the sense that the Metis were still able to acquire the land rights they hoped to achieve, as well as no longer being ignored when it came to federal matters. The Red River rebellion needed to be finally be put to rest. In order to accomplish this,

20292-417: The demographic, national, and linguistic profile of the province, which in turn meant the election of provincial governments decisively oriented towards Ontario and English Canada, rather than French Canada, Métis, First Nations, or balance between these groups. The Manitoba government also sought to encourage immigration and the immediate establishment and expansion of stable agricultural communities, and within

20470-533: The development of agriculture, the surest foundation of a colony in the New World. According to David L. Preston , after French colonisation with Champlain "the French were able to settle in the depopulated St. Lawrence Valley, not directly intruding on any Indian nation's lands. This geographic and demographic fact presents a striking contrast to the British colonies' histories: large numbers of immigrants coming to New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and

20648-491: The dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place", estimated at 2,000 years ago near present-day Detroit . According to their tradition, and from recordings in birch bark scrolls ( wiigwaasabak ), Ojibwe (an Algonquian-speaking people) came from the eastern areas of North America, or Turtle Island , and from along the east coast. They traded widely across the continent for thousands of years and knew of

20826-460: The early 1830s. The supply of flour reached over 23,000 kg (50,000 lb) by the mid-1830s, rapidly deflating the price the HBC paid the farmers for the product. Numbering over 1,000 by 1827, the farmers began to complain about the deflating rates they received and lack of markets for their goods. In 1841, James Sinclair guided 200 settlers from the Red River Colony west in an attempt to retain

21004-411: The economic potential the territory of the Red River Colony possessed. The ideal soil, climate and socio-economic potential of the area convinced many Americans that they needed to make the territory part of the United States. The result ended up being an annexation proposal of Red River in 1870, in order to convert it into land that American settlers could use for economic purposes. Due to the outbreak of

21182-633: The education of some First Nations children, including James Settee and Henry Budd of the Cree nation, both of whom were later ordained as priests. In 1822, the CMS appointed Revd West to head the mission in the Red River Colony. He was succeeded in 1823 by the Revd David Jones who was joined by the Revd W and Mrs Cockran in 1825. The mission expanded and by 1850, the missionaries were active throughout

21360-459: The establishment of an agricultural colony made the Hudson's Bay company nondependent on the profitable fur trade, a factor that the Nor'Westers simply could not compete with. Moreover, by establishing an agricultural colony, the Hudson's Bay Company gained a decisive advantage over the North West Company by virtue of a viable fallback economy as well as a readily available food source during economic slumps. Much of this new-found confidence hinged on

21538-574: The federal government, the schools were run by churches of various denominations – about 60% by Roman Catholics, and 30% by the Anglican Church of Canada and the United Church of Canada , along with its pre-1925 predecessors, Presbyterian , Congregationalist and Methodist churches. The attempt to force assimilation involved punishing children for speaking their own languages or practising their own faiths, leading to allegations in

21716-580: The fur trade, conflicts with colonial authorities and settlers and loss of land and a subsequent loss of nation self-suffiency. For example, during the late 1630s, smallpox killed more than half of the Huron , who controlled most of the early fur trade in what became Canada. Reduced to fewer than 10,000 people, the Huron Wendat were attacked by the Iroquois, their traditional enemies. In the Maritimes,

21894-521: The government declared that, as British subjects , all able Indian men of military age could be called up for training and service in Canada or overseas. Following the end of the Second World War, laws concerning First Nations in Canada began to change, albeit slowly. The federal prohibition of potlatch and Sun Dance ceremonies ended in 1951. Provincial governments began to accept the right of Indigenous people to vote. In June 1956, section 9 of

22072-413: The government of Canada dispatched surveyors to survey Rupert's Land , with the transfer of the territory expected to occur in the next year. However, Louis Riel and a group of Métis took control of Red River Colony , and declared a provisional government ; refusing entry to Canadian government surveyors and resulting in the Red River Rebellion . The provisional government provided a list of terms for

22250-524: The government on their behalf. The government gave a vague response. In March 1885, Riel, Gabriel Dumont , and Honoré Jackson (a.k.a. Will Jackson) set up the Provisional Government of Saskatchewan , believing that they could influence the federal government in the same way as they had in 1869. The North-West Rebellion of 1885 was a brief and unsuccessful uprising by the Métis people of

22428-608: The hinterlands (of what is today Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, as well as what is now the American Midwest and the Mississippi Valley ), trading with First Nations as they went – guns, gunpowder, cloth, knives, and kettles for beaver furs. The fur trade kept the interest in France's overseas colonies alive, yet only encouraged a small colonial population, as minimal labour was required. The trade also discouraged

