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117-705: They reside primarily in three countries: Djibouti , Somalia , and Ethiopia . The Habar Makadur peoples have historically lived in and around Zeila , the Red Sea , and the Gulf of Aden . The Habar Makadur subclan is primarily found in: The Habar Makadur have played a crucial role in the Adal Sultanate , a medieval Muslim state in the Horn of Africa. The Gadabuursi , including the Habar Makadur, fought against

234-552: A Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour. During this period, Adal emerged as a centre of Muslim resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom. Adal would thereafter govern all of

351-476: A T-shaped symbol. Additionally, archaeological excavations at Tiya have yielded tombs. As of 1997, 118 stelae were reported in the area. Along with the stelae in the Hadiya Zone , the structures are identified by local residents as Yegragn Dingay or "Gran's stone", in reference to Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"), ruler of the Adal Sultanate . Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi

468-640: A coastal region south of it along the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, in present day north-east Sudan , Eritrea , northeast Ethiopia , Djibouti and northern Somalia , including Somaliland . It is also possible that it covered both the Horn of Africa and the area across the sea, in Southern Arabia . The autonomous state of Puntland , the modern day Somali administrative region at

585-561: A customs house and galleys patrolling the Bab-el-Mandeb . By the 17th century, when the Ottomans were compelled to retire from Zeyla, the town and its environs such as Tadjoura fell under the control of the rulers of Mocha and Sana'a , who had leased the territory to a Sana'a merchant called Sayyid Al-Barr. Zeyla was subsequently ruled by an Emir, whom Mordechai Abir suggested had "some vague claim to authority over all of

702-587: A man translated to Punt, or like someone out in the reedflats, when the world suddenly bursts into flower." At times, the ancient Egyptians called Punt Ta netjer ( tꜣ nṯr ), meaning "God's Land". This referred to the fact that it was among the regions of the Sun God , that is, the regions located in the direction of the sunrise, to the East of Egypt. These eastern regions' resources included products used in temples, notably incense. Older literature maintained that

819-605: A primary crossing point for early hominins following a southern coastal route from East Africa to South and Southeast Asia . The Djibouti area has been inhabited since the Neolithic . According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic -speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley , or the Near East . Other scholars propose that

936-579: A settlement at Sagallo in 1889 was promptly thwarted by French forces after just one month. In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region French Somaliland . The construction of the Imperial Ethiopian Railway west into Ethiopia turned the port of Djibouti into a boomtown of 15,000 at a time when Harar was the only city in Ethiopia to exceed that. Although

1053-582: A succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia . At its height, the Adal kingdom controlled large parts of modern-day Djibouti, Somaliland , Eritrea and Ethiopia. Between Djibouti City and Loyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae . The structures are associated with graves of rectangular shape flanked by vertical slabs, as also found in Tiya , central Ethiopia . The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with

1170-540: A united Somalia as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later under suspicious circumstances. In 1966, France rejected the United Nations ' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence. In August of the same year, an official visit to the territory by then French President Charles de Gaulle ,

1287-642: A village in the Protectorate." Shihab al-Din Ahmad mentions the Habr Maqdi (Habr Makadur) by name in his famous book Futuh al Habasha. He states: "Among the Somali tribes there was another called Habr Maqdi, from which the imam had demanded the alms tax. They refused to pay it, resorting to banditry on the roads, and acting evilly towards the country." Richard Pankhurst (2003) states that the Habr Maqdi are

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1404-702: A warning to the Mamluk ruler that if he did not stop the persecution of Christians in Egypt, he would retaliate against Muslims under his rule and would starve the peoples of Egypt by diverting the course of the Nile. According to Pankhurst, of the two threats, the diversion of Nile was an idle threat and the Egyptian sultan dismissed it because he likely realized this to be so. The fear that the Ethiopians might tamper with

1521-460: Is possible that it includes or corresponds to Opone , as later known by the ancient Greeks , while some biblical scholars have identified it with the biblical land of Put or Havilah . At times Punt is referred to as Ta netjer ( tꜣ nṯr ), lit.   ' Land of the God ' . The exact location of Punt is debated by historians. Various locations have been offered, southeast of Egypt ,

