255-707: The Kosovo Myth ( Serbian : Косовски мит / Kosovski mit ), also known as the Kosovo Cult ( Косовски култ / Kosovski kult ) and the Kosovo Legend ( Косовска легенда / Kosovska legenda ), is a Serbian national myth based on legends about events related to the Battle of Kosovo (1389). It has been a major subject in Serbian folklore and literary tradition and has been cultivated through oral epic poetry and guslar poems . The final form of
510-540: A Covenant with God. Other famous knights who, according to legends, took part in the battle are Milan Toplica , Ivan Kosančić , Pavle Orlović , Stevo Vasojević , and the Musić brothers . There are also key female characters in the Kosovo Myth, who symbolize the great losses and isolation in which Serbs, especially women, lived during Ottoman rule. Princess Milica , who was referred to as Tsaritsa ("Empress") Milica,
765-746: A founding myth of the Serbian nation. In 1953, the Serbian communist government hired Aleksandar Deroko to design the Gazimestan monument commemorating the Kosovo's heroes and Petar Lubarda to decorate the ceremonial hall of the Republican Executive Council with a large wall painting depicting the Battle of Kosovo. On the occasion of the 600th anniversary (1989), the film Battle of Kosovo directed Zdravko Šotra , based on
1020-608: A vladika could not be any younger than thirty, a prerequisite that the twenty-year-old Njegoš clearly failed to meet. As such, he chose to have his consecration occur in Saint Petersburg out of political necessity, as he desperately needed the czar to bend church canons in his favour in order to acquire total legitimacy at home and brush aside any theological objections. On his way to Saint Petersburg, Njegoš made stops in several Austrian cities. In Vienna, he met famed Serbian language reformer Vuk Stefanović Karadžić . Karadžić
1275-566: A Petrović and a literate monk—capable of carrying on his role. Petar's first candidate was Mitar M. Petrović, the son of his eldest brother Stjepan. Within several years, the younger Petrović died and Petar was forced to find a different successor. He turned his attention to Đorđije S. Petrović, his middle brother's son. As Đorđije was illiterate, Petar sent him to Saint Petersburg to attend school. Once there, Đorđije realized that he preferred living in Russia over Montenegro. In 1828, he sent his uncle
1530-631: A bulwark of Christendom against the Ottoman Empire. One of the earliest records that contributed to the cult of Lazar's martyrdom was found in the Serbian Orthodox Church , primarily written by Danilo III , Serbian Patriarch (1390–1396) and a nun Jefimija . Over the following centuries, many writers and chroniclers wrote down the oral legends they heard in the Balkans . In 1601, Ragusan chronicler Mavro Orbini published
1785-557: A carriage procession to Drobnjaci and set up camp in Mljetičak , a hamlet overlooking the town of Nikšić. On 23 September, he and his delegation were ambushed by a band of 300–400 Drobnjaci warriors led by Novica Cerović , Đoko Malović and Šujo Karadžić . Smaïl-aga attempted to flee but discovered that a spy had hobbled all the horses. He was surrounded in his tent and shot by one of the Drobnjaci warriors; forty other Turks were killed in
2040-401: A centralized state. He introduced regular taxation, formed a personal guard and implemented a series of new laws to replace those composed by his predecessor many years earlier. His taxation policies proved extremely unpopular with the tribes of Montenegro and were the cause of several revolts during his lifetime. Njegoš's reign was also defined by the constant political and military struggle with
2295-476: A co-conspirator. Radonjić had failed to win over the chieftains; historian Barbara Jelavich asserts that the vast majority of chiefs backed the Petrovićes solely because they saw an ecclesiastical leader like Njegoš as posing less of a threat to their own power. The chieftains later wrote a report to Gagić explaining that Radonjić and his brother would be shot because "[they] dared to make secret arrangements with
2550-617: A code of laws and form a central court known as a kuluk , which had both administrative and judicial functions. Despite these accomplishments, Petar had little success in unifying the disparate Montenegrin tribes, as it was impossible to form a stable government or organize an army unless taxes could be levied, and the tribes were no more willing to pay taxes to Cetinje than they were to the Ottomans. Attempts to stop their raiding and looting were equally futile, as attempted to keep them from feuding with one another. By 1830, Montenegro boasted only
2805-742: A cooling of Russo–Montenegrin relations. With the Radonjićes expelled, Njegoš abolished the office of guvernadur in 1832. This move did not bring him any new powers, as Russia insisted on the establishment of the Governing Senate ( Praviteljstvujuščiji senat ) of Montenegro and the Highlands, whose purpose was to limit and regulate the powers of the vladika . Much like the Governing Soviet ( Praviteljstvujušči sovjet ) in Serbia, most of
SECTION 10
#17327725972043060-528: A cultural source of pride, identity and a strong connection to the past. One of the earliest records that contributed to the development of the cult of martyrdom and God's special favor for Lazar are the Narration about Prince Lazar by Danilo III , Serbian Patriarch (1390–1396), and the Encomium of Prince Lazar by a nun Jefimija , a widow of the despot Uglješa Mrnjavčević . The first Serbian record of
3315-423: A defensive tower overlooking Lake Skadar . Unable to subdue the Ottomans militarily, Njegoš concentrated on eliminating those who had betrayed him and his clan. Several weeks after the insurrection was crushed, he informed Božović that he had forgiven him and gave him his word that he and his two brothers would not be harmed if they returned to Cetinje. The two sides arranged to meet in a small village just outside
3570-399: A doctor from Kotor discovered that he had tuberculosis. By early 1850, it was clear that the condition was life-threatening. Painfully aware that Montenegro did not have a single trained physician, he travelled to Kotor in the spring and composed his last will and testament, intending for it to prevent the power struggle that had preceded his own accession to the position of vladika . He mailed
3825-610: A fortified wall and flanked by defensive towers at all four corners. Located just northeast of the Cetinje Monastery, and facing east towards Constantinople , it was soon dubbed the Biljarda , after the central room on the second floor which contained a billiard table that Njegoš had ordered transported to Montenegro from the Adriatic coast. The residence was within view of an unfinished stone watchtower intended to protect
4080-549: A fresco of Miloš as a haloed , sword-bearing saint was painted in Lazar's narthex in the Hilandar Monastery on Mount Athos , Greece. Philologist Vuk Karadžić collected traditional epic poems related to the topic of the Battle of Kosovo and released the so-called "Kosovo cycle", which became the final version of the transformation of the myth. Karadžić's work was influenced by Jernej Kopitar , who introduced him to
4335-472: A great poet or playwright [...] no one in Cetinje or for that matter the whole of Montenegro had a better knowledge of the wider world." Indeed, Milutinović introduced Njegoš to his own poetry, which Professor Svetlana Slapšak describes as being "written in unusual syntax , with unparalleled neologisms and fantastic etymologies". The position of Njegoš's secretary was later occupied by Dimitrije Milaković ,
4590-514: A handful of literate citizens, yet it was seen in the Western world as a bastion of Christian resistance to the Turks. The country's economic situation remained dire, its borders were still not internationally recognized and the Turks continued to claim it as part of their empire. Petar I's final years were defined by his deteriorating health and continuing inability to find a successor—ideally both
4845-520: A letter authored by the Russian czar which made it clear that Saint Petersburg endorsed Danilo's accession, not Pero's. In the ensuing power struggle, Đorđije and Pero lost the support of most of the tribal chiefs, and they and their families were forced into exile. Pero sought refuge in Kotor, where his wife gave birth to a boy. In the hope of preserving his brother's memory, Pero named the newborn Rade, but
5100-537: A letter from Saint Petersburg informing him that he wished to enroll into the Imperial Russian Army and asking to be relieved of succession. In 1829, Petar informed Jeremija Gagić , an ethnic Serb who served as the Russian vice-consul in Dubrovnik and was in charge of all of Russia's dealings with Montenegro, that Đorđije had his permission to enter the Russian military, depriving him of his right to
5355-399: A letter to Ali Pasha, suggesting that the Turks and Montenegrins restore Grahovo to its former status and offering to guarantee peace in return. In late October, Njegoš met with two envoys representing Ali Pasha and Mehmed Pasha in Cetinje and agreed to a negotiated settlement. The agreement had six points: Despite the agreement, Ali Pasha remained unconvinced. The fifth clause indicated that
SECTION 20
#17327725972045610-414: A lyrical depiction of the torture of people during the war, and deeply affected by the events he wrote: "We bravely sow our new graves... O, Lord, haven't we had enough punishment... It is time to lift the gravestones". The same year, poet Milosav Jelić wrote the Serbian sequence and Rastko Petrović published the "Kosovo Sonnet". Serbian scholar and Hellenist Miloš N. Đurić explored some elements of
5865-464: A mausoleum were discarded by 1925 and the original church building was reconstructed. In September 1925, in the course of a three-day ceremony sponsored and attended by Yugoslavia's King Alexander and Queen Maria , the chapel was rededicated and Njegoš's remains were reburied. Historian Andrew B. Wachtel writes: "The tone of the event, which was described extensively in the Yugoslav press, bordered on
6120-476: A member of the Petrović clan by marrying the daughter of Njegoš's brother Pero, thus increasing his own power and standing. When Pero married his daughter off to Plamenac's cousin, the son of reverend Jovan Plamenac, the once-loyal captain switched sides and became an agent of Osman Pasha. On 26 March [ O.S. 14 March] 1847, Plamenac led a band of rebels in an assault against lower Crmnica alongside
6375-618: A military-police organization known as the Gvardija (The Guard). It had regional representatives throughout the tribal territories and its headquarters were situated in Rijeka Crnojevića. All its senior commanders were called captains, and were selected as the most prominent men in their clans. The Gvardija initially had a strength of about 150 warriors, but this number later rose to 420. Russian subsidies ensured that all of its members received their salaries without delay. Central authority
6630-541: A monument to the Austrian Emperor to be located on the same perch as a symbol of South Slavic national feeling, Austro-Hungarian authorities demanded that Njegoš's remains be moved back to Cetinje. The Montenegrins had little choice in the matter and the remains were removed under the supervision of Serbian Orthodox clergy so that the Austro-Hungarians would not be accused of desecration. By the end of
6885-452: A periodical which he named Grlica (The Turtledove) and used the press to print some of his own poems, as well as works by Milutinović and Karadžić. Grlica did not last long, and fell out of circulation in 1839. The printing press survived until 1852, when its type was melted down to make bullets to fight the Turks. While Njegoš was in Vienna and Russia in 1833, Vukotić took advantage of
7140-706: A personal fiefdom that stretched from Gacko to Kolašin and was larger than all the Montenegrin-held territories combined. These land acquisitions were met with much trepidation by Smaïl-aga's fellow beys , who feared that his rise would threaten their hold on power. In 1839, Serbia's Prince Miloš sent a letter to Ali Pasha informing him that Smaïl-aga would conspire with the Porte to have him removed as vizier of Herzegovina. Ali Pasha promptly wrote to Njegoš, asking that he arrange for Smaïl-aga's murder. He felt that Njegoš—who held Smaïl-aga primarily responsible for
7395-600: A physically disabled Dubrovnik-born polyglot who had studied philosophy in Vienna and came to Montenegro with Vukotić and Vučićević in 1832. Milaković operated the printing press at Cetinje Monastery, served as editor-in-chief of Grlica and edited all Njegoš's works prior to their publication. Njegoš was also a great admirer of the Serbian revolutionary Karađorđe , who led the First Serbian Uprising , and dedicated Gorski vijenac to his memory. The linguist Vuk Karadžić influenced Njegoš through his reforms of
7650-473: A piety more appropriate for the treatment of a saint than a writer." At the end of the Second World War , Yugoslavia came under communist rule. In 1952, Yugoslavia's communist authorities decided to replace Njegoš's chapel with a secular mausoleum designed by Ivan Meštrović . Wachtel suggests that this was done to "de-Serbianize" Njegoš and eliminate any trace of the chapel's Byzantine design. In
7905-401: A second revolt; it was also suppressed and Njegoš had all the rebels shot. He then sent an assassin to Scutari in a failed attempt to have Osman Pasha killed. Osman Pasha subsequently sent a number of his own assassins to kill Njegoš, who survived several attempted poisonings and an attempted bombing of his headquarters. By 1848, the situation on Montenegro's southern border had stabilized. By
Kosovo Myth - Misplaced Pages Continue
8160-448: A successor. Prior to his death, the elderly vladika had dictated his will and testament to Njegoš's old mentor, Milutinović, where he named Njegoš as his successor and granted all of his ecclesiastical and secular powers to him. The will also cursed anyone who trampled over Montenegro's traditional bonds with Russia in exchange for better relations with Austria, swearing that leprosy would strike them down. Some Montenegrins hostile to
