Thirty Years' War
114-687: Frýdlant ( Czech pronunciation: [ˈfriːdlant] , also known as Frýdlant v Čechách ; German : Friedland in Böhmen ) is a town in Liberec District in the Liberec Region of the Czech Republic . It has about 7,400 inhabitants. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone . The villages of Albrechtice u Frýdlantu and Větrov are administrative parts of Frýdlant. Frýdlant
228-482: A Generalissimo . He was a principal architect of the victory of Nördlingen 1634 but his following campaigns were less successful. After leading ineffective offensives against France, he managed to end Swedish attacks on Saxony and to drive them back to the Baltic coast in 1637. Unable to eliminate them or sustain his own forces in the devastated Pomerania , Gallas retreated with his shrunken army in 1638. Because he
342-465: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it
456-402: A second language , and 75–100 million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90 million people, or 16% of
570-612: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become
684-620: A district with the same name, one of the 94 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Bohemia. It remained with the Clam-Gallas family until the last descendant Clotilda, who died in 1982, having moved to Vienna in April 1945. Following the 1938 Munich Agreement , the town was occupied by Nazi Germany and incorporated into Reichsgau Sudetenland . After World War II , it fell back to Czechoslovakia and renamed Frýdlant. The German-speaking population
798-572: A double marriage with his colleague Johann von Aldringen who married Isabella's sister Livia. After the death of his first wife in 1632, Gallas remarried two years later to Countess Dorothea Anna Maria von Lodron-Laterano (1619-1666), daughter of Count Philipp von Lodron-Laterano (1596-1671) and a relative to Salzburg 's Prince-Bishop Paris von Lodron . Together, they had at least seven children, of which Franz Ferdinand (1635–1697), Theresia Annunziata Francesca († 1667), Anton Pankraz (1638–1695) and Maria Viktoria (1639–1687) survived their childhood. After
912-591: A family which provided many reputable soldiers to the Imperial army. Despite holding the title Count of Campo , Gallas never possessed the eponymous Castle Campo near Fiavé that his family had lost many generations before. From his pay as soldier and officer, he purchased the first pieces of land prior to 1621, followed by a house in Trento in 1623 and a mansion in Mattarello in 1628. In 1632 or 1642, he bought
1026-559: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from
1140-458: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained
1254-543: A new town hall was erected in the centre of the town on T. G. Masaryka Square according to plans by the architect Franz Neumann . Inside the town hall is a bust of Albrecht von Wallenstein, created by a sculptor from nearby Raspenava . The building has stained glass windows and the exterior has statues of Self-Sacrifice and Justice. Nowadays, the Frýdlant Town Museum is located on the second floor with archaeological and historical exhibits. Several fragments of
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#17327810679051368-564: A period of exile. One year later, the Swedes left Bohemia entirely. Due to the loss of religious freedom and Protestants being forced to adopt the Catholic religion, many exiles did not return to the area. The area continued to suffer through 1642. The estates remained with Matthias Gallas and the Gallas family until 1757. When Count Philip Joseph von Gallas (1703–1757) died without children,
1482-696: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In
1596-483: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it
1710-490: A strong defensive position in front of Torstensson. Instead of seeking battle, Gallas harassed him in skirmishes with the superior Imperial light cavalry and sent a diversion under Krockow to Pomerania. At the end of the year, the Swedes surprisingly left to attack Denmark in what became the Torstenson War . In the next year, Gallas was ordered to march to Holstein to Denmark's aid. Being himself very skeptical about
1824-717: Is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and
1938-601: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as
2052-612: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German
2166-558: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic
2280-478: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German
2394-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25 million speak it as
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#17327810679052508-535: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in
2622-611: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as
2736-565: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are