22606-500: The inhabitants of the Red River as they were given the chance to address their grievances about the potential loss of land and becoming part of an American colonization project through a proclamation by the Governor-General of the dominion. Americans who supported annexation by the U.S. government tried to depict themselves as favorable figures in the eyes of the Métis by associating themselves with Louis Riel . The Rebellion

22784-515: The lakeshore of Lake Manitoba. Fishing and trading had become year round practices and the Metis families involved would trade with HBC and ‘Freemen’- traders that did not work at the post. Christianity played a vital role in shaping the community within the colony, especially for the Metis people. In the early 19th century, considerations were made by the Committee in London to open schools run by

22962-614: The late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged First Nations to assimilate into the European-based culture, referred to as " Canadian culture ". The assumption was that this was the "correct" culture because the Canadians of European descent saw themselves as dominant, and technologically, politically and culturally superior. There was resistance against this assimilation and many businesses denied European practices. The Tecumseh Wigwam of Toronto, for example, did not adhere to

23140-405: The late 20th century, members of various nations more frequently identify by their tribal or national identity only, e.g., "I'm Haida ", or "We're Kwantlens ", in recognition of the distinct First Nations. First Nations peoples had settled and established trade routes across what is now Canada by 500 BCE – 1,000 CE. Communities developed, each with its own culture, customs, and character. In

23318-546: The legal status of women is as dependents of a male authority, which included fathers, husbands or brothers. In an extremely rare example of a woman successfully challenging this status-quo, Maria Thomas, a 16-year-old Métis domestic servant, took her employer, Rev. Owen Corbett, to court for repeatedly raping her and subjecting her to illegal abortions . Thomas, in her testimony, used the laws in place to challenge Corbett's actions; citing British law against forcing individuals to undergo abortions, which were illegal. She won

23496-425: The majority of his fortune, defending his actions at Fort William. When Selkirk arrived at Red River in 1817, the stability of the colony dramatically improved, especially after the removal of all Indigenous claims to the land. Selkirk achieved this by signing a treaty between the Red River colonists and the local Cree, Assiniboine and Ojibwa. Between 1817 and 1820, Selkirk committed all of his available resources to

23674-438: The new leaders and Red River would become American land. They ultimately wanted to create a situation where the Red River could become American territory by allying with the discontented Métis Nation. However, this aggressive propaganda ultimately backfired upon the proposal of annexation. It created even more hostility towards the annexation party and the United States. This great emphasis on materialism never seemed appealing to

23852-543: The next generation. People lived and prospered for thousands of years until the Great Flood . In another story, after the Flood, they repopulated from the villages of Schenks and Chekwelp , located at Gibsons . When the water lines receded, the first Squamish came to be. The first man, named Tseḵánchten, built his longhouse in the village, and later on another man named Xelálten, appeared on his longhouse roof and sent by

24030-579: The northeastern coastline of what is now the United States. Under Samuel de Champlain, the Saint Croix settlement moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia ), a new site across the Bay of Fundy , on the shore of the Annapolis Basin , an inlet in western Nova Scotia. Acadia became France's most successful colony to that time. The cancellation of Dugua's fur monopoly in 1607 ended

24208-814: The northwest were the Athapaskan-speaking peoples, Slavey , Tłı̨chǫ , Tutchone-speaking peoples, and Tlingit . Along the Pacific coast were the Haida, Tsimshian , Salish, Kwakiutl , Nuu-chah-nulth , Nisga'a and Gitxsan . In the plains were the Blackfoot, Kainai , Sarcee and Northern Peigan . In the northern woodlands were the Cree and Chipewyan . Around the Great Lakes were the Anishinaabe , Algonquin , Iroquois and Wyandot . Along

24386-633: The ocean as well. If the seventh miigis being stayed, it would have established the Thunderbird doodem . The Nuu-chah-nulth are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast . The term Nuu-chah-nulth is used to describe fifteen separate but related First Nations, such as the Tla-o-qui-aht First Nations , Ehattesaht First Nation and Hesquiaht First Nation whose traditional home

24564-492: The one returned into the ocean. The six great miigis beings then established doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east. Of these doodem , the five original Anishinaabe doodem were the Wawaazisii ( Bullhead ), Baswenaazhi (Echo-maker, i.e., Crane ), Aan'aawenh ( Pintail Duck ), Nooke (Tender, i.e., Bear ) and Moozoonsii (Little Moose ), then these six miigis beings returned into