8415-436: Is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian . Serbian is practically the only European standard language whose speakers are fully functionally digraphic , using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić , who created it based on phonemic principles. The Latin alphabet used for Serbian ( latinica )
8670-566: Is a myth of Golden Age and Fall. Since its late 19th century ideological construction, the Kosovo myth describes Kosovo as the metaphorical cradle of the Serb nation, and the Serbs as a chosen people. The Kosovo myth is incorporated into the Serb national identity's multifaceted mythomoteur . Military defeat in the Kosovo Battle was portrayed as a moral victory. The centrality of the Kosovo Myth
8925-527: Is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian (more specifically on the dialects of Šumadija-Vojvodina and Eastern Herzegovina ), which is also the basis of standard Croatian , Bosnian , and Montenegrin varieties and therefore the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Montenegrins was issued in 2017. The other dialect spoken by Serbs
9180-591: Is closer to the Kajkavian and Chakavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian ). Speakers by country: Serbian was the official language of Montenegro until October 2007, when the new Constitution of Montenegro replaced the Constitution of 1992. Amid opposition from pro-Serbian parties, Montenegrin was made the sole official language of the country, and Serbian was given the status of a language in official use along with Bosnian , Albanian , and Croatian . In
9435-514: Is considered as masterpiece and one of the most celebrated works in the South Slavic literature, represents a prominent example that glorifies the heroic ideals and spirit of the Kosovo Myth. It covers a fictional struggle to extermination against converted Muslim Slavs and Ottoman domination. Petrović-Njegoš often referred to the characters of the Kosovo Myth, cursing Vuk Branković and celebrating Miloš Obilić, and also used birds as symbols. At
9690-434: Is no reliable information about her exact year of birth, but it is believed that she was about ten years younger than her husband. Tomo and Ivana had five children; their eldest son was Petar ("Pero"), Rade was their middle son and Jovan ("Joko") was their youngest. The couple's daughters were named Marija and Stana; Marija was married to a Montenegrin chieftain named Andrija Perović, the serdar (count) of Cuce , while Stana
9945-520: Is referred to simply as Njegoš. The Radonjićes traditionally opposed Montenegro's close ties with Russia, advocating a closer relationship with Austria instead. This pro-Austrian orientation dated to the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, when Austria annexed all of Venice's possessions and established a land border with Montenegro. The Radonjićes then became the leading pro-Austrian clan and frequently made contact with Austrian agents in
10200-530: Is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, the Serbian Alexandride , a book about Alexander the Great , and a translation of Tristan and Iseult into Serbian. Although not belonging to the literature proper, the corpus of Serbian literacy in the 14th and 15th centuries contains numerous legal, commercial and administrative texts with marked presence of Serbian vernacular juxtaposed on
10455-645: Is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs . It is the official and national language of Serbia , one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina and co-official in Montenegro and Kosovo . It is a recognized minority language in Croatia , North Macedonia , Romania , Hungary , Slovakia , and the Czech Republic . Standard Serbian
Kosovo Myth - Misplaced Pages Continue
10710-435: Is the only general historical dictionary of Serbo-Croatian. Its first editor was Đuro Daničić , followed by Pero Budmani and the famous Vukovian Tomislav Maretić . The sources of this dictionary are, especially in the first volumes, mainly Štokavian . There are older, pre-standard dictionaries, such as the 1791 German–Serbian dictionary or 15th century Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook . The standard and
10965-547: Is the painting Kosovo Maiden (1919) by Uroš Predić . Since its establishment, the myth and its poetic, literary, religious, and philosophical exposition was intertwined with political and ideological agendas. It became a central myth of Serbian nationalism used in the 19th century, and its importance was especially raised since the Congress of Berlin (1878). The myth was widely promulgated in Montenegro as well and it served advocates of Pan-Slavism and Yugoslavism before
11220-594: The Kingdom of the Slavs , which was important for the reconstruction and development of the myth, combining the records of historians and folk legends, while the Tronoša Chronicle (1791) also significantly contributed to the preservation of the legend. The development of myth was also influenced by French chanson de geste . The final form of the Kosovo Myth was constructed by philologist Vuk Karadžić , who published
11475-870: The Miloš Obilić (1828) by Jovan Sterija Popović , Tsar Lazar or the Fall of the Serbian Empire (1835) by Isidor Nikolić and the Miloš Obilić (1858) by Jovan Subotić . Matija Ban , a Serbian poet, dramatist, and playwright from Dubrovnik, included the motives of the Kosovo myth in the drama Tsar Lazar or the Defeat at Kosovo (1858), gradually giving them the values of Romantic nationalism. The poet Petar II Petrović-Njegoš , Prince-Bishop of Montenegro (1830–1851), and his epic drama The Mountain Wreath (1847), which
11730-431: The Tronoša Chronicle (1791) was compiled which contributed to the further preservation of the Kosovo legend. Characters of the myth have been also recorded in the works of Đorđe Branković , Vasilije Petrović and Pavle Julinac . During the 18th century, anti-Ottoman sentiments increased, and more comprehensive Kosovo legend became an integral part of the oral tradition. During the First Serbian Uprising (1804–1813),
11985-794: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Cyrillic script : Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и свешћу и треба једни према другима да поступају у духу братства. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Latin alphabet : Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i svešću i treba jedni prema drugima da postupaju u duhu bratstva. Article 1 of
12240-507: The fez , a Turkish hat that was commonly worn throughout the Balkans by Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Njegoš proposed that Montenegrins instead adopt a traditional round hat ( kapa ) commonly worn in the region of Kotor. The thin black band that lined its exterior represented mourning for the Serb defeat at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, and its red top symbolized all the Serbian blood that had been spilt since then. Njegoš also introduced
12495-526: The Battle of Karbala myth among Albanians as a source of inspiration in their struggle against Ottoman domination , although that myth has a similar contest and style as the Serbian-Orthodox Kosovo Myth. The Kosovo Myth has for a long time been a central subject in Serbian folklore and Serbian literary tradition , and for centuries was cultivated mostly in the form of oral epic poetry and guslar poems. The mythologization of
12750-490: The Battle of Maritsa in 1371, Kosovo was the spiritual fall of Serbia and a beginning of a new era for the Serbs. The real Kosovo Battle was not as decisive as presented by the myth because the final downfall of medieval Serbian state happened 70 years after it, in 1459, when the Ottomans captured Smederevo . Historians cannot reliably establish the identity of Murad's assassin, as well as the existence of betrayal by Vuk Branković or anyone else. There are various theories about
13005-596: The Bay of Kotor , on the Montenegrin frontier. Vuko Radonjić's conflict with Njegoš took on both a personal and a political dimension, not only because their clans were traditional rivals but because the Petrovićes were ardently pro-Russian, largely due to ecclesiastical ties between the vladika and the Russian Most Holy Synod . As guvernadur , Radonjić occupied a position that was meant exclusively for
SECTION 50
#173277259720413260-621: The Cetinje Monastery when he was twelve years old, studied Italian at the Savina Monastery for a year and spent eighteen months at the Topla Monastery near Herceg Novi , learning Russian and French under the tuition of reverend Josif Tropović. In October 1827, the young Njegoš was taken under the tutelage of the poet and playwright Sima Milutinović (nicknamed "Sarajlija"), who had come to Montenegro to serve as
13515-408: The Fall of Constantinople (1453), three thousand Serbs began a nomadic life. In these regions, the image of the Kosovo hero was cultivated and preserved. The figure of Murad's assassin probably originated in the culture of exile, where his heroic deed could inspire constant resistance to the Turks. The Byzantine historians from the 15th century, Doukas and Laonikos Chalkokondyles also wrote about
13770-483: The Gvardija , the Perjanici , all await [Njegoš's] nod. I don't believe that any other country in the world exists where the orders of the ruler are carried out so precisely and so quickly from the lowest to the greatest." In 1838, Njegoš hosted Saxon King Frederick Augustus II , a keen naturalist who had come to Montenegro to study the country's diverse flora. The king was housed at the Cetinje Monastery, and Njegoš
14025-522: The Kom Monastery . He adopted the ecclesiastical name Petar in honour of his late predecessor, thus becoming known as Petar II Petrović-Njegoš. Following his consecration, he signed himself using his monastic name and his surname. Thus, all of Njegoš's correspondences were signed under the name Petar Petrović, though the Montenegrin people continued to refer to him by his given name and affectionately called him Bishop Rade. In most scholarly texts, he
14280-491: The Kosovo Polje . On the last supper before the battle hosted by Lazar, he told his knights that one of them would betray him. Deceived by his son-in-law Vuk Branković , he accused Miloš Obilić , which Obilić opposed, claiming that he would kill Murаd I. Per legend, Lazar was visited the night before battle by a grey hawk or falcon from Jerusalem who offered a choice between an "earthly kingdom", implying victory at
14535-561: The Ottoman Empire since the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, though elements of self-governance had existed since the earliest days of Turkish rule in the 15th century. For decades, Ottoman authorities treated the inhabitants of western Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina as unsubjected filuricis who were only obligated to pay a fixed amount of Florentine ducats ( florin ) to the Ottomans each year. Such taxation did not increase with
14790-546: The Ottoman Empire , and by his attempts to expand Montenegro's territory while gaining unconditional recognition from the Sublime Porte . He was a proponent of uniting and liberating the Serb people , willing to concede his princely rights in exchange for a union with Serbia and his recognition as the religious leader of all Serbs (akin to a modern-day Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church ). Although unification between
15045-658: The Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church , who strongly opposed the signing, used the motives of the Kosovo Myth in his radio speech. Milan Nedić and his puppet government of the German-occupied territory of Serbia also evoked the Myth, insisting that what the Yugoslav resistance movements are direct opponents of the values and legacy of Kosovo heroes. The Ustaše used Vidovdan as an excuse for
15300-411: The Perjanici and the Gvardija was increased substantially and Montenegrins caught feuding or conducting raids against Ottoman border towns were more severely punished. Njegoš also opened two gunpowder factories in Rijeka Crnojevića, and built a number of roads and artesian wells . He promoted a pan-Serb identity among his people, persuading Montenegrins to show solidarity with Serbia and stop wearing
15555-631: The Proto-Slavic language . There are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history. Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, English, Russian, German, Czech and French. Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages , and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje ( Miroslav's Gospel ) in 1186 and Dušanov zakonik ( Dušan's Code ) in 1349. Little secular medieval literature has been preserved, but what there
SECTION 60
#173277259720415810-512: The Tablja , the tower was meant to rival Ali Pasha's citadel in Mostar, where the severed heads of four to five Serbs were displayed at any given time. John Gardner Wilkinson , an English traveler and Egyptologist , saw the Tablja while visiting Cetinje in 1844. He noted the "acrid stench" that the structure exuded and recalled how dogs would tear pieces of flesh and bone away from the rotting heads and drag them across Cetinje. Wilkinson met with both Njegoš and Ali Pasha on separate occasions over
16065-542: The United States , and that "the key question is whether force will prevail over justice in the new Battle of Kosovo". After the election victory of the For a European Serbia coalition in 2008, they announced that they would not give up their "Kosovo orientation". Оn the anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo in 2009, Boris Tadić , President of Serbia (2004–2012), said :"Nobody can take Vidovdan from Serbia and from Serbs", but that it should not be celebrated as in 1989, which led to wars and sanctions, while Vuk Jeremić ,
16320-580: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Petar II Petrovi%C4%87-Njego%C5%A1 Petar II Petrović-Njegoš ( Serbian Cyrillic : Петар II Петровић-Његош , pronounced [pětar drûɡi pětroʋitɕ ɲêɡoʃ] ; 13 November [ O.S. 1 November] 1813 – 31 October [ O.S. 19 October] 1851), commonly referred to simply as Njegoš ( Његош ),
16575-421: The guvernadur (governor) of Montenegro, Vukolaj "Vuko" Radonjić, and all the other chieftains. Another account holds that Radonjić hotly opposed Njegoš's succession and argued that the expatriated Đorđije was Petar I's true heir. The reason behind Radonjić's opposition to Njegoš lay in the fact that his clan, the Radonjićes, were bitter enemies of Njegoš's Petrović clan. Apparently, Radonjić's opinion did not sway