2850-545: Is located about 17 km (11 mi) northwest of Liberec , in a salient region of Frýdlant Hook, close to the border with Poland. It lies mostly in the Frýdlant Hills . The southern part of the municipal territory extends into the Jizera Mountains and includes the highest point of Frýdlant, the hill Špičák at 724 m (2,375 ft) above sea level. The Smědá River flows through the town. The area
2964-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and
3078-597: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as
3192-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German
3306-525: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c. 1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period
3420-578: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish
3534-485: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers
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3648-689: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to
3762-639: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as
3876-582: The Battle of Lützen and called him back too late, so that he did not arrive in time to participate. On a proposal from Wallenstein, Emperor Ferdinand II appointed Gallas to Generalleutnant , second-in-command to the Generalissimo . Over the year 1633, he commanded in Silesia. When Wallenstein's repeated disobedience and unauthorized negotiations with Saxony strengthened the court's mistrust of him,
3990-537: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share
4104-732: The Eider to threaten their supply lines. Gallas was forced to retreat back to Bernburg where Torstensson's superior cavalry supported by Hans Christoff von Königsmarck fully encircled the Imperials and denied them any supplies. By deceiving Torstensson to attack a small decoy force, Gallas was able to escape to Magdeburg in November where the pattern repeated itself. His army been shrunken by hunger, sickness and desertion, and himself fallen ill, Gallas ordered his troops to break out. The cavalry under Adrian von Enkevort and Raimondo Montecuccoli
4218-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language
4332-522: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout
4446-746: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in
4560-666: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c. 765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in
4674-676: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung
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4788-550: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit. ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this
4902-495: The Thirty Years' War as Obristwachtmeister and commander of an infantry regiment. He was second officer to Count Anholt and distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Stadtlohn (1623). After being promoted to colonel in 1625 and made Reichsfreiherr in 1627, the League president and Bavarian Elector Maximilian denied him further promotion, leading to Gallas' change into Imperial service in early 1629. Since 1629, he
5016-659: The Thirty Years' War . He distinguished himself in the first half of the war in service of the Catholic League , in the War of the Mantuan Succession , and as one of Albrecht von Wallenstein 's Generals. After carrying out the dismissal and elimination of Wallenstein, Gallas became acting supreme commander of the Imperial Army three times between 1634 and 1647 but he never held the function or authority of
5130-513: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German
5244-493: The battle of Villabuona . His complete victory at Villabuona ensured the fall of Mantua , and on 18 July Imperial troops under his command captured and then brutally sacked the city. Only the churches and the ghetto were spared, but the latter solely to expel the Jewish population and to plunder it nine days later. The expulsion was later rescinded by the Imperial court, and on 18 October the surviving Jewish population of Mantua
5358-469: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from
5472-696: The Cardinal-Infante to invade France from the north in an attempt to end the war. Gallas was ordered to lead a separate southern invasion into Burgundy to support Spain. Despite Gallas' reluctance to initiate offensive campaigns, he collected his troops in Breisach and marched via the Belfort Gap into the Franche-Comté . French troops had invaded this Habsburg territory in May and were besieging
5586-626: The Chapel of Saint Anne, the Knights' Hall, rooms for the count and countess, and a working kitchen. The Church of the Holy Cross was built in the mid-16th century by Italian architects, which has a mixture of architectural styles due to construction over the years. A Renaissance style chapel for the Redern family tomb was built in 1566. A mausoleum was built for the Redern family in 1610. In 1893,
5700-723: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In
5814-459: The French army back to the Rhine while the defence of the Danube was left to three army corps under Puchheim, Hunolstein and Annibale Gonzaga . When Gallas' health and his relationship to the Archduke strongly declined at the end of the year, he left his office again. Feeling somewhat more in health, Gallas was asked to replace the Archduke as supreme commander in December 1646. Despite arguing for Piccolomini instead of him, Gallas agreed. Soon, he