1638-526: Is the early Pandyan island of Tamraparni , present day Sri Lanka . An artifact datable to the Fifth Dynasty was originally stated to be made from Diospyros ebenum wood, a tree which is originally of Southern India and Sri Lanka. However, such identification is now considered unconfirmed because of the unlikelihood of such an early contact between Egypt and the Indian subcontinent, together with

1755-662: The Egyptian moon god. Under French administration, from 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura was called " Obock ". While 1897 to 1967 the area was known as French Somaliland (French: Côte française des Somalis ), and from 1967 to 1977 as the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas (French: Territoire français des Afars et des Issas ). The Bab-el-Mandeb region has often been considered

1872-533: The Gash Group (about 3000 to 1800 BC) and later the Jebel Mokram Group flourished. Especially at Gash Group sites, many Egyptian pottery vessels and Egyptian faience beads were found, indicating close contacts with Egypt. Found Red Sea shells demonstrate contact with the Red Sea coast. A news website in 2023 published evidence that DNA taken from mummified baboons may have shown where Punt

1989-589: The Prime Minister , currently Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed . The Council of Ministers (cabinet) is responsible to and presided over by the president. Land of Punt The Land of Punt ( Egyptian : [REDACTED] pwnt ; alternate Egyptological readings Pwene ( t ) /puːnt/ ) was an ancient kingdom known from Ancient Egyptian trade records. It produced and exported gold , aromatic resins , blackwood , ebony , ivory and wild animals. Recent evidence locates it in northwestern Eritrea . It

2106-589: The Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa , bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the east. The country has an area of 23,200 km (8,958 sq mi). In antiquity, the territory, together with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somaliland, was part of the Land of Punt . Nearby Zeila , now in Somaliland,

2223-520: The Sahil , but whose real authority did not extend very far beyond the walls of the town." Assisted by cannons and a few mercenaries armed with matchlocks , the governor succeeded in fending off incursions by both the disunited nomads of the interior, who had penetrated the area, as well as brigands in the Gulf of Aden. Although Tadjoura claimed complete independence, it was considered subordinate to Zeyla as

2340-647: The Sixth , Eleventh , Twelfth and Eighteenth dynasties of Egypt. In the Twelfth Dynasty, trade with Punt was celebrated in popular literature in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor . In the reign of Mentuhotep III (11th dynasty, ca. 2000 BC), an officer named Hannu organized one or more voyages to Punt, but it is uncertain whether he personally traveled on these expeditions. Trading missions of

2457-460: The continent , was another factor that compelled observers to doubt that the French would attempt to hold on to the territory. A third independence referendum was held in the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas on 8 May 1977. The previous referendums were held in 1958 and 1967 , which rejected independence . This referendum backed independence from France . A landslide 98.8% of

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2574-487: The 12th dynasty pharaohs Senusret I , Amenemhat II and Amenemhat IV had also successfully navigated their way to and from the mysterious land of Punt. In the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt , Hatshepsut built a Red Sea fleet to facilitate trade between the head of the Gulf of Aqaba and points south as far as Punt to bring mortuary goods to Karnak in exchange for Nubian gold. Hatshepsut personally made

2691-709: The 2,434 riflemen deployed, 517 were killed and 1,200 wounded in Europe. After the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s, constant border skirmishes occurred between French forces in French Somaliland and Italian forces in Italian East Africa . In June 1940, during the early stages of World War II , France fell and the colony was then ruled by the pro- Axis Vichy (French) government . British and Commonwealth forces fought

2808-527: The Afars and the Issas in 1967. A decade later, the Djiboutian people voted for independence . This officially marked the establishment of the Republic of Djibouti , named after its capital city . The new state joined the United Nations in its first year. In the early 1990s, tensions over government representation led to armed conflict , which ended in a power-sharing agreement in 2000 between

2925-506: The Afars largely opting to remain associated with France. The referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities. Shortly after the plebiscite was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas . Announcement of the plebiscite results sparked civil unrest, including several deaths. France also increased its military force along

3042-615: The Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. Cut stones dated about 3 million years old have been collected in the area of Lake Abbe . In the Gobaad plain (between Dikhil and Lake Abbe), the remains of the extinct elephant Palaeoloxodon recki were also discovered, visibly butchered using basalt tools found nearby. These remains would date from 1.4 million years BCE. Subsequently, other similar sites were identified as probably