16830-457: The official script of Serbia's administration by the 2006 Constitution . The Latin script continues to be used in official contexts, although the government has indicated its desire to phase out this practice due to national sentiment. The Ministry of Culture believes that Cyrillic is the "identity script" of the Serbian nation. However, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language , or standard language itself by any means, leaving
17085-439: The vladika and guvernadur jointly led Montenegrin warriors into battle, Njegoš was joined by Vukotić and his men. The Montenegrins were also assisted by the rebellious Hoti clan of northern Albania. Njegoš and his forces were still at a disadvantage, as they lacked a concrete strategy for how to deal with the Ottomans and were not expecting them to bring cavalry onto the field. The Montenegrins' guerilla-like approach to warfare
17340-445: The vladika' s prolonged absence to increase his own power. Njegoš quickly moved to push Vukotić aside, installing his own brother Pero as senate leader and their cousin Đorđije—who had recently returned from Saint Petersburg—as Pero's deputy. Vukotić and Vučićević were exiled to Russia. There, they spread countless rumours about Njegoš in an attempt to tarnish his reputation. While their actions threatened to ruin his image abroad, Njegoš
17595-429: The "Kosovo Cycle" after collecting traditional epic poems. Many South Slavic literary and visual artists were influenced by Kosovo legends, including some highly internationally recognized. The most significant ones who have perpetuated the Kosovo Myth are the poet Petar II Petrović-Njegoš with his epic drama The Mountain Wreath (1847) and the sculptor Ivan Meštrović , while one of the main artistic representation
17850-541: The 10th century, according to the author Milovan Djilas . Njeguši was dominated by the Petrovićes' ancestral home, which was the only two-storied house in the village and was made entirely out of stone. Members of Njeguši's Petrović clan had been hereditary Serbian Orthodox Metropolitans ( Prince-Bishops ) of Cetinje since 1696; the title of Prince-Bishop ( Serbian : vladika ) was passed from uncle to nephew since Orthodox prelates were required to be celibate and could not have children of their own. The ruling Prince-Bishop
18105-488: The 2023 Montenegrin census, 43.18% declared Serbian to be their native language, while Montenegrin was declared by 34.52% of the population. Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic ( ћирилица , ćirilica ) and Latin script ( latinica , латиница ). Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia , a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them. Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or
18360-689: The 500th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo (1889), Franjo Rački and Tomislav Maretić , the key people of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb , gave lectures on the Battle of Kosovo and epic songs dedicated to it. During the 19th century, the Serbian government financed painters such as Đorđe Krstić and Nikola Aleksić to decorate churches and monasteries with paintings and frescoes with motifs of Kosovo martyrs. Many significant Serbian painters, Adam Stefanović , Pavle Čortanović , Paja Jovanović and Anastas Jovanović , portrayed
18615-531: The 600th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo, and later was arrested and extradited to the ICTY on 28 June 2001 to stand trial for charges of war crimes . Kosovo remained high on the agenda of Vojislav Koštunica , who served as the President of FR Yugoslavia (2000–2003) and Prime Minister of Serbia (2004–2008). He commented, among other things, that a new fight is being waged for control of Kosovo, this time with
18870-568: The Adriatic. In April 1848, Njegoš secretly hosted Serbian emissary Matija Ban in Cetinje. The two discussed plans for instigating an uprising in Bosnia, Herzegovina and "Old Serbia" (Kosovo and Macedonia ), seeking to take advantage of the revolutionary fervor sweeping through Europe. Whereas the Serbians were more focused on destabilizing the Ottoman establishment in Kosovo and Macedonia, Njegoš
19125-469: The Austrian officials were discovered, he was apprehended by Njegoš's warriors, taken back to Cetinje and put on trial for treason alongside his brother Marko on 16 January [ O.S. 5 January] 1832. The two were accused of inciting Serbs to flee from Montenegro and settle in neighbouring Austrian lands, and of conspiring to overthrow Njegoš so that the Radonjićes could surrender Montenegro to
19380-620: The Austrians defining the Austro–Montenegrin border. Despite the agreement, the Austrians failed to officially recognize Montenegro as a sovereign state, and demanded the Montenegrins' complete withdrawal from the coast in exchange for Montenegrin tribesmen being permitted to seek pasturage for their sheep and cattle in Kotor. The withdrawal required the Montenegrins to give up two historic monasteries ( Podmaine and Stanjevići), which
19635-438: The Austrians subsequently purchased for a considerable sum. Despite these concessions, the agreement improved trading between the two sides. In 1842, Njegoš and Ali Pasha met at a Dubrovnik palace to negotiate peace. The two eventually reached an agreement, which was signed before representatives of Austria and Russia. As Njegoš and Ali Pasha emerged from the palace, Ali Pasha produced a bag full of gold coins and tossed them into
19890-537: The Austrians, who wished to avoid a South Slav uprising in the Habsburg territories. Consequently, Vienna increased its surveillance of the vladika and intercepted all his correspondence, amid widespread turmoil during the revolutions of 1848 . That year, Njegoš supported the efforts of the pan-Slavist Ban Josip Jelačić to resist the implementation of Hungarian as the official language of Croatia . Njegoš soon became disillusioned with Jelačić due to his siding with
20145-587: The Battle and about "sacrifice of a Christian nobleman who killed the Sultan in his tent". Serbian soldier and author of a memoir Konstantin Mihailović was the first to mention the name of Miloš Obilić in his work the Memoirs of a Janissary (ca. 1497), while he also described the betrayal of Vuk Branković. An anonymous resident of Dubrovnik or Dalmatia translated Doukas' parts about the Battle of Kosovo, citing
20400-510: The Battle, or the Kingdom of Heaven , where the Serbs would be defeated. It is sometimes said that the biblical prophet Elijah appeared in the form of a falcon. Lazar chose to die as a Christian martyr , thus achieving a special status for Serbs as a heavenly people. The warriors accepted his words, stating that the Serbs would get freedom in heaven, but that they would never be enslaved. Lazar also cursed those Serbs who refuse to join him on
20655-528: The Christian raia (subject peasantry) and their Ottoman overlords continued following the Battle of Grahovo. In 1838, Njegoš erected a fortress at Humac overlooking Grahovo. The fortress strategically dominated the area, and threatened Ali Pasha's hold on the wider region. Following his second visit to Saint Petersburg, Njegoš was under considerable pressure from the Russians to secure a peace settlement, and
20910-489: The Drobnjaci and Pivljani. Instead, he persuaded the tribes to assassinate Smaïl-aga himself, as well as his closest associates, leaving Rustem-beg unprotected and powerless to avenge his father's death. The Drobnjaci heeded Njegoš's advice and organized a plot to have Smaïl-aga killed. In early September 1840, some of the Drobnjaci rebelled and refused to pay tribute to Smaïl-aga's son, instead daring Smaïl-aga to come to their villages and collect it himself. Smaïl-aga arranged for
21165-539: The Drobnjaci he risked alienating a sizeable portion of his countrymen. At the same time, Njegoš realized that such negotiations could increase Montenegro's territory and bring about diplomatic recognition by Austria and the Ottomans, who wanted peace and an end to the continuous skirmishing on the Montenegrin–Turkish frontier. In 1841, in an attempt to legitimize his country and under Russian pressure to normalize relations with Austria, Njegoš reached an agreement with
21420-404: The Drobnjaci. More than seventy Drobnjaci warriors were killed, dozens of homes were torched, wells were poisoned and several women were raped. At the same time, Ali Pasha sought to shore up his own position by removing any pretext for intervention by the Porte. He contacted Njegoš and expressed a willingness to engage in peace negotiations. Njegoš was in a quandary; he knew that by failing to avenge
21675-464: The Habsburgs, making it an Austrian protectorate. They were found guilty of treason once again, but this time they were immediately driven into exile. Radonjić died of natural causes on 30 May [ O.S. 19 May] 1832, shortly after being forced from Cetinje. The beginning of Njegoš' reign was marked by a revival of Montenegro's traditional alliance with Russia. The relationship between
21930-746: The Holy Synod vowed to provide all the necessary equipment and funds needed to maintain regular religious services in the country. Njegoš returned to Montenegro with the money that the czar had given him, as well as a number of theological books and icons for the Cetinje Monastery. Shortly afterwards, he established the first two elementary schools in Montenegro, one in Cetinje and the other in Dobrsko Selo, and sent sixteen young Montenegrins to pursue higher education in Serbia, seven of whom returned to Montenegro after finishing school. They were among
22185-574: The House of Habsburg against the Hungarians, believing that such an alliance was ultimately detrimental to the goal of South Slavic unification. Later that year, Njegoš began exchanging letters with Prince Aleksandar of Serbia and the politician Ilija Garašanin , who sought to acquire Serbia access to the sea and revive the medieval Serbian Empire . Montenegro's geographic location made it particularly significant to Garašanin because of its proximity to
22440-661: The Kosovo Cult, focusing more on self-serving heroic narrative. The Kosovo Myth was used to create a Serbian victimization narrative. This myth and its connection to the Serbian victim-centered position was used to legitimize reincorporation of the whole Kosovo into Serbia. The Kosovo Myth was activated and linked to the metaphors of 'genocide'. Albanians were presented by Serb writers as a treacherous and violent people who were settled in Kosovo to collaborate with Ottoman occupiers and terrorize Christian Serbs. They were at times accused of persecution and genocide of Kosovo Serbs since
22695-603: The Kosovo Myth also became a trope in common culture of Croats and Slovenes . On Vidovdan in 1914, Gavrilo Princip , the Bosnian Serb member of Young Bosnia , assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria which initiated the July Crisis and led to the outbreak of World War I . Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović and other members of the Young Bosnia were inspired by the heroism of Miloš Obilić, reenacting
22950-433: The Kosovo Myth and its poetic, literary, religious, and philosophical exposition was intertwined with political and ideological agendas. It has had a large impact on Serbian society, and has served as the most powerful Serbian cultural myth. The Myth served as an important constitutive element of the national identity of modern Serbia and its politics. Historian Sima Ćirković criticised what he called "Vidovdan mythology" on
23205-603: The Kosovo Myth from the standpoint of ethics . Works of Ivo Andrić , who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961, are sometimes associated with the Kosovo Myth. He wrote an essay about Petrović Njegoš called the "Tragic hero of Kosovo thought". The martyrdom of Radisav, a character from Andrić's most famous novel The Bridge on the Drina (1945), has been described by some scholars as the reworking of Kosovo legacy and
23460-548: The Kosovo Myth. Princip knew the entire Njegoš's The Mountain Wreath . In 1916, the Yugoslav Committee declared Vidovdan as a national holiday of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The Myth was used by main advocates of the Yugoslav ideology as a pan-Yugoslav myth in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . In 1920, Vidovdan became one of the three public holidays called "St. Vitus' Day Heroes", aimg to the symbolic integration of
23715-637: The Kosovo cycle Chants de guerre de la Serbie, étude, traductions, commentaires (1916) by Léo d'Orfer [ fr ] was awarded an Prix Langlois by the Académie Française . Shortly after the withdrawal of the Serbian Army through Kosovo and Albania during World War I , the poets began writing on Kosovo topics again. In 1917, Milutin Bojić published the Poems of pain and pride ,
23970-667: The Kosovo legends and heroes attracted much attention and were exhibited in many European cities, including in the Grafton Galleries in London and at the Venice Biennale . Croatian painter Mirko Rački , also adopted the mythos and painted numerous paintings within Kosovo cycle, including The Mother of the Jugović , Nine Jugović brothers , Kosovo Maiden and Miloš Obilić . French translation of Serbian epic songs of
24225-682: The Kosovo myth in Republika Srpska is most clearly manifested in the fact that Vidovdan was declared in 1992 as an official Slava of the Bosnian Serb army, while for most of Bosnian Serbs, Ratko Mladić was considered the Lazar of modern times who with his soldiers was fighting the Turks . Vidovdan was also a date that symbolized the rise and fall of Milošević, as he gave a speech in the presence of about а million people in 1989 to mark
24480-458: The Kosovo myth in Serbia. In the context of the Kosovo myth, Greater Serbian propagandists have produced various slogans regarding Kosovo in contemporary Serbia. The myth was used by the Milošević government and Serbian Orthodox Church to create a narrative of superior Serbdom in conflict with barbarian forces, in order to justify violent actions that were being planned at the time. This way, the myth