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#17327810679055928-414: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of
6042-417: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of
6156-399: The German states; the invention of the printing press c. 1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of
6270-623: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by
6384-412: The Imperial counselor Wolkenstein contacted Gallas to check his loyalty and to introduce him to plans to depose Wallenstein. Initially skeptical of the plans, he unsuccessfully tried to change Wallenstein's mind. He was made provisional supreme commander until the Emperor's son Ferdinand of Hungary took command. After he was informed of the Emperor's decision to arrest or kill Wallenstein, Gallas left
6498-547: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are
6612-644: The Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ), the Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German
6726-408: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c. thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c. 1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy
6840-515: The Palazzo Fugger in Trento, afterwards known as Palazzo Galasso. His loyalty to the Habsburgs during Wallenstein's dismissal in early 1634 brought Gallas as highest-ranking executor the majority of the Generalissimo's property in the Bohemian Duchy of Friedland with Frýdlant and Liberec but without the capital Jičín . From Adam Trčka's possessions, the dominion of Smiřice was given to Gallas. In northern Italy, he purchased Castle Freyenthurn ( Italian : Torre Franca ) in Mattarello and most of
6954-426: The Polish border, while his troops moved westwards across the Oder . Gallas trapped him at the coastline and raised a cordon along the Peene river, taking all strongholds except the most heavily fortified, such as Stralsund or Stettin . The Swedes apparently showed readiness for peace, as their main army was locked in a few fortresses on the Baltic Sea . The new Emperor Ferdinand III was willing to compromise but
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#17327810679057068-445: The Redern family when Bedřich bought it in 1558. Since the ruler set the religion for an area at that time, Bedřich made Protestant churches and closed the Catholic church in Hejnice that had been the destination for religious pilgrimages. Several new villages were established and the production of linen cloth resulted in an economic boom during the initial years of the Redern family. Marco Spazzio di Lancio, an Italian architect hired by
7182-478: The Swedes from Bohemia and confronted with declining army morale and discipline, Gallas was replaced by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in September. The emperor wanted Gallas to stay as counselor in Vienna, but he chose to return to Trento and to administer his various possessions for the next few years. In March 1643, Gallas returned to succeed the Archduke and the interim commander Piccolomini who both resigned following their defeat at Breitenfeld . Gallas anticipated
7296-488: The Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna eventually used his offers just to improve the French contributions in the Treaty of Hamburg in March 1638. During 1638, Gallas' situation strongly deteriorated; while Banér received fresh reinforcements from Sweden, Gallas gained only insignificant support from his allies Brandenburg-Prussia and Saxony. In October 1638, Banér broke through Gallas' cordon and reconquered Mecklenburg . The Imperials were unable to sustain their army in
7410-427: The Tyrolean Obristfeldhauptmann Giannangelo Madruzzo for Spain against Savoy . In 1616, Gallas participated at the Spanish siege of Vercelli in Piedmont . Following Giannangelo's death in December 1618, Gallas was designated to succeed him as commander of the fortress Riva . He became Captain and commanded the fortress until January 1621. In this year, Gallas joined the forces of the Catholic League and entered
7524-437: The army's headquarters in Pilsen on 12 February 1634 to plan the execution. He declared the orders of Wallenstein, Adam Erdmann Trčka von Lípa and Christian von Ilow invalid and secured the loyalty of the troops while Wallenstein fled to Eger where he was assassinated . Gallas was rewarded with the vast majority of the former Duchy of Friedland . In the next campaign, Gallas was the actual commander as chief advisor to
7638-399: The capital Dole . Gallas sent his vanguard under Guillaume de Lamboy and the Duke of Lorraine ahead; they relieved Dole in August. His main force encamped at Champlitte where it was confronted by a French army under Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and La Valette in September. Unwilling to attack the French head-on, Gallas broke up his camp after several weeks and marched on Dijon . After capturing