24742-683: The part of the First Nations, who profited in trade with Europeans. Such trade strengthened the more organized political entities such as the Iroquois Confederation. The Aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million in the late 15th century. The effect of European colonization was a 40 to 80 percent Aboriginal population decrease post-contact. This is attributed to various factors, including repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza , measles and smallpox (to which they had not developed immunity), inter-nation conflicts over

24920-440: The plains who had relied heavily on bison for food and clothing. Most of those nations that agreed to treaties had negotiated for a guarantee of food and help to begin farming. Just as the bison disappeared (the last Canadian hunt was in 1879), Lieutenant-Governor Edgar Dewdney cut rations to indigenous people in an attempt to reduce government costs. Between 1880 and 1885, approximately 3,000 Indigenous people starved to death in

25098-489: The province almost all of whom were Métis, and comprised more than half of the province's population. However within the next ten years, francophones became a demographic minority in Manitoba as settlers from Ontario moved into the province in large numbers. In 1890, the provincial government moved to remove the linguistic rights of francophones, with the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba passing an Act that made

25276-504: The province's first French language policy was instituted in 1989, with French language access to provincial services available in areas where numbers warrant it. The Francophone Affairs Secretariat serves as the main liaison between the provincial government and the Franco-Manitoban community. Conversely, the Société de la francophonie manitobaine serves as the main advocacy and lobby group for Franco-Manitobans. French language education rights for minority francophone populations in Canada

25454-448: The province's first few decades of existence (1870-1900), Manitoba experienced conflicting interests between French and English Canadians. A quarter-century after the implementation of the Manitoba Act which legally guaranteed a place for the French language in the province's administration, lawmaking, and judiciary along with a clause ensuring state funding for both Catholic (often de facto French) and Protestant schools, English had become

25632-469: The provinces of Ontario and British Columbia . Under Charter jurisprudence , First Nations are a "designated group," along with women, visible minorities , and people with physical or mental disabilities. First Nations are not defined as a visible minority by the criteria of Statistics Canada . North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as

25810-597: The provincial government a grace period to correct any unilingual documents. Another supreme court decision in 1993 ruled that francophone minority were afforded the right to manage and control their own educational facilities. In order to comply with the supreme court's ruling, the Public Schools Amendment (francophone Schools Governance) Act was passed, establishing the Franco-manitoban School Division in 1994. In 2016,

25988-502: The rebellion ended, Riel and several of his comrades fled to the United States in 1870 upon being informed that several government soldiers and irregulars were looking to kill him to exact revenge for several incidents, in particular, the execution of Thomas Scott . Riel, however later returned to Canada in 1885 to help lead the North West rebellion . This caused him to face trial in a Canadian court, and eventually to being executed by

26166-441: The recently disbanded Swiss and German Regiment de Meuron and De Watteville's Regiment , Selkirk captured Fort William, the North West Company headquarters, and captured several key agents including William McGillivray , Kenneth McKenzie and John McLoughlin . Although the arrival and subsequent settlement of Selkirk's private army finally broke the back of the North West Company, Selkirk spent much of his remaining years, and

26344-428: The remaining francophones that reside in the province were born outside the country. Among French-speaking Manitobans that were born abroad, approximately 57 per cent originated from Africa, and 28 per cent originated from Europe. In the 2016 census, 148,810 Manitobans reported having partial or full French ancestry. Francophone communities in Manitoba are concentrated in southern Manitoba , along corridors that follow

26522-403: The return voyage. Gaspar's brother, Miguel Corte-Real , went to look for him in 1502, but also failed to return. In 1604 King Henry IV of France granted Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons a fur-trade monopoly. Dugua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near to the mouth of the St. Croix River . Samuel de Champlain , his geographer, promptly carried out a major exploration of

26700-582: The right to control and manage school boards independent from their anglophone peers in 1993. During the 1970s, the provincial government established the Bureau de l’Éducation française , and the office of the Deputy Minister of French Education to oversee French language education. The province's public francophone schools is administered by the Franco-manitoban School Division , which had an enrolment of nearly 5,400 children throughout 23 schools during

26878-513: The role of French in these new public schools was to be highly limited, mainly to use as means of instructing young students who started school not speaking English. The position of many women in the Red River Colony was determined within the Hudson's Bay Company 's 1670 Charter; this document gave legislative and judicial powers in Rupert's Land to the company. It is stated within the Charter that

27056-662: The sale of their lands in 1916 and 1917, the Department of Indian Affairs held back funding necessary for farming until they relented. In British Columbia, the McKenna–McBride Royal Commission was created in 1912 to settle disputes over reserve lands in the province. The claims of Indigenous people were ignored, and the commission allocated new, less valuable lands (reserves) for First Nations. Those nations who managed to maintain their ownership of good lands often farmed successfully. Indigenous people living near