24735-828: The Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one. Latin script has become more and more popular in Serbia, as it is easier to input on phones and computers. The sort order of the ćirilica ( ћирилица ) alphabet: The sort order of the latinica ( латиница ) alphabet: Serbian is a highly inflected language , with grammatical morphology for nouns, pronouns and adjectives as well as verbs. Serbian nouns are classified into three declensional types, denoted largely by their nominative case endings as "-a" type, "-i" and "-e" type. Into each of these declensional types may fall nouns of any of three genders : masculine, feminine or neuter. Each noun may be inflected to represent
24990-410: The Latin script predominates, although both scripts are commonly seen. The Serbian government has encouraged increasing the use of Cyrillic in these contexts. Larger signs, especially those put up by the government, will often feature both alphabets; if the sign has English on it, then usually only Cyrillic is used for the Serbian text. A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors
25245-450: The Latin script tends to imply a cosmopolitan or neutral attitude, while Cyrillic appeals to a more traditional or vintage sensibility. In media, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia , predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink , predominantly use the Latin script. Newspapers can be found in both scripts. In the public sphere, with logos, outdoor signage and retail packaging,
25500-516: The Mediterranean given the nature of Russo−Montenegrin relations. Njegoš stayed in Saint Petersburg for less than a month. He was escorted out of the city by Russian Lieutenant Colonel Jakov Nikolaevich Ozeretskovsky, who returned to Cetinje with the Montenegrin delegation to personally observe developments in Montenegro on behalf of the czar. Njegoš's visit to Russia encouraged him to undertake further modernization efforts. The size of both
25755-539: The Middle Ages. This portrayal included claims of a centuries-long genocide of Serbs continued in the 19th century through the forcible expulsion of up to 150,000 Serbs, and also in Tito's Yugoslavia that 'morally disqualified' Albanians to claim any control of Kosovo at the expense of Serbs. There was little statistical information to support these Serbian claims of genocide, nor was rape as frequent an occurrence there as
26010-655: The Montenegrin chieftains large amounts of wheat if they rose up against the Petrovićes. Njegoš was caught off-guard, having spent much of late 1846 in Vienna overseeing the publication of his epic poem , Gorski vijenac (The Mountain Wreath). The leaders of the rebellion were Markiša Plamenac , a captain with the Perjanici in Crmnica, and Todor Božović , a senator from the Piperi tribe. Plamenac had been one of Njegoš's close confidants. According to legend, he planned to become
26265-523: The Montenegrin warriors were hacked to death in the ensuing chaos, including Stevan and all eight Petrović chiefs. Joko was killed by Smaïl-aga himself, and his severed head was impaled on a spike for all to see. Njegoš responded by launching a counter-attack near Grahovo and fought the Ottomans to a standstill. Grahovo's inhabitants fled to the Austrian-held territory on the Adriatic coast, but after being refused sanctuary, they were forced to return to
26520-425: The Montenegrins and neighboring Muslim tribes were all too common, as was cattle rustling , banditry and headhunting . Men devoted much of their energy to incessant blood feuds , limiting the effectiveness of Montenegrin resistance to the Turks. Most physical labors was done by women; entertainment consisted of contests exhibiting feats of strength and evenings spent listening to songs recounting heroic exploits to
26775-623: The Montenegrins for his grisly death, and also wished to follow in the footsteps of his father, Suleiman Pasha, who had played a key role in crushing the First Serbian Uprising in 1813. Osman Pasha invaded southern Montenegro in 1843, and his forces soon seized the strategically important islands of Vranjina and Lesendro on Lake Skadar . The capture of these islands rendered Montenegrin trading excursions to towns such as Podgorica and Scutari nearly impossible. The Porte sensed an opportunity to bring Montenegro in line, and offered to recognize Njegoš as secular ruler of Montenegro if he in turn recognized
27030-643: The Mother of the Jugović" by Ivo Vojnović , a poet and playwright from Dubrovnik, was first performed in Belgrade in 1906 and in Zagreb in 1907. The first Serbian film, The Life and Deeds of the Immortal Leader Karađorđe (1911) directed by Ilija Stanojević , which portrays Karađorđe 's leadership of the First Serbian Uprising of 1804–1813, also features a famous guslar Filip Višnjić who sings about
27285-448: The Myth, Lazar chose to die as a Christian martyr , with the aim of providing Serbs with a place in the Kingdom of Heaven , instead of the "earthly kingdom" and victory in the battle. In the myth, as opposed to what actually happened in reality, Vuk Branković withdrew his troops at crucial moments, thus becoming a symbol of a betrayal, while Miloš Obilić assassinated Murad I and then was executed. In fact, Branković fought valiantly to
27540-629: The Obilić Medal for Valour, named after the legendary Serb warrior Miloš Obilić , who is said to have slain the Ottoman Sultan at Kosovo; the medal became Montenegro's highest military decoration and was awarded until Montenegro's union with Serbia in 1918. In keeping with his tendencies towards secularization, Njegoš now insisted on being addressed using royal titles as opposed to religious ones. Ozeretskovsky, now Russian envoy in Cetinje, wrote approvingly of Njegoš's efforts: "Senators, captains,
27795-495: The Ottomans attempted to impose some of the taxes normally paid by other Christian subjects, the Serbs revolted and carved out their own autonomous region. Absence of Ottoman authority produced an ideal opportunity for tribalism to flourish. Thousands of Serbs who remained in Ottoman-held territory converted to Islam to avoid paying these newly imposed taxes. Converts were granted full rights and privileges as Muslim subjects of
28050-493: The Ottomans had recognized Montenegro's independence, while the final clause made no mention of Ali Pasha at all. Indeed, Ali Pasha resented what he viewed as Mehmed Pasha's interference in the affairs of the Herzegovina eyalet and began plotting to undermine the agreement. In early 1839, Njegoš sent a delegation consisting of Daković, vojvoda Radovan Piper, reverend Stevan Kovačević and several others to Bosnia to ascertain
28305-456: The Ottomans, Njegoš was powerless to stop them. The creation of the Governing Senate introduced some semblance of order into Montenegrin politics. Vukotić was proclaimed the senate's president and Vučićević became its vice-president. The Montenegrins referred to them as "their Russian lordships". In total, the senate was made up of twelve men who received an annual salary of 40 talirs each. It had legislative, judiciary and executed powers, and
28560-494: The Petrović clan alleged that Milutinović had fabricated the document in order to make Njegoš vladika , pointing to their close friendship as proof. Several scholars have raised the possibility that the will was indeed a forgery, though most modern historians believe that it was genuine. The day after Petar's death, all of Montenegro's chieftains met in Cetinje to confirm the new vladika . According to one account, there were several chieftains who did not wish to see Njegoš bestowed
28815-463: The Porte pressure Ali Pasha to do the same. Seeking to avert a wider conflict, Njegoš wrote a letter to Mehmed Pasha Veçihi , the vizier of Bosnia, arguing that Grahovo had been settled by the Montenegrins several generations earlier, that it had paid taxes to the Ottomans for decades while abiding by Montenegrin customary law, and that Muslims and Christians had lived in the area peacefully until Ali Pasha's atrocities two years earlier. Njegoš also sent
29070-508: The Porte's sovereignty over his country. Njegoš refused, and attempted to retake the islands by force. The Montenegrin forces had no artillery to speak of, and each one of their attempts to recapture the islands resulted in failure. Njegoš tried to enlist foreign support, particularly from Russia and France. To Njegoš's surprise, the Russians were not interested in entangling themselves in the dispute. The French, although sympathetic, failed to intervene. The United Kingdom, as it usually did prior to
29325-557: The Radonjićes and their supporters regularly claimed that his powers were equal to that of the vladika while the Petrovićes and their supporters argued that the vladika always had the final say in Montenegrin affairs. Now, with Njegoš poised to take the throne, Radonjić began claiming the superiority of his office and attempted to attain full control over secular affairs. In late November 1830, Radonjić wrote to vice-consul Gagić in Dubrovnik complaining about Cetinje's inability to hold
29580-478: The Radonjićes, just as the post of vladika could only be held by a Petrović. The office of guvernadur dated back to 1715, when the Venetian Senate created the title of supreme vojvoda (duke) to share power with the vladika of Montenegro. The Venetians titled it governattore , which became guvernadur in Montenegrin dialect. Although the jurisdiction of a guvernadur had never been clearly defined,
29835-545: The Russians, whose support Montenegro still desperately needed. To neutralize any suspicion that Montenegro was acting against Russian interests, Njegoš cultivated a close personal friendship with vice-consul Grujić, who advised the czar that Njegoš was as dependable as ever. In one of his letters to Grujić, Njegoš reported that the final advice Petar I gave him before his death was "pray to God and hold on to Russia". In 1833, Vukotić introduced regular taxation to Montenegro. As Vukotić, Grujić and Njegoš all realized, without taxes
30090-703: The Serb Kosovo myth. The lack of eyewitnesses accounts of the battle and the early development of the legend made it difficult to comprehend the facts related to the Battle of Kosovo. What is reliably known are the journey of the Turks from Plovdiv to Gazimestan, the time and place of the event, as well as the deaths of both rulers. Lazar's Christian coalition also included the unit of the King of Bosnia Tvrtko I , as well as Albanian , Bulgarian , Croatian , Czech , Greek , Hungarian , Frankish , and Wallachian forces. The Serbian Empire began to break-up soon after
30345-523: The Serbian language, and used his own fame to popularize Njegoš's work. Moreover, he introduced Njegoš to his inner circle, which included some of the leading Serb poets of the day, such as Branko Radičević and Milica Stojadinović-Srpkinja . Njegoš was also impacted by the works of foreign writers, such as Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy and John Milton 's Paradise Lost ; their influence can be strongly felt in Luča mikrokozma . Slapšak notes that Njegoš
30600-407: The Serbian nationalists alleged it to be. According to David Bruce MacDonald , this style of "paranoid rhetoric" demonstrates both the perseverance and versatility of Serbian writers when faced with the reality that Serbs had not been victims of genocide in any conventional sense. Yugoslav Communist authorities , who downplayed the national histories of the country's communities, worked to suppress
30855-571: The Serbian tradition, the red color of the Paeonia peregrina has become a symbol of "bloodshed in the Battle of Kosovo". On the other hand, Lazar was captured by the Ottoman Turks and beheaded. The sacrifice of Lazar and his knights for the sake of the Kingdom of Heaven resulted in the defeat of the Serbian army by the Turks, while the Serbs were presented as the chosen people who signed
31110-525: The Sultan, while non-Muslims were viewed as second-class subjects and treated as such. Hence, Christians viewed all converts with derision and considered them "traitors to the faith of their forefathers". Religious killings were common in times of war since both Christians and Muslims considered members of the opposing faith to be apostates worthy of death. Although Montenegrin warriors often attributed their country's survival as an independent entity to their own military prowess, journalist Tim Judah notes that
31365-611: The Terrible (1567) contains nine miniatures about the events from the Kosovo legends, mostly related to the battle. In 1601, Ragusan chronicler Mavro Orbini published the Kingdom of the Slavs in Italian , which was important for the reconstruction and development of the myth, combining the records of historians and folk legends. In the following period, many stories were published by anonymous authors in Ragusa and Bay of Kotor ,
31620-615: The Turkish-controlled Zeta Plain and had lived in Russia for much of their lives. They were tasked with establishing a strong central government which could control the country's many tribes. Vukotić was quite wealthy, having inherited a large sum of money from a noble family member, and had experience as a non-commissioned officer in the Russian military. Aside from having to deal with Russian political interference, Njegoš faced several other limitations to his power. He had no army, militia or police force to enforce
31875-433: The Turks often saw little point in expending blood and resources trying to subdue the impoverished sliver of land controlled by the Montenegrin chieftains. As far as the Ottomans were concerned, the Montenegrins were "rebellious infidels" who only wished to plunder what property their more prosperous Muslim neighbors possessed. Throughout the 18th century, thousands of Montenegrins left their homeland and migrated to Serbia in
32130-483: The Turks. Fortunately for Njegoš, some members of the Plamenac tribe had remained loyal to the Petrovićes. About two weeks later, a force of about 2,000 Petrovićes, Katuni and Plamenac tribesmen forced the Turks out of Crmnica. Plamenac fled Montenegro and sought refuge with the vizier , persuading him to erect an Ottoman fortification on the island of Grmožur to keep Njegoš's forces at bay. Njegoš countered by building