3159-523: The Commander of the patrol sloop L'Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura . Emperor Yohannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with Great Britain to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces from Ethiopia and

3276-645: The Dynastic Period held that the aboriginal home of the Egyptians was Punt...". James Breasted in 1906 argued that the term Ta netjer was not only applied to Punt, located southeast of Egypt, but also to regions of Asia east and northeast of Egypt, such as Lebanon , which was the source of wood for temples. On the murals of the Hatshepsut temple at Deir el-Bahri, the King and Queen of Punt are depicted along with their retinue. Due to her unusual appearance,

3393-579: The Egyptian garrison at Sagallo to retire to Zeila . The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed. French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent in Aden , Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests in Zeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction. On 14 April 1884

3510-493: The Egyptian reliefs and paintings". According to Simon Najovits, the area comprising Somalia , Djibouti , the Red Sea coast of Eritrea and Sudan in the Horn of Africa is considered the most likely location. In 2010, researchers from the University of California, Santa Cruz analyzed hair from two mummified baboons using oxygen isotope analysis and were able to work out where they originated. The researchers compared

3627-424: The Egyptian tradition of trading with Punt. The trade with Punt continued into the start of the 20th dynasty before terminating prior to the end of Egypt's New Kingdom . Papyrus Harris I , a contemporary Egyptian document that details events that occurred in the reign of the early 20th dynasty king Ramesses III , includes an explicit description of an Egyptian expedition's return from Punt: They arrived safely at

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3744-855: The Emperor. According to Mordechai Abir, Sa'ad ad-Din II raids against the Ethiopian empire were largely hit-and-run type, which hardened the resolve of the Christian ruler to end the Muslim rule in their east. In the early 15th century, the Ethiopian Emperor who was likely Dawit I collected a large army to respond. He branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and invaded Ifat. After much war, Ifat's troops were defeated in 1403 on

3861-555: The Ethiopian kingdom, during the events of the Conquest of Abyssinia. This campaign was led by Imam Ahmed Gurey also known as Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The Futuh Al-Habasha describes their participation in several battles and their significant contributions to the military campaigns of Ahmed Gurey. They were among the first clans to join the battle and were known for their large armies and loyalty to Imam Ahmed Gurey. I. M. Lewis gives an invaluable reference to an Arabic manuscript on

3978-476: The Fleuriot de Langle to colonize the south of the Gulf of Tadjoura . On March 26, 1885, the French signed another treaty with the Issas where the latter would become a protectorate under the French. It was established between 1883 and 1887, after the ruling Somalis and Afar sultans each signed a treaty with the French . An attempt by Nikolay Ivanovitch Achinov , a Russian adventurer, to establish

4095-529: The French Ambassador to Somalia, Jean Guery, to be exchanged against two activists of FLCS members who were both serving life terms in mainland France . He was exchanged for the two FLCS members in Aden , South Yemen . The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which participated in its financing. The FLCS evolved its demands between

4212-576: The Gendarmerie Nationale Intervention Group over a bus hijacking en route to Loyada . This event, by showing the difficulties of maintaining the French colonial presence in Djibouti, was an important step in the independence of the territory . The likelihood of a third referendum appearing successful for the French had grown even dimmer. The prohibitive cost of maintaining the colony , France's last outpost on

4329-574: The Gobaad Plain. The site's ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Ma'layba in Southern Arabia . Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle were present by around 3,500 years ago. Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found at Dorra and Balho . Handoga , dated to

4446-734: The Habar Makadur, including Husain Musa Bin 'Abd Allah Makida/Habar Makadur. Hussain was a prominent figure in within the Gadabuursi family in the Adal Sultanate . The Habar Makadur are divided into two sub clans known as the Makahil and Mahad 'Ase , shown below: Further divisions of the Makahil are shown within the Muse and Younis subclans. The divisions of the Mahad 'Ase are shown below. Djibouti Djibouti , officially

4563-533: The Habr Makadur of the Gadabuursi. The Habar Makadur clan played a prominent role in the Adal-Abyssinian War. They were known for their large and well-equipped armies. Their strategic location and involvement in various battles have been noted as a crucial part of the campaign, especially their interactions with Imam Ahmed Gurey. The Habar Makadur were known as skilled patrolmen who controlled