27234-475: The same economic vision for the annexation: Ramsey believed that the Red River valley would serve as an important commercial adjunct for his state, while Chandler and Howard believed that annexing the Red River would benefit their Great Lakes Trade. This was done under the belief it would help them in their attempts to colonize the region, as it prevented the Canadian government from establishing sovereignty over

27412-461: The second war, Queen Anne's War , the British conquered Acadia (1710). The sixth and final colonial war between the nations of France and Great Britain (1754–1763), resulted in the French giving up their claims and the British claimed the lands of Canada (New France) . In this final war, the Franco-Indian alliance brought together Americans, First Nations and the French, centred on

27590-572: The small town of Frog Lake , killing Thomas Quinn, an Indian agent , and eight others. Although Big Bear actively opposed the attacks, he was charged and tried for treason and sentenced to three years in prison. After the Red River Rebellion of 1869–1870, Métis moved from Manitoba to the District of Saskatchewan, where they founded a settlement at Batoche on the South Saskatchewan River . In Manitoba settlers from Ontario began to arrive. They pushed for land to be allotted in

27768-404: The sole means of communication in the legislature and the judiciary, while the provincial government attempted the introduction of a secular, English-only public school system which would be the sole recipient of any public funding. The policy was eventually implemented with minor concessions such as the teaching of Catholic doctrine at the end of the day where the number of students warranted, and

27946-447: The square concession system of English Canada , rather than the seigneurial system of strips reaching back from a river which the Métis were familiar with in their French-Canadian culture. The history of colonization is complex, varied according to the time and place. France and Britain were the main colonial powers involved, though the United States also began to extend its territory at the expense of indigenous people as well. From

28124-530: The start of the 20th century, the federal Indian policy was directed at removing Indigenous people from their communal lands and encouraging assimilation. Amendments to the Indian Act in 1905 and 1911 made it easier for the government to expropriate reserve lands from First Nations. The government sold nearly half of the Blackfoot reserve in Alberta to settlers. When the Kainai (Blood) Nation refused to accept

28302-573: The tail end of a much larger conflict between the Hudson's Bay Company and its fur trade rivals, both English and French, in Montreal. The conflict dates back to King Charles II 's generous grant of Rupert's Land to emigrants who were members of the nobility in 1670. Cause for conflict arose from the inability of either the Montreal traders or the Hudson's Bay Company to gain a monopoly over the North American fur trade . Between 1800 and 1821,

28480-582: The term First Nations has come into general use for Indigenous peoples other than Inuit and Métis . Outside Canada, the term can refer to Indigenous Australians , U.S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest , as well as supporters of the Cascadian independence movement . The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves , is the term First Nations person (when gender-specific, First Nations man or First Nations woman ). Since

28658-542: The term exists. Some Indigenous peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. A band is a "body of Indians (a) for whose use and benefit in common lands ... have been set apart, (b) ... moneys are held ... or (c) declared ... to be a band for the purposes of", according to the Indian Act by the Canadian Crown . The term Indian

28836-401: The time of the concession, Red River was the only Hudson Bay Colony that had been established within the company's 610,000-hectare (1.5-million-acre) territory. There is continuing debate as to whether Selkirk forced the concession of Assiniboia through a controlling interest of Hudson's Bay stock. The argument against Selkirk claims that he received the concession by controlling the shares in

29014-429: The two companies into negotiations but neither side could come to terms. Negotiations broke down again in 1805 and despite employing more aggressive agents and the provision of incentive programs, the Hudson's Bay Company was ready to abandon the fur trade in 1809. The Nor'Westers ability to make region-wide plans based on first-hand knowledge in addition to their ability to react quickly to changing circumstances provided

29192-432: The two main Métis languages: Mitchif , a French and Cree -based mixed-language whose speakers were largely Catholic, and Bungi , a form of speech that developed from Ojibwe , Scots , English , Gaelic , and Cree and was mostly spoken by Protestants (Anglican, Presbyterian). The Church Missionary Society (CMS) provided financial assistance in 1820 to Reverend John West , chaplain to the Hudson's Bay Company , towards

29370-432: The use of any language other than English as the language of instruction in schools. The following act was passed in an effort to homogenize the province with English as its dominant language, after it received an influx of migrants from non-English speaking countries. After the Thornton Act was passed, the Association d’éducation des Canadiens français du Manitoba (AÉCFM) was formed by the Roman Catholic clergy, serving as