32385-647: The Yugoslav wars, the Kosovo myth was prevalent, with new war commanders and politicians being compared to heroes from the battle of Kosovo, some of which were later suspected of war crimes. During the Bosnian War and Bosnian genocide , Ratko Mladić , Commander of the Army of Republika Srpska , often called Bosniaks "Turks", calling on his troops for revenge and " the Revolt against the Dahijas ". The important role of
32640-419: The abandon of Lazar, Obilić came to the sultan's tent and after kneeling to allegedly kiss Murad's feet, took out a dagger and mortally wounded him. The dying sultan ordered Obilić's execution, while this sacrifice showed his loyalty to Lazar and heroism. Defeat in battle was characterized as the downfall of the glorious medieval Serbian Kingdom and subsequent a long-lasting Ottoman occupation and slavery . In
32895-579: The accompaniment of the gusle . Before the 19th century, western Montenegro was nothing more than a cluster of feuding tribes presided over by the Metropolitans of Cetinje. Montenegrin territory consisted of four small districts ( Turkish : nahiye ), the most important of which was the Katuni nahiya with its nine tribes (Cetinje, Njeguši, Ćeklići, Bjelice, Cuce, Čevo, Pješivci, Zagarač, and Komani). These areas had been de facto independent from
33150-834: The age of seventeen, and his literary opus includes Glas kamenštaka (The Voice of a Stone-Cutter; 1833), Lijek jarosti turske (The Cure for Turkish Fury; 1834), Ogledalo srpsko (The Serbian Mirror; 1835), Luča mikrokozma (The Ray of the Microcosm; 1845), Gorski vijenac (The Mountain Wreath; 1847), Lažni car Šćepan mali (The False Tsar Stephen the Little; 1851) and, posthumously, Slobodijada (The Freedom Song; 1854). His most famous works are Luča mikrokozma , Gorski vijenac and Lažni car Šćepan mali , all epic poems. The historian Zdenko Zlatar argues that Njegoš's mentor (and later secretary) Sima Milutinović influenced him more than any other person, noting that while Milutinović "was not
33405-480: The air, prompting the Montenegrin delegation—which included several chiefs—to scramble after as many as possible. Through this action, Ali Pasha effectively demonstrated Montenegro's poverty before the Austrians and Russians, embarrassing Njegoš in the process. Osman Pasha, the vizier of Scutari, was an exceptional politician and military leader. Despite his Serb origin, he held a deep hatred for Montenegro, and Njegoš in particular. As Smaïl-aga's son-in-law, he blamed
33660-516: The allegations of fund misappropriation further tarnished his reputation among the Russians. In early August 1836, the vizier of the Herzegovina Eyalet , Ali Pasha Rıdvanoğlu , attacked Grahovo , a town on Montenegro's northern frontier that had long been claimed by the Montenegrins. Its Christian inhabitants, still Ali Pasha's feudatories, had refused to pay the haraç , an Ottoman poll tax on non-Muslims. Ali Pasha's forces overran
33915-457: The ambush. Once Smaïl-aga was dead, the warrior Mirko Aleksić severed his head with an axe. Cerović then took the head to Cetinje and presented it to Njegoš. Satisfied with the outcome of the plot, Njegoš rewarded Cerović by making him a senator. The killing of Smaïl-aga set in motion a series of attacks which left many Montenegrins and Turks dead. Anxious to conceal his role in the murder, Ali Pasha pretended to be outraged and ordered an attack on
34170-475: The arrest of several other Montenegrins who then took their place as Ali Pasha's hostages. For his part, Njegoš backed down on his commitment to raze any Montenegrin fortifications overlooking Grahovo and left the Humac fortress intact, ensuring that the agreement between him and Mehmed Pasha was never implemented. Smaïl-aga's contribution to the Ottoman victory at Grahovo was so great that the Porte had granted him
34425-563: The assassination of the Ottoman Sultan Murad I was the Life of Despot Stefan Lazarević by Constantine of Kostenets , although the name of the executor was not mentioned. The heroic image of the Battle of Kosovo and the cult of Lazar's martyrdom has lost its force over time. The epic expression of the Battle was cultivated in the emigration of Serbs to the mountainous regions of Old Serbia , Montenegro and Herzegovina . Following
34680-487: The battle and settled in the unreachable mountains. The Kosovo Myth was present among the people in Montenegro before the time of Petar II Petrović-Njegoš , in the form of folk legends and especially folk songs . He introduced the traditional Montenegrin cap with the aim of strengthening the presence of the Kosovo Myth in everyday life and emphasizing the direct connection with medieval Serbia . Nicholas I of Montenegro (Prince 1860–1910 and King 1910–1918) successfully used
34935-402: The battle occurred shortly after the event. The legend was not fully formed immediately after the battle but evolved from different originators into various versions. Many sources from 14th to 18th century have preserved oral narration of the Kosovo Battle, such as chronicles, genealogies, annals, religious cult texts and travellers' tales. Epic poetry was well developed among Serbs and represented
35190-506: The battle on Kosovo Polje, this hill came to be seen as the "cradle of Serbia" and one of the most Serb nation's most holy places . Sabrina P. Ramet compared the myths about Prince Lazar with the myths about the knighthood of the King Arthur and the martyrdom of Olaf II of Norway , as well as the legends about Stephen I of Hungary . Gerlachlus Duijzings noted that, in a similar way, Naim Frashëri tried through Bektashism to promote
35445-416: The battlefield and see her sons and husband fighting. Then, the raven gave her a confirmation of the death of her family members. In addition to the transformation of Elijah, the falcon represented warriors. Contrary to common symbols, doves were called cowardly and weak enemies, and eagles were depicted as scavengers the flesh of the victims. Ljubinka Trgovčević described the elements and symbolism of
35700-639: The battlefield. He and the Serbian army received communion in the Church of St. John the Baptist in Samodreža . The battle took place on the Christian St. Vitus Day , known in Serbia as Vidovdan . After an agreement with the Ottoman sultan, in order to preserve his positions, Vuk Branković withdrew his troops at crucial moments of the battle, thus becoming symbol of a betrayal. Pretending to surrender after
35955-420: The beginning of the 13th century, the entire official correspondence of Dubrovnik with states in the hinterland was conducted in Serbian. In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature. However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature,
36210-548: The chapel himself, and oversaw its construction in 1845. Following his death in October 1851, Njegoš was interred at the Cetinje Monastery. His remains were transferred to Mount Lovćen in 1855. They remained there until 1916, when during the First World War , Montenegro was occupied by Austria-Hungary and the Habsburg occupiers decided to erect a monument to Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph on Mount Lovćen. Not wishing for
36465-482: The chieftains Mirko Petrović and Petar Vukotić . Njegoš returned to Cetinje in August 1851, with his health rapidly deteriorating. He died there on 31 October [ O.S. 19 October] 1851, surrounded by his closest associates and just two weeks shy of his thirty-eighth birthday. Eyewitnesses reported his last words as "love Montenegro and render justice to the poor." Njegoš's will named Danilo Petrović ,
36720-405: The chieftains and they composed a declaration proclaiming Njegoš the next vladika . According to this account, archimandrite Josif signed the declaration first and Radonjić signed it last after seeing that all of the other chieftains had done so. Despite not having any formal training as a monk, the teenaged Njegoš was consecrated in 1831 an archimandrite himself in a ceremony that took place in
36975-562: The chieftains to travel to Saint Petersburg and explain himself before the czar, given that Montenegro was increasingly desperate for Russian financial and political aid. The chieftains gave Njegoš their blessing, and he headed to Vienna before receiving any response from the Russians regarding his initial request. Njegoš was obliged to stay in Vienna for several weeks as the czar contemplated whether to grant him an audience. In Vienna, Njegoš spent more time with Karadžić, who had just returned from researching Slavic linguistic traits in Montenegro and
37230-407: The child died after only two months. Pero himself died in 1854 without having produced any male offspring, thus extinguishing the male line of Njegoš's parents. Njegoš's mother died in 1858, and his father lived into his late nineties, having outlived all three of his sons. Prior to his death, Njegoš had asked to be buried atop Mount Lovćen , in a chapel dedicated to his predecessor. He had designed
37485-439: The choice of script as a matter of personal preference and to the free will in all aspects of life (publishing, media, trade and commerce, etc.), except in government paperwork production and in official written communication with state officials, which have to be in Cyrillic. Traffic signs and directional signs, and place names, on main or international roads are to be written with both Cyrillic and Latin script To most Serbians,
37740-419: The chorus of Ancient Greek tragedies and that of Gorski vijenac (the kolo , which represents the collective voice of Montenegro's inhabitants, reflecting their hopes, fears and desires.) The epic also features similar character roles, such as that of the pensive ruler ( Danilo ), the hero ( Vuk Mandušić ), the blind prophetic monk ( iguman Stefan) and the lamenting woman (Batrić's sister). Most of what
37995-432: The company of women. Despite this, Russia increased its annual subsidy and provided wheat to Montenegro's famished citizens. While Montenegro's dependence on Russia often provided the impoverished statelet with desperately needed funding, it was geopolitically disastrous for the Montenegrins, as both the Ottomans and Austrians believed that Montenegrin access to the Adriatic would constitute de facto Russian penetration into
38250-538: The country had no chance of functioning as a centralized state, let alone one which could raise an independent army or survive without needing to rely on plunder or Russian charity. Even though the rates were low, the tribes fiercely resisted the new laws, which never managed to generate more revenue than funds received through Russian subsidies. Many chieftains refused to levy taxes against their tribes, and some even mockingly called on Njegoš to come and collect them himself. Njegoš left Cetinje in early 1833 and set out on
38505-427: The course of his travels and attempted to persuade them to cease beheading their prisoners. Njegoš agreed in principle, but maintained that ceasing to sever the heads of Turkish warriors would be perceived as "weakness" and serve only to invite attack. Ali Pasha objected along similar lines and said that he doubted the good faith of the Montenegrins, whom he claimed were known for their "wanton cruelty". Clashes between
38760-417: The creation of Yugoslavia in early 20th century. It was evoked at times of major historic events such as the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , World War I , creation of Yugoslavia , Yugoslav coup d'état , and especially to bolster a Serbian victimization narrative during the rise of Serbian nationalism in the 1980s, the breakup of Yugoslavia , and Kosovo War . The central events in
39015-416: The czar gave Njegoš permission to visit Saint Petersburg, just as a severe famine began to affect Montenegro. Immediately, Njegoš sensed that his second visit to the Russian capital was going to be different from the first. He was not greeted as warmly as he had been in 1833 and the Russians used the opportunity to call him out on several instances of "unmonkish" behaviour, particularly his fondness for being in
39270-461: The czar refused to meet him. Njegoš headed back to Montenegro in the summer, having consulted physicians in Vienna on his way back. While in Vienna, he encountered Serbian photographer Anastas Jovanović , who persuaded him to pose for a picture in his studio. Jovanović's calotype portrait is the only known photograph of Njegoš in existence. Jovanović also photographed a group of Perjanici that had accompanied Njegoš on his journey to Italy, as well as
39525-399: The death of Stefan Dušan (1355) and it had already collapsed long before the Kosovo Battle. The outcome of the battle is not clear from the source either. There are different conclusions, but the most common are those about the Ottoman victory. Tim Judah cites the possibility of a Serbian victory, while Noel Malcolm claims that the outcome was a draw. Although Serbia's strategic fall was
39780-613: The death of the sultan. Noel Malcolm explained that the story of the betrayal arose of confusion with the narratives related to the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448), when Đurađ Branković , Despot of Serbia and the son of Vuk Branković, refused to join John Hunyadi , Regent of Hungary , in the fight against the Ottomans. The Jugovići family and the Kosovo Maiden are fictionalized characters. Brendan Humphreys noted that
40035-576: The deaths, and were meant to lull him into a false sense of security. Between 1836 and 1840, relations between Smaïl-aga and the Christian inhabitants of his land had greatly deteriorated. Smaïl-aga's son, Rustem-beg, drank heavily and often raped women from the Drobnjaci and Pivljani tribes while stopping by their villages to collect tribute. Furious, the Drobnjaci approached Njegoš and asked him for help killing Rustem-beg. Njegoš reasoned that by killing Rustem-beg he would risk infuriating Smaïl-aga, prompting him to seek vengeance against Njegoš, as well as
40290-403: The drama written by poet Ljubomir Simović , was released. In the same year, the poet and writer Matija Bećković cointed the famous phrase "Kosovo, the Most Expensive Serbian Word" ( Kosovo, najskuplja srpska reč ; Косово, најскупља српска реч), while a popular folk song Vidovdan performed by Gordana Lazarević [ sr ] and composed by Milutin Popović Zahar [ sr ]