7752-432: The castle and surrounding land from the king. Rulko held property in Silesia and Upper Lusatia and family members held court positions. There were important trade routes through the area, including to Görlitz and to Lusatia. From Görlitz, the Via Regia provided routes to Russia, Spain, and throughout Europe. Perhaps as early as 1304, and definitely by 1381, a moat and curtain walls were constructed to surround and protect
7866-453: The castle of Mirebeau-sur-Bèze on 24 October, he was again hesitant to advance further and decided to lay siege to Saint-Jean-de-Losne to secure its strategic bridge for supplies or a possible retreat. However, the small town resisted all Imperial attacks until French reinforcements and heavy rain forced Gallas to abandon the siege and the overall invasion in early November. After being sent to northern Germany with his army in 1637, Gallas
7980-400: The death of her husband, Dorothea married Prince Ferdinand Johann von und zu Liechtenstein (1622-1666). The most remarkable descendant of Gallas was his grandson Johann Wenzel von Gallas (1669–1719), a diplomat and Austrian Viceroy of Naples . After the death of the last male Gallas in 1757, Johann Wenzel's son Philipp Josef, the heir Christian Philipp von Clam took the name Clam-Gallas,
8094-459: The determination and risk appetite in the offensive. He was competent in the operative planning of his campaigns but more and more overstrained in their execution under the increasingly difficult external conditions of the later Thirty Years' War. Gallas was in contrast to for example Torstensson or Piccolomini not among the commanders that could adequately adapt to these altered conditions. Gallas first married Countess Isabella of Arco in 1630 in
8208-493: The devastated area any longer and first retreated across the Elbe , then to Silesia, plundering and partially dissolving in the progress. After Gallas' retreat, Banér pushed into Saxony, defeating the Saxon army at Chemnitz in April 1639. The Swedes advanced even further entering Bohemia in May as the first enemy since 1634. At first left in command, Gallas focused on defending Prague against Swedish siege attempts. Unable to expel
8322-535: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with
8436-456: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in
8550-519: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of
8664-433: The estate went to Christian Philip von Clam (1748–1805), his nephew, under the stipulation that going forward the family would assume the Gallas coat-of-arms and that his family name would be changed to Clam-Gallas. In 1800 or 1801, the Clam-Gallas family opened the castle to the public as a museum. Napoleon and his troops were in the town in 1813, to the detriment of the citizens of the town. A textile industry developed in
8778-416: The family, expanded the castle in the 16th century. Christoph von Redern was considered a traitor when he opposed Emperor Ferdinand II and supported Frederick V after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. All of his property was then taken from him. Frýdlant then went to Albrecht von Wallenstein , who became Duke of Frýdlant and lived at Jičín . Wallenstein returned Catholicism to the area and held
8892-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,
9006-591: The inexperienced Ferdinand of Hungary. Their plan was to regain Regensburg and to link up with a Spanish army under the Cardinal-Infante . The Imperials captured Regensburg on 26 July, followed by Donauwörth on 16 August. They proceeded to besiege Nördlingen where the Spanish army joined their forces. A numerically inferior Swedish force under Gustav Horn and Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar tried to lift
9120-481: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of
9234-413: The lands until 1634, when he was assassinated. Frýdlant then went to Matthias Gallas, Count of Campo, Duke of Lucera as a reward for his fight against Wallenstein in 1636 by Emperor Ferdinand II . At the end of the Thirty Years' War , the castle was possessed by the Swedes. They constructed fortified barbicans and strengthened the defensive walls. In 1639, Christoph von Redern returned to Frýdlant after
9348-518: The largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina , and Espírito Santo . Matthias Gallas Matthias Gallas, Graf von Campo und Herzog von Lucera (Count of Campo, Duke of Lucera) ( Matteo Gallasso ; 17 October 1588 in Trento – 25 April 1647 in Vienna ) was an Italian professional soldier during
9462-473: The march of the Swedes under Lennart Torstensson from Saxony to Moravia and tried to block his way with a defensive position at Hradec Králové as well as denying the Swedes any crossing of the Elbe. However, Torstensson feinted an attack at Brandeis while gaining a crossing at Mělník . This allowed Torstensson to reach Moravia and resupply the occupied Olomouc . Gallas followed him over Brno and again took
9576-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted
9690-653: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from
9804-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation
9918-502: The prospects of this campaign, he delayed his departure until May and slowly moved up to Kiel that he recaptured from Sweden in August. The Swedish fleet had been trapped in the Bay of Kiel after the Battle of Colberger Heide but Gallas arrived a few days too late to bombard it from land. Torstensson was already in control of Jutland and bypassed Gallas' army after a short confrontation at
10032-556: The river at the recently captured Philippsburg in May. He captured most of the Palatinate with Kaiserslautern as well as Worms and started to besiege Mainz in summer. At the approach of a French-Weimar relief force under Bernhard and Cardinal La Valette , Gallas retreated to harass them with light cavalry and to cut off their supplies. This proved successful, most of the French army perished because of sickness or hunger, or it dissolved on its retreat to Metz . The siege of Mainz
10146-617: The siege and attacked them on 5 September but Gallas directed the united Habsburg army to a resounding victory in the Battle of Nördlingen . The Swedes lost two armies and the control over southern Germany while the Imperials chased them up to the Main before moving into winter quarters in Württemberg . The attention of the Imperials turned to the Rhine in 1635. After the open outbreak of hostilities with France, Gallas and his troops crossed
10260-546: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,
10374-674: The stolen items due to the Czech government and the Czech National Heritage Institute. Frýdlant is located on two railway lines of local importance, heading from Liberec to Černousy and to Nové Město pod Smrkem . The castle complex consists of the Gothic castle with a high tower and a Renaissance castle. There are exhibits, such as of Albrecht von Wallenstein, the Thirty Years' War , and an armoury of 1,000 weapons used for military and hunting. The castle includes
10488-500: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in
10602-540: The town in the 19th century. In 1899, the Plague Column was constructed in the memory of the victims of five plague epidemics. The town also survived several significant fires. In 1875, a railway line from Liberec via Frýdlant to Zawidów was put into operation. Lines to Mirsk and the Frýdlant–Heřmanice Railway to Zittau followed soon. Until 1918, the town was part of Austria-Hungary , head of
10716-460: The town walls have been preserved, including torsos of three prismatic towers. The walls are almost circular in outline, built of local basalt . The town's castle is believed to be the source of inspiration for The Castle (1926) by Franz Kafka . Frýdlant is twinned mainly with other towns sharing the historic German name Friedland : German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] )
10830-595: The town; these were largely removed in 1774. The Birbsteins (Biebersteins) supported King Sigmund during the Hussite Wars (1419–1434). Frýdlant was taken by the Hussites in 1428. Between 1428 and 1433, the town was raided several times. Frydlant castle and town, also called Frýdlant Manor, went to Emperor Ferdinand I when Christopher, the last of the line of the Birbsteins, died in 1551. The castle went into
10944-404: The unsustainable conditions but still obediently followed the orders of the emperor. After his disastrous campaigns of 1638 and 1644, he became even known as the “destroyer of armies” - originating from French and Swedish war propaganda, it evolved into a lasting nickname. According to his biographer Rebitsch, Gallas was an able and wily tactician who most excelled in the defence but often lacked
11058-555: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during
11172-600: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching
11286-669: Was expelled according to the Beneš decrees and replaced by Czech settlers. In 2016, Georg Mederer and Erich Stenz, German treasure hunters, claimed that trucks delivered items from the amber chamber of Saint Petersburg , Russia to the castle in the late period of the war. They state that the items previously owned by Peter the Great were stolen by the Nazis and stored in the castle cellars with contemporaneously constructed brick walls. The men further state that they have been unable to search for
11400-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of
11514-599: Was again afflicted by gout and fever. Too ill to lead another campaign, he restricted his efforts to conserve the Imperial army through the winter. The war-weary Gallas could not prevent the Bavarian Elector Maximilian from signing the Truce of Ulm with France and Sweden in March 1647; he even admitted that Maximilian was doing the right thing. The emperor recalled Gallas to Vienna in late March, his command