29548-408: The villages of the Fox nation , a tribe that was an ancient rival of the Miami people and their Algonquian allies. Native (or "pani", a corruption of Pawnee ) slaves were much easier to obtain and thus more numerous than African slaves in New France, but were less valued. The average native slave died at 18, and the average African slave died at 25 (the average European could expect to live until

29726-404: The west or to Canada, or were relocated onto reservations in Michigan and Wisconsin. Historians have unanimously agreed that the Indians were the major losers in the War of 1812. Living conditions for Indigenous people in the prairie regions deteriorated quickly. Between 1875 and 1885, settlers and hunters of European descent contributed to hunting the North American bison almost to extinction;

29904-425: The widely practiced Lord's Day observance, making it a popular spot, especially on Sundays. Moreover, Canadian policies were at times contradictory, such as through the late 19th century- Peasant Farm Policy that severely restricted farming on reserves, despite this practice being seen as important to assimilation efforts. These kinds of attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Founded in

30082-431: Was an unarmed conflict started by the Métis because Canada was attempting to claim possession of Rupert's Land without any concern for the grievances of the Métis. However, the main American intention behind their decision to support Riel and the Rebellion was an attempt to sway the Métis in favour of the annexation by the US. One of their tools was the New Nation newspaper which elicited rhetoric that advocated annexation by

30260-516: Was extensive mercury pollution caused by Dryden Chemicals Company's waste water effluent in the Wabigoon - English River system. Because local fish were no longer safe to eat, the Ontario provincial government closed the commercial fisheries run by the First Nation people and ordered them to stop eating local fish. Previously it had made up the majority of their diet. In addition to the acute mercury poisoning in northwestern Ontario , Aamjiwnaang First Nation people near Sarnia , Ontario, experienced

30438-411: Was further distanced from Red River. Through the act, the Red River colony was now christened as Manitoba: a new Canadian province that was self-governed, and that had its own rights and responsibilities. It was no longer being viewed as a territory and was now officially part of the Canadian confederation. Provincial status was accelerated by Louis Riel's rebellion . Riel wanted to secure Red River for

30616-408: Was granted to Douglas by the Hudson's Bay Company in the Selkirk Concession . It included portions of Rupert's Land , or the watershed of Hudson Bay , bounded on the north by the line of 52° N latitude roughly from the Assiniboine River east to Lake Winnipegosis . It then formed a line of 52° 30′ N latitude from Lake Winnipegosis to Lake Winnipeg , and by the Winnipeg River , Lake of

30794-428: Was hereditary, the slaves and their descendants being considered prisoners of war . Some tribes in British Columbia continued to segregate and ostracize the descendants of slaves as late as the 1970s. Among Pacific Northwest tribes about a quarter of the population were slaves. The citizens of New France received slaves as gifts from their allies among First Nations peoples. Slaves were prisoners taken in raids against

30972-440: Was introduced in 1967, with teachers permitted to use the language for half of the school day. French would formally be reestablished as an official language of the provincial education system in 1970. An issue regarding the province's official language emerged during the late 1970s, when a francophone Métis received a parking ticket written only in English. The case served as a basis for a successful constitutional challenge, where

31150-494: Was later rebuilt but the engagement resulted in the capture of approximately 150 settlers including Macdonell. He was replaced by Robert Semple who took over as governor the following winter and reinforced the colony's 45 survivors with 84 additional settlers. In 1815, the North West Company once again entered into negotiations with the Hudson's Bay Company under the threat of invasion of Northwest territory. Negotiations were headed by Selkirk himself and he promptly threw out all of

31328-400: Was part of a shift acknowledging indigenous rights . It enabled provincial control of Crown land and allowed Provincial laws regulating game to apply to Indians, but it also ensured that "Indians shall have the right ... of hunting, trapping and fishing game and fish for food at all seasons of the year on all unoccupied Crown lands and on any other lands to which the said Indians may have

31506-431: Was prevented from settling the region in 1802 when the Hudson's Bay Company raised concerns that the proposed colony would interfere with the running of the company. During the first decade of the nineteenth century Selkirk established two unsuccessful agricultural colonies in British North America but continued to pursue the settlement of the Red River region. By 1807, Selkirk acknowledged that an alliance with either

31684-414: Was the first steps towards the creation of the present-day province of Manitoba. The act was given royal assent on May 12, 1870, and the commencement of Manitoba with a provincial status came to fruition on July 15, 1870. After the passage of the Manitoba Act , the Métis Provisional government was disbanded. There was an assimilation of the Métis people and the European settlers, and the Aboriginal influence

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