40545-461: The early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić promoted the spoken language of the people as a literary norm. The dialects of Serbo-Croatian , regarded Serbian (traditionally spoken in Serbia), include: Vuk Karadžić 's Srpski rječnik , first published in 1818, is the earliest dictionary of modern literary Serbian. The Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (I–XXIII), published by the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts from 1880 to 1976,
40800-444: The end. In Ottoman Serbia , the myth was interpreted as a fatalistic ideological acceptance of the Ottoman Empire and originally was not linked to the Serbs as a people, but to the downfall of Serbian feudal society . In the modern narratives of the myth, defeat in battle was characterized as the downfall of the glorious medieval Serbian Kingdom and a subsequent long-lasting Ottoman occupation and slavery . According to legend
41055-435: The event. While Njegoš was now in a more stable position than he was two years earlier, he still encountered several challenges to his rule. He was criticized for allegedly misappropriating the funds given to him by the Russians, and a tribal rebellion in Crmnica and Riječka nahiya erupted in response to the demands of tax collectors and chronic food shortages. The revolt was crushed by Njegoš's cousins Đorđije and Stanko, but
41310-511: The events of the Kosovo Myth. Croatian sculptor Ivan Meštrović contributed to the Myth when in 1907–11, he was commissioned to design the Vidovdan Temple as "the eternal ideal of heroism, loyalty and sacrifice, from which our race draws its faith and moral strength" and "collective ideal of the Serbian people". The temple's actual construction on the Field of Kosovo was postponed because of the Balkan Wars , World War I , World War II , and eventually shelved. Many of Meštrović's works dedicated to
41565-422: The exact amount that the people of Grahovo would be paying to the Sultan. Mehmed Pasha received the Montenegrins well, but when the delegation travelled south to Mostar, Ali Pasha had them arrested. Several warriors from Grahovo went to Mostar in the hope of freeing their kinsmen, but were impaled on Ali Pasha's orders. The Grahovo delegates remained in Ottoman custody until May 1839, when they were released following
41820-490: The famous myth. In France , folk poems concerning the Kosovo epic were published during the war while some French authors emphasized the importance of the Kosovo Myth in strengthening the "energy for revenge". In 1915, the French government ordered schools to modify their curricula to include lessons on Serbia and Serbian history, while posters in support of Serbia were pasted in Paris and London , including calls for prayer during Kossovo Day. The pro-Serbian Kosovo Committee
42075-456: The few literate people in the country. Njegoš also brought home a modern printing press , the first in Montenegro since the time of the Crnojević dynasty more than 300 years earlier. It was transported from Saint Petersburg in its entirety and had to be carried through the precarious mountain passes of Montenegro to the Cetinje Monastery, where it was finally set up. Although nearly all Montenegrins were illiterate, Njegoš persisted in establishing
42330-412: The heroes and motifs of epic poems from the Kosovo cycle, while the most prominent painting became the Kosovo Maiden (1919) by Uroš Predić . One of the most notable Serbian artists Đura Jakšić wrote and painted inspired by the Kosovo Myth. In the early 20th century, several concerts and plays in the National Theatre in Belgrade were dedicated to the Battle of Kosovo and heroes. The play "Death of
42585-418: The hope of finding fertile fields to raise their crops. Authority became more centralized after Petar I came to power in 1782. In 1796, Petar initiated a war against Kara Mahmud Bushati , vizier of the Pashalik of Scutari , which reinforced Montenegro's autonomy and resulted in large territorial gains at the Ottomans' expense. Two years later, a council of tribal chiefs met in Cetinje and agreed to compose
42840-430: The imperialists to surrender the independence of Montenegro to Austria." The other Radonjićes were to be forced into exile. Several weeks later, Njegoš commuted Radonjić's sentence in a well-timed display of clemency, first to life imprisonment and then to exile. Radonjić's youngest brother, Djuzo, was not as fortunate; he was ambushed by a close friend on the day of his family's slava (patron saint day) and killed. Many of
43095-409: The imprisoned clan leaders and his followers, but were overwhelmed by the combined forces of Ali Pasha, Trebinje 's Osman Pasha- beg and the cavalry reinforcements of Smaïl-aga Čengić in what became known as the Battle of Grahovo . Turks made use of a feigned retreat to lure the Montenegrins into a trap, surrounded them and used reinforcements to cut off their lines of retreat. More than forty of
43350-413: The late 1960s the chapel was demolished, and a mausoleum was constructed by 1971. Njegoš's remains were transferred back to Mount Lovćen in 1974, and the mausoleum was officially inaugurated that year. Despite being Montenegro's ruler for more than twenty years, Njegoš is best known for his literary output. His writings drew on Serb folklore, lyric poetry and biblical stories . He began writing poetry at
43605-438: The leader of the First Serbian Uprising, declared himself the godfather of every 9th child in the family, alluding to the nine Jugović brothers. Throughout most of the 19th century it didn't carry its later importance, as the Principality of Serbia saw the region of Bosnia as its core, not Kosovo. The Congress of Berlin (1878) was the event which caused the elevation of the Kosovo myth in its modern status. The region of Bosnia
43860-416: The legend was not created immediately after the battle but evolved from different originators into various versions. In its modern form it emerged in 19th-century Serbia and served as an important constitutive element of the national identity of modern Serbia and its politics. The Serbian ruler Prince Lazar was challenged by the Ottoman sultan Murad I to the battle at the Kosovo Polje . According to
44115-437: The legend. The Kosovo Myth presents the battle as "a titanic contest between Christian Europe and the Islamic East" in which Lazar renounced "the earthly kingdom for a heavenly one". The Kosovo Myth pictures Serbia as Antemurale Christianitatis (Bulwark of Christianity), similarly to constructions of the other nations in the Balkans. It is sometimes propagated to evoke a sense of pride and national grievance among Serbs. Since
44370-428: The literature of Romantic nationalism , as well as by Jacob Grimm , who became his reviewer and translator. Kopitar's ideology was rooted in Herder 's view that each group possesses a unique culture that manifests itself through the language and tradition of the common people. Karadžić mostly published oral songs, with special reference to the heroic deeds of Prince Marko and the Kosovo Battle-related events, just like
44625-451: The local population was " Turkophilic " in accordance with the general climate of necessary adaptation to Ottoman rule. Тhey did not give the legend of the Battle of Kosovo an interpretation unfavorable or hostile to the Ottoman Turks. During the 16th century, Benedikt Kuripečič wrote a travel description of the Balkans and recorded the legends he heard, including Lazar's Last Supper and Obilić's heroism. The Illustrated Chronicle of Ivan
44880-415: The long journey to Saint Petersburg. He hoped to be granted a meeting with Russian Emperor (czar) Nicholas I and consecrated as Metropolitan of Cetinje by the Holy Synod. Such a move was considered highly unusual at the time, as a vladika was traditionally consecrated by the Patriarch of Peć either in Patriarchal Monastery of Peć or in Sremski Karlovci , not Saint Petersburg. According to church canon,
45135-426: The major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system." It has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian , than with Slovene (Slovene is part of the Western South Slavic subgroup, but there are still significant differences in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to the standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian, although it
45390-495: The massacre during the Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia , stating that the Serbs would start a rebellion on that holiday. Following the SFR Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Cominform on Vidovdan in 1948, a government minister Milovan Đilas commented that the expelling resolution "cut into the minds and hearts of all us Serbs" and noted "the coincidence in dates between ancient calamities and living threats and onslaughts". Josip Broz Tito made little use of
45645-431: The matrix of Serbian Church Slavonic . By the beginning of the 14th century the Serbo-Croatian language, which was so rigorously proscribed by earlier local laws, becomes the dominant language of the Republic of Ragusa . However, despite her wealthy citizens speaking the Serbo-Croatian dialect of Dubrovnik in their family circles, they sent their children to Florentine schools to become perfectly fluent in Italian. Since
45900-407: The member of the 'nation with three names', while on 28 June 1921, the Vidovdan Constitution was adopted. The Kosovo Myth was used by Serbian nationalists before WWI as an ideological tool in order to argue for a Serbian-led Yugoslavia instead of Yugoslavia as state of all South Slavs equally. The government moved graves of the Balkan war dead to graveyards and monuments of national creation. This
46155-498: The mid-1840s, the idea of unifying all South Slavs into a common state had gained much support from Serbs, Croats and Bosnian Muslims living in the Austrian Empire. Njegoš's travels to Austria and Italy exposed him to many of the concepts that eventually formed the backbone of the Illyrianist movement, notably that all South Slavs share common cultural and linguistic traits and are, as such, one people. His correspondence with South Slavic nationalist leaders in neighbouring lands disturbed
46410-412: The moment of the betrayal, but attributed it to Dragoslav Pribišić. Italian literature and popular poetry in Republic of Ragusa influenced educated Serbian exiles to produce the first bugarštice based on the accumulation of oral history in the late 15th century. Some of the bugarštice cultivated the Kosovo Legend. According to Miodrag Popović , in the Ottoman Serbia of the 16th and 17th century,
46665-425: The monastery from cannon fire and whose construction had begun five years earlier, in 1833. When Njegoš realized that its location was unsuitable for a fortress, he ordered that its construction be abandoned, and it was converted into a tower where the heads of decapitated Turkish warriors were impaled on spears and left exposed to the elements. Turkish heads had previously been impaled beside the monastery walls. Dubbed
46920-427: The morning after the battle and cared for the wounded Serbian warriors, giving them water and wine. Also, birds often appear in the legend, which should symbolize the connection between the earth and the heaven. Ravens can speak and play the role of messengers, and so can swallows . The mother of nine Jugović asked God for "eyes of a falcon , white wings of a swan " which was fulfilled for her, so she could fly over
47175-407: The most notable form being epic poetry . The epic poems were mainly written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s, a few centuries or even a millennium longer than by most other "epic folks". Goethe and Jacob Grimm learned Serbian in order to read Serbian epic poetry in the original. By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from
47430-404: The most significant and most comprehensive was the Life of Prince Lazar , also known as the Tale of the Battle of Kosovo , from the beginning of the 18th century. At the request of Peter the Great , Russian Emperor , a diplomat Sava Vladislavich translated the Orbini's Kingdom of the Slavs into Russian in 1722. In the middle of the 18th century, under the influence of previous manuscripts,
47685-404: The motives of the Kosovo Myth with the aim of strengthening Montenegrin patriotism, dreaming of restoring the Serbian Empire. The messages of the Kosovo Myth were used for the idea of Yugoslav unity . The commemoration of the 500th anniversary was also held in Croatia despite restrictions imposed by the Habsburg authorities . At the beginning of the 20th century, with the Yugoslav idea spreading,
47940-410: The myth are related to the Battle of Kosovo that took place in 1389, about which numerous details are not actually known. According to legend, the Serbian ruler Prince Lazar , who was referred to as Tsar (" Emperor ") Lazar, was offered an ultimatum to pay homage to the Ottoman sultan Murad I , leaving the control of Serbian lands to the sultan and taxation , or to lead his army into the battle on
48195-496: The myth: Many parts and characters in the myth are modeled on well-known Christian symbols. While Lazar is portrayed as Jesus and faith, the dinner that he headed the night before the battle has the attributes of the biblical Last Supper , including the presence of his disciples and Vuk Branković, the traitor or Judas figure. Like Jesus, Lazar died so that his people could live. Also, numbers that have religious associations such as Twelve Apostles and Trinity are often used in
48450-410: The new Ministry of Foreign Affairs , characterized Vidovdan as a "symbol of defence of Serbian national identity". Upon Britain 's entry into the First World War on 4 August 1914, the British aimed to show solidarity with their new allies, Serbia included. On 28 June, "Kossovo Day" was proclaimed in Britain, with celebrations held across the country, with "Kossovo" being an intentional reference to
48705-469: The news of Radonjić's dealings in Kotor, the chieftains called for an urgent council to decide what was to be done with him. Radonjić faced the chieftains on 29 November [ O.S. 18 November]. He was divested of power, stripped of all his titles, and his gubernatorial seal (a symbol of his office) was taken away from him. At noon, the council decided that he was guilty of treason and condemned him to death by firing squad alongside his brother Marko,