11628-514: Was again recalled to assist the new Generalissimo Leopold Wilhelm as his deputy. He collected the dispersed Imperial troops in Bohemia and organised the defence of the kingdom whereas Archduke Leopold Wilhelm held the Danube . The Bavarian defeat by France at Second Nördlingen in August made an Imperial diversion necessary to help them out. Both Gallas and the Archduke moved to Bavaria and repulsed
11742-735: Was again relieved from command, only to return to advise and support Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in defending the Erblande against Sweden. Once again, he replaced the Archduke as supreme commander in 1647 but died soon afterwards after suffering many years from ill health. Gallas started his career first as page and then as cavalryman in service of Ferdinando Madruzzo, a brother of the Prince-Bishop of Trento Carlo Gaudenzio Madruzzo . He most likely fought as Spanish mercenary in Flanders . Thereafter, he fought as Fähnrich and Lieutenant under
11856-577: Was allowed to return. Gallas stayed in Italy to negotiate the Treaty of Cherasco in which he managed to prevent the demilitarisation of the Valtellina that remained under Imperial control. Made Imperial Count for the capture of Mantua and the negotiations at Cherasco, he returned to Germany for the campaign against the invading swedish king Gustavus Adolphus and his Saxon allies in late 1631. Gallas
11970-547: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially
12084-647: Was appointed to Feldzeugmeister and assumed command over a corps of Wallenstein 's army. Over the winter, he recovered parts of Bohemia from Saxon occupation. Wallenstein's army recaptured Prague and subsequently turned to Bavaria to face the Swedish army in 1632. Gallas' corps served at the Battle of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg against the Swedish King. After the battle, Gallas was promoted to Field Marshal . Wallenstein sent him to Silesia prior to
12198-485: Was caught by the Swedes at Jüterbog and only partly escaped, the small remaining portion of infantry under Johann Wilhelm von Hunolstein safely reached Bohemia in early February 1645. Gallas himself stayed with the diseased soldiers in Magdeburg and only returned to Prague in late February. His command was given to Melchior von Hatzfeldt who lost and was captured at Jankau in March. The slightly recovered Gallas
12312-492: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which
12426-561: Was more successful at stopping the advance of the Swedish general Johan Banér . He almost encircled the Swedes at Torgau with superior numbers in June but Banér escaped by sacrificing parts of his baggage. In a pursuit up to Pomerania , Gallas was faster than Banér and blocked his way at Landsberg . Banér barely rescued his army by deceiving the Imperials into thinking that he would violate Polish neutrality and evacuate his army over their territory. However, he only sent his remaining baggage over
12540-595: Was renewed and successfully concluded in December while Gallas advanced via Saarbrücken into Lorraine . He joined forces at Dieuze with the exiled Duke of Lorraine who urged to recapture his capital Nancy . Yet Gallas preferred to entrench his army at the Seille to give his troops some rest. An outbreak of the plague and shortage of supplies forced him to retreat into Alsace where he set up winter quarters at Saverne . For 1636, Ferdinand of Hungary had convinced
12654-456: Was serving as Generalfeldwachtmeister under Count Collalto in the War of Mantuan succession . When Collalto fell sick, command of the Imperial army devolved to his deputies, Gallas and Johann von Aldringen . On 29 May 1630, Gallas successfully defeated a 17,000 strong Franco-Venetian relief army led by the French general Duc de Candale and the Venetian provveditore Zaccaria Sagredo at
12768-457: Was settled by Slavic tribes from Lusatia from the 6th century onwards. In the 13th century, the local castle was held by the Ronovci family until the middle of the century, when Častolov of Ronov was forced to return the castle and other properties to King Ottokar II . The first written mention of Frýdlant is from 1278, when Rulko of Birbstein, also called Rudolf of Bieberstein, purchased
12882-481: Was transferred to Count Holzappel on 17 April. Gallas died eight days later due to a failed surgery. The successes of Gallas' early career were not matched by his achievements after 1634. He was a general that never lost a major battle because he did not lead his army into any after Nördlingen. Unwilling to risk his army in pitched battle , Gallas still could not prevent the ruin of his armies in various campaigns because of lack of supplies. He often complained about
12996-483: Was unable to stop the following Swedish advance, he lost his command for the first time. Called back in 1643 to stop Lennart Torstensson who soon retreated to attack Denmark, Gallas was ordered to follow him and to support the Danes. This ended in Gallas' most disastrous campaign in which he was outmaneuvered and encircled by the Swedes, who cut him off from his supplies in late 1644. Having lost almost his entire army, he
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