48960-470: The notion that it was overshadowing the real traditions about the historical Kosovo battle, which were incorrectly labeled as "Kosovo Myth". The Kosovo Myth became a central myth of Serbian nationalism used in the 19th century. Like other European nationalisms, the Serbian one searched for a "glorious past" and a "golden age". Writers on nationalism often conclude the golden age with a national catastrophe. Karađorđe , Grand Vožd of Serbia (1804–1813) and
49215-415: The noun they modify, but must agree in number, gender and case with the modified noun. Serbian verbs are conjugated in four past forms— perfect , aorist , imperfect , and pluperfect —of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but the majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic), one future tense (also known as the first future tense, as opposed to
49470-517: The noun's grammatical case , of which Serbian has seven: Nouns are further inflected to represent the noun's number , singular or plural. Pronouns, when used, are inflected along the same case and number morphology as nouns. Serbian is a pro-drop language , meaning that pronouns may be omitted from a sentence when their meaning is easily inferred from the text. In cases where pronouns may be dropped, they may also be used to add emphasis. For example: Adjectives in Serbian may be placed before or after
49725-522: The official secretary of Njegoš's uncle, vladika Petar I . A Sarajevan Serb, Milutinović introduced Njegoš to poetry and inspired him to write down Serb folk tales which had been passed down orally through the centuries. An unconventional mentor, he also taught Njegoš sports, shooting and sword-fighting. Nineteenth-century Montenegrin society was quite primitive even by contemporary standards. Foreigners were viewed with suspicion and merchants were widely seen as "money-grubbing" and "effete". Wars between
49980-626: The only completed etymological dictionary of Serbian is the " Skok ", written by the Croatian linguist Petar Skok : Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika ("Etymological Dictionary of Croatian or Serbian"). I-IV. Zagreb 1971–1974. There is also a new monumental Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika (Etymological Dictionary of Serbian). So far, two volumes have been published: I (with words on A-), and II (Ba-Bd). There are specialized etymological dictionaries for German, Italian, Croatian, Turkish, Greek, Hungarian, Russian, English and other loanwords (cf. chapter word origin ). Article 1 of
50235-459: The opportunity and attacked a string of Montenegrin towns and villages in response to the attack, impaling and hanging all the Montenegrins that he captured. Subsequent political pressure from Russia discouraged Njegoš from seeking revenge. In response to the defeat at Podgorica, the Montenegrins formed tactical alliances with neighbouring Muslims tribes that were hostile to the Porte. By entering into such alliances Njegoš risked further alienating
50490-406: The opposition with the "treacherous Vuk Branković". The 500th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo (1889) was massively celebrated, with the main commemoration ceremonies in Kruševac , Lazar's former capital, and Ravanica , Lazar's burial place. One year later, Vidovdan became a state holiday. There was a deep belief among Montenegrin people that they descended from Serb knights who fled after
50745-451: The other Radonjićes also met violent ends, either being killed in raids or driven out with their families after their villages were torched. By 1831, Milutinović (now Njegoš's personal secretary) was also forced into exile after entering into a disagreement with the young vladika . In the weeks before he forced him into exile, Njegoš had become very critical of his old mentor and frequently pointed out his shortcomings before others. Milutinović
51000-421: The other chieftains, raising much suspicion. His meeting with the Austrian commander did not remain a secret for very long. On 28 November, a group of Montenegrins who happened to be visiting Kotor noticed Radonjić in the company of a few Austrian officers. They stormed the house where the meeting was taking place, exchanged obscenities with Radonjić and hurried back to Cetinje to report on what they had seen; Njegoš
51255-400: The other. In general, the alphabets are used interchangeably; except in the legal sphere, where Cyrillic is required, there is no context where one alphabet or another predominates. Although Serbian language authorities have recognized the official status of both scripts in contemporary Standard Serbian for more than half of a century now, due to historical reasons, the Cyrillic script was made
51510-427: The part of the story of Lazar's choice is a metaphysical narrative added to a historical event by the most religious literalist. In the first half of the 19th century, plays about the characters of the Kosovo Myth have been published by Serbian authors educated in the Austrian Empire , who adopted ideas combining Enlightenment rationalism and Romantic nationalism. Some of the dramas were works by Zaharije Orfelin ,
51765-421: The premiership of William Ewart Gladstone , sided with the Ottomans. When Njegoš attempted to construct ships to retake the islands, the Austrians maneuvered to prevent it, and later refused to supply the munitions needed to arrange a counterattack. A severe drought struck Montenegro in late 1846, followed by a catastrophic famine in 1847. Osman Pasha took advantage of Montenegro's misfortune and promised some of
52020-435: The request was denied. In a letter to one of his subordinates, he noted that Njegoš had "spiritually and physically developed". He went on to say that Njegoš had "little respect for the principles of religion and monarchy, is not firm in them, and is given to liberal and revolutionary ideas." He ended his message with a note stating that the Njegoš was to be closely monitored by Austrian agents both abroad and at home. In 1837,
52275-447: The ruined town, swear an oath of loyalty to the Sultan and beg for forgiveness from the vizier . Consequently, they refused to avenge the deaths of the Petrovićes for fear of Ottoman retaliation. News of the defeat at Grahovo soon reached Saint Petersburg and, paired with the allegations of financial misappropriation, cemented his reputation among the Russians as that of an aggressive provocateur. Njegoš immediately sought permission from
52530-419: The rule of law within the territory he nominally controlled and had to rely on warriors from his own clan for protection. The tribes on the Montenegrin frontier often either refused to obey him or befriended his enemies. Tribal raids, which drove deep into Ottoman-held Herzegovina, occurred frequently and looting proved key to the region's economic survival. Though such raids normally elicited a harsh response from
52785-422: The sacrifice of Prince Lazar and his knights resulted in the defeat, while the Serbs were presented as the chosen people who signed a Covenant with God. The Kosovo Myth is modeled on well-known Christian symbols , such as the biblical Last Supper , Judas' betrayal of Jesus , and numbers that have religious associations. It pictures Serbia as essentially a variant of the Antemurale Christianitatis motif as
53040-413: The second conditional (without use in the spoken language—it should be used for impossible conditional clauses). Serbian has active and passive voice . As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive , two adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and two adverbial participles (the present and the past). Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to
53295-433: The second future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and one present tense . These are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood . The conditional mood has two more tenses: the first conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses) and
53550-443: The senate's members were hand-picked by the Russians because of their political leanings, which were often more favourable to Saint Petersburg than they were to Vienna . Created to replace the kuluk formed by Petar I in 1798, the senate was established by Ivan Vukotić, a Montenegrin-born diplomat in Russian service. He had been sent to Cetinje by the Russian government in 1831, alongside his nephew Matija Vučićević. The two hailed from
53805-452: The singers sang without changes or additions. He collected most of the poems about Lazar near the monasteries on Fruška Gora , mostly because the seat of the Serbian Orthodox Church was moved there after the Great Migrations of the Serbs . The folk poems about the Kosovo legend can also be found in the collections of Avram Miletić , Ivan Franjo Jukić , Franz Miklosich , Valtazar Bogišić and Grgo Martić . The development of myth structure
54060-430: The slaughter at Grahovo—would be enthusiastic about the prospect of avenging his kinsmen. Ali Pasha also reasoned that by allowing the Montenegrins to kill the ambitious Herzegovinian bey he would be deflecting suspicion from himself, as the Montenegrins had more than enough reason to want Smaïl-aga dead. In mid-1839, Njegoš began exchanging letters with Smaïl-aga. The letters made it seem that he had forgiven Smaïl-aga for
54315-401: The son of Njegoš's cousin, Stanko Stijepov, as his successor. Danilo had been sent to acquire a basic education in Russia the year before the vladika' s death, and was not in Montenegro at the time. When Njegoš died, Đorđije disregarded the will and appeared before the Governing Senate asking that the senators proclaim Pero the new vladika . Danilo returned from Russia in 1852, bringing with him
54570-466: The spoken language. In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian . This artificial idiom superseded the works of poets and historians like Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović , who wrote in essentially modern Serbian in the 1720s. These vernacular compositions have remained cloistered from the general public and received due attention only with the advent of modern literary historians and writers like Milorad Pavić . In
54825-416: The summer of 1850 resting and writing poetry. His condition prevented him from lying down, so he had to keep in a constant upright position, even when sleeping. By November 1850, the cough abated and Njegoš undertook another journey to Italy. He reached Italy in January 1851, and travelled through Venice, Milan , Genoa and Rome . He visited the ruins of Pompeii with Serbian writer Ljubomir Nenadović , and
55080-480: The throne. It was only then that Petar entertained the possibility of extending his throne to the teenaged Njegoš and took steps to further his education. The seventeen-year-old was again sent to the Cetinje Monastery and mentored at its seminary . Petar then introduced him to state matters, trusting him with the writing of official letters and orders on his behalf. He died of old age on 30 October [ O.S. 19 October] 1830, without having publicly named
55335-458: The title. They considered him too young and inexperienced, and disliked the haste with which he was to be crowned. Figures such as Milutinović, Stanko S. Petrović, iguman Mojsije Zečević, serdar Mikhail Bošković, and the headman of Čevo, Stefan Vukotić, supported Njegoš's bid and urged the council to immediately proclaim him the next vladika . The first to recognize him as such was the archimandrite of Ostrog , Josif Pavičević, followed by
55590-487: The town, burned it to the ground and took countless Christians hostage; the rebels appealed to Njegoš for help. As honour demanded, Njegoš sent a force led by his teenage brother Joko and his nephew Stevan to rescue the hostages while Ali Pasha was in Gacko waiting for reinforcements to address the Montenegrin advance. The Montenegrins had assembled a force of several hundred warriors led by Joko, Stevan and eight Petrović chiefs. They were initially successful in rescuing one of
55845-485: The town. Instead of going to see the brothers, Njegoš sent several henchmen to meet them on his behalf. The Božovićes were arrested and executed by firing squad; their bodies were put on public display as a warning against further insubordination. In early November, Plamenac was shot to death by a fellow Montenegrin in Ottoman-held territory. The assassin was arrested by the Ottomans, and hanged in Scutari. Njegoš posthumously awarded him an Obilić Medal. Osman Pasha soon incited
56100-467: The tribes together and the anarchy that was sweeping through the countryside. This apparently led him to conspire with the Austrians to have Njegoš removed from his throne and have him replaced by his cousin, Đorđije. On orders from Franjo Tomašić , the governor of the Kingdom of Dalmatia , the commander of Fort Dubrovnik met Radonjić at Kotor on 27–28 November [ O.S. 16–17 November] 1830. Radonjić left Montenegro without informing Njegoš or
56355-458: The two countries was motivated by the Montenegrins' need to have a powerful ally who could provide political and financial support to their fledgling nation and Russia's desire to exploit Montenegro's strategic location in its ongoing geopolitical battle with Austria. Traditionally, the Serbian Orthodox monastery in Cetinje and the institution of vladika had survived through the centuries because of Russian support, but Petar I's final years witnessed
56610-401: The two men travelled together along Italy's western coast discussing philosophy and contemporary politics. The journey was documented in a book Nenadović published following Njegoš's death, titled Letters from Italy . While staying in Italy, Njegoš was disturbed by reports of Omar Pasha 's plans to invade Montenegro. He planned another visit to Saint Petersburg to enlist Russian support, but
56865-540: The two states did not occur during his lifetime, Njegoš laid some of the foundations of Yugoslavism and introduced modern political concepts to Montenegro. Venerated as a poet and philosopher, Njegoš is well known for his epic poem Gorski vijenac (The Mountain Wreath), which is considered a masterpiece of Serbian and other South Slavic literature, and the national epic of Serbia, Montenegro, and Yugoslavia. Njegoš has remained influential in Serbia and Montenegro, as well in neighboring countries. Petar II Petrović-Njegoš
57120-407: The two-time Palme d'Or -winning filmmaker Emir Kusturica , is named after Ivo Andrić, it is believed that its purpose is to maintain the Kosovo Myth and the Serbian national consciousness. The main church of Andrićgrad is a copy of the Visoki Dečani in Kosovo and is dedicated to the Holy Emperor Lazar and the Kosovo martyrs. After 15 years of renovation, the National Museum of Serbia in Belgrade
57375-460: The war, Njegoš's chapel was severely damaged. Local authorities negotiated with the Yugoslav government for years over the question of where, when and at whose expense Njegoš was to be buried. Montenegrin officials favoured restoring the original chapel, while the authorities in Belgrade opened a competition over the designs of a planned mausoleum. Some of the plans differed greatly from the original Byzantinesque building. Due to lack of funds, plans for
57630-484: The wealth or size of one's household, and Serbs in these regions were completely exempt from the Ottoman poll tax and other levies usually paid by Christian subjects to the Sublime Porte . Though the privileges granted the highlanders were meant to allay public dissatisfaction in these poor but strategically vital regions on the Venetian border, by the late 16th century, they ended up having the opposite effect. The Serbs began shunning Ottoman tax collectors entirely, and when
57885-439: The will to vice-consul Gagić in Dubrovnik with a message asking him to return the document unopened in the event that he regained his health. Njegoš then headed to Venice and Padua , where he spent much time resting and seemingly succeeded in containing his illness. His cough returned after eight days; he left Padova and went back to Montenegro in the hope that the country's fresh mountain air would alleviate his symptoms. He spent
58140-403: Was Lazar's wife and member of the Nemanjić dynasty . She begged Lazar to keep his youngest brother Boško so that one of the nine Jugović brothers would surely survive, which Boško himself refused and then became a flag-bearer during the battle. Their mother died of a broken heart after losing all nine sons in battle. Another female character is a Kosovo Maiden , a girl who came to Kosovo Polje
58395-536: Was a Prince-Bishop ( vladika ) of Montenegro , poet and philosopher whose works are widely considered some of the most important in Montenegrin and Serbian literature. Njegoš was born in the village of Njeguši , near Montenegro's then-capital Cetinje . He was educated at several Serbian monasteries and became the country's spiritual and political leader following the death of his uncle Petar I . After eliminating all initial domestic opposition to his rule, he concentrated on uniting Montenegro's tribes and establishing
58650-438: Was allowed to nominate his own successor, subject to approval by the Montenegrin chieftains and the people of Montenegro. Njegoš spent his early years in Njeguši shepherding his father's flock, playing the gusle (a traditional one-stringed instrument) and attending family and church celebrations where stories of battles and past suffering were told. His education was rudimentary; he was taught how to read and write by monks at
58905-615: Was also influenced by French chanson de geste . The Kosovo Cycle consists of the following epic poems: The scale of interpretations of the Kosovo Myth is undeniably one of the richest. It can be interpreted as "democratic, anti-feudal, with a love for justice and social equality". The myth never referred in those early versions to the "destiny of Serbs as a nation", but to the collapse of Serbian feudal society and its rulers. The myth can be interpreted in different ways in connection with other myths like: myth of military valor, myth of victimhood, myth of salvation and myth of chosen people . It
59160-415: Was born Radivoje "Rade" Petrović on 13 November [ O.S. 1 November] 1813 in the mountain village of Njeguši , near Cetinje . His father, Tomislav "Tomo" Petrović ( b. 1762–63), was a member of the Petrović clan of the Njeguši tribe of Katuni nahiya . Njegoš's mother, Ivana Proroković, hailed from the hamlet of Mali Zalaz and was the daughter of Njeguši captain Lazo Proroković. There
59415-464: Was born into a culture with an almost exclusively oral storytelling tradition, where the only written works were of a religious nature or recounted the history of Montenegro. Describing his mastery of the traditional oral epic, she asserts that it was the "only adequate, literary genre of his age", one that allowed him "to interpret [his] community for the world and for himself in the language of poetry." Multiple scholars have also noted similarities between
59670-472: Was consecrated. After the ceremony, the czar granted Njegoš a total of 36,000 rubles, 15,000 of which were to make up for his travel expenses. Standing next to Njegoš as he gave his speech, the czar is said to have commented: "My word, you're bigger than I am." Grateful, the young vladika replied: "Only God is bigger than the Russian czar!" The czar promised Njegoš that Russia would intervene on Montenegro's behalf as if it were one of its own gubernias , while
59925-459: Was designed by the Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s based on the Czech system with a one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correlation between the Cyrillic and Latin orthographies, resulting in a parallel system. Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian , a Slavic language ( Indo-European ), of the South Slavic subgroup. Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian , Croatian , and Montenegrin . "An examination of all
60180-404: Was effectively handed out to Austria-Hungary and Serbian expansion towards that area was blocked, which in turn left southwards expansion towards Kosovo as the only available geopolitical alternative for the Serbian state. In the 1860s, the Kosovo myth was used as a theme to freedom and democracy among Serbia Liberals and Radicals , while the ruling Conservatives and the Court used it to compare
60435-414: Was established in London in 1916, headed by Elsie Inglis , and its members included Robert Seton-Watson , Arthur Evans and Charles Oman . They organized a gathering in support of Serbia in St Paul's Cathedral . Serbian historian and University of Belgrade professor Pavle Popović gave a speech at the celebration of the day in Cambridge . Seton-Watson wrote an essay about Serbia and its history, which
60690-603: Was far more concerned about domestic discontent with his tax policies. He reasoned that his pious and overly superstitious citizens would not protest taxation as fiercely if the Petrovićes boasted a saint who was of the same bloodline. Hence, he arranged for the canonization of the late Petar I on the fourth anniversary of his death, in October 1834. With a saint in his family, Njegoš could now threaten any Montenegrin who challenged his authority with spiritual sanctions. Most Montenegrins were greatly enthusiastic about Petar's canonization, and many flocked to his tomb in Cetinje to celebrate
60945-410: Was forced to move from room to room to accommodate him. Displeased by this state of affairs, and irritated by German press reports that described Montenegro as "primitive", Njegoš ordered the construction of a secular dwelling that was to serve as both a royal palace and seat of government. Designed by Ozeretskovsky, the residence was a long, two-storied stone building with twenty-five rooms nestled behind
61200-461: Was furious. In a letter to Gagić dated 4 December [ O.S. 23 November], he wrote: "Radonjić [went] to the Kotor hinterland ... without anybody's notice, but on his own ... and there met some imperial general and other imperial men, having in mind to give up Montenegro and place it under their protection thinking that after the late vladika' s death there were no sons of Montenegro allied to glorious Russia." As soon as they heard
61455-411: Was further strengthened by increasing the size of the vladika' s personal guard, the Perjanici (or "plumed ones", so called because of the feathers that members wore on their guardsmen's caps). In 1832, the nineteen-year-old Njegoš launched an attack against the Muslim tribes of Podgorica , who were helping the Ottomans subdue rebellions in Bosnia and neighbouring Albania. As in earlier times, when
61710-433: Was given permission to return shortly afterwards on the understanding that their relationship would be on the young man's terms. Djilas suggests that this episode occurred because Milutinović had "taken liberties" trying to influence Njegoš's decisions during his early days on the throne. Radonjić, who was exiled to the coast, continued to have treasonous correspondence with the Austrians in Kotor. When some of his letters to
61965-476: Was greatly impressed with Njegoš, and in a letter to poet Lukijan Mušicki , he wrote: "Petar Petrović is not yet twenty years old, but is taller and more handsome than any grenadier in Vienna. Not only does he know Serbian very well to read and write, but he also composes fine verse. He thinks that there is no finer language in the world than our popular tongue (and he's right to think so, even if it were not true)." Njegoš arrived in Saint Petersburg in March 1833 and
62220-462: Was ill-suited to taking a city such as Podgorica, whose high stone walls made it impenetrable from the surrounding flatlands. By launching the attack, Njegoš also risked falling out with the Russians, who at that time were allied with the Turks. Badly outmaneuvered, the Montenegrins were defeated and forced to retreat, taking with them many wounded. For Njegoš, the defeat would remain a lasting source of regret. Grand Vizier Reşid Mehmed Pasha seized on
62475-452: Was in the process of writing a German-language ethnographic study on the country titled Montenegro und die Montenegriner ("Montenegro and the Montenegrin"). Njegoš's meetings with Karadžić caught the attention of Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich . Metternich's distrust of Njegoš was exacerbated by the young vladika' s request for a visa to travel to France, then considered a breeding ground of radical ideas. Metternich saw to it that
62730-407: Was married to Filip Đurašković, the serdar of Rijeka Crnojevića . Njeguši is a remote village, situated near the Adriatic coast in western Montenegro (or Old Montenegro ). The eponymous tribe is one of the oldest in Montenegro, and its history can be traced back to the 14th century. It likely came about as the result of intermarriages between Illyrian population and South Slavic settlers during
62985-422: Was more immediately concerned with the situation in neighbouring Herzegovina. Despite these differences, Njegoš and Prince Aleksandar agreed that, in the event of a unified Serbian state, Prince Aleksandar was to be proclaimed the hereditary secular leader of the Serb people while Njegoš would become the Patriarch of a unified Serbian Orthodox Church. By 1849, Njegoš began experiencing an incessant cough and soon
63240-450: Was one of the main causes for merging ethnic and Orthodox Christian religious identity of Serbs. The division of earthly and heavenly power and the choice of the latter by Lazar was meant by the church as a tool of legitimization of Ottoman power among Orthodox Slavs, while at the same time the myth enforced the primacy of the Serbian Orthodox Church over religious affairs. Albanian nationalism in Kosovo has its own narratives, that counter with
63495-445: Was published. In his documentary the Serbian Epics (1992), the Academy Award -winning director Paweł Pawlikowski portrayed members of the Army of Republika Srpska chanting traditional epic songs about the Battle of Kosovo during the Bosnian War . The Pulitzer Prize -winning poet Charles Simic was strongly influenced by the narrative and magic realism of the Kosovo Cycle. Although Andrićgrad , founded in Višegrad in 2014 by
63750-424: Was re-opened on Vidovdan, 28 June 2018. Among others, the museum exhibits caryatids designed by Ivan Meštrović, which were supposed to be in his proposed Vidovdan Temple. In 2017, Russian heavy metal band Kipelov led by Valery Kipelov released the song " Kosovsko Pole " (Косово Поле; English: Kosovo Field ) about "Serbia's national tragedy", dwelling on the historic battle in 1389. Since its establishment,
64005-474: Was read in schools across Britain. Several eminent historians soon began contributing to the pro-Serbian feeling in Britain, often recalling the Kosovo Myth while doing so. Pro-Serbian events along with Kossovo Day were also held in the United States , and in a speech given by American lawyer James M. Beck , references were made to Lazar and the Battle of Kosovo. Serbian language Serbian ( српски / srpski , pronounced [sr̩̂pskiː] )
64260-430: Was the first state institution in Montenegro's modern history. The possibility of any significant opposition to the senate's creation was extinguished by the appointment of important chieftains and other prominent citizens as senators. Njegoš himself was not a member of the senate, which was completely dominated by Vukotić and Vučićević during the first few years of its existence. The senate's decisions were to be enforced by
64515-420: Was to further establish the leaders' narrative of glory, sacrifice, and the hopeful unification of Southern Slavs (Kosovo). The graves were used to uphold the narrative that many Serbians believed to be true: that the land was destined to be theirs. The Kosovo Myth also played a role and ideologically shaped the coup d'état (27 March 1941) provoked by the Yugoslav accession to the Tripartite Pact . Gavrilo V ,
64770-409: Was utilized as an ideological instrument which fueled policies that led to the Kosovo War along with other political decisions. However, the causes of the war were complex and could not be reduced to the existence of a national myth, but it was used to legitimize Milošević's reign. Leading up to the Kosovo War , the contemporary Kosovo Albanian political mythology clashed with the Kosovo Myth. During
65025-400: Was written about Njegoš during his lifetime was the work of foreigners (officials, scholars or travelers). One of the earliest detailed academic analyses of Njegoš's works was published by Milan Rešetar in 1890. Following the establishment of a common South Slav state in 1918, scholars reinterpreted Njegoš in a Yugoslav light, despite some of his writings being decidedly anti-Muslim and having
#203796