4680-537: The Harar plateau, Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din subsequently fled to Zeila where Ethiopian soldiers pursued him. Al-Maqrizi narrates: the Amhara pursued Sa'd al-Din as far as the peninsula of Zeila , in the ocean, where he took refuge. The Amhara besieged him there, and deprived him of water; at last one of the impious showed them a way by which they could reach him. When they came upon him a battle ensued; and after three days

4797-755: The Imam, each year at the time of the fairs, a perpetual annuity which the governor of Zeyla would be responsible for extracting. Tadjourah's vizier Mahammed Mahammed renewed it for the benefit of the Turkish pasha of Al-Hodeida although the Ottoman Empire never exercised political right over Tadjoura. Mohammed Al-Barr would later be succeeded as governor of Zeila and its dependencies( Sahil ) by Sharmake Ali Salih . Muhammad Ali , Pasha of Egypt , came to control Yemen , Harar , Gulf of Tadjoura with Zeila and Berbera included. The Governor Abou Baker ordered

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4914-494: The Muslim territories in the Horn of Africa in much the same way as Emperor Yekuno Amlak was attempting to consolidate the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period. In 1320 a conflict between the Christian monarch and Muslim Ifat leaders began. The conflict was precipitated by Al-Nasir Muhammad of Egypt . The Mamluk ruler Al-Nasir Muhammad was persecuting Christian Copts and destroying Coptic churches. The Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I sent an envoy with

5031-441: The Nile, states Pankhurst, was nevertheless to remain with Egyptians for many centuries. Sabr ad-Din's rebellion was not an attempt to achieve independence, but to become emperor of a Muslim Ethiopia. Amda Seyon's royal chronicle states that Sabr ad-Din proclaimed: In fact, after his first incursion, Sabr ad-Din appointed governors for nearby and neighboring provinces such as Fatagar and Alamalé, as well as far-off provinces in

5148-434: The Queen was sometimes hypothesized to have had advanced steatopygia or elephantiasis . The majority opinion places Punt in the Horn of Africa , based on the fact that the products of Punt (as depicted in the Hatshepsut illustrations) were abundantly found in the Horn of Africa but were less common or sometimes absent in Arabia. These products included gold and aromatic resins such as myrrh , frankincense , and ebony ;

5265-435: The Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the territory known to the Ancient Egyptians as Punt (or Ta Netjeru , meaning "God's Land"). The first mention of the Land of Punt dates to the 25th century BC. The Puntites were a nation of people who had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the reign of the 5th dynasty Pharaoh Sahure and the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut . According to

5382-417: The Red Sea in order to obtain bitumen , copper, carved amulets, naptha and other goods transported overland and down the Dead Sea to Elat at the head of the gulf of Aqaba where they were joined with frankincense and myrrh coming north both by sea and overland along trade routes through the mountains running north along the east coast of the Red Sea. Together with northern Ethiopia, Somaliland, Eritrea and

5499-443: The Red Sea was carried out. A report of that five-ship voyage survives on reliefs in Hatshepsut's mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri . Throughout the temple texts, Hatshepsut "maintains the fiction that her envoy" Chancellor Nehsi , who is mentioned as the head of the expedition, had travelled to Punt "in order to extract tribute from the natives" who admit their allegiance to the Egyptian pharaoh. In reality, Nehsi's expedition

5616-398: The Somaliland littoral. The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from Tadjoura . Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop to Tadjoura the following night. The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti state were established as the first French establishment in the Horn of Africa during the Scramble for Africa . The March 11, 1862, agreement the Afar sultan , Raieta Dini Ahmet, signed in Paris

5733-435: The area at the bottom of Goubet (Dankalélo, not far from Devil's Island), circular stone structures and fragments of painted pottery have also been discovered. Previous investigators have also reported a fragmentary maxilla, attributed to an older form of Homo sapiens and dated to c. 250 Ka, from the valley of the Dagadlé Wadi. Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at Asa Koma , an inland lake area on

5850-405: The battalion's companies were awarded the Croix de Guerre, and the RICM flag received the Legion of Honor. Reorganized as a combat unit by December 1916, the battalion fought at Chemin des Dames in May 1917 and later in significant battles such as Malmaison, the 3rd Battle of the Aisne, and the 2nd Battle of the Marne, earning multiple citations and the right to wear the Croix de Guerre fourragère. Of

5967-429: The campaigns against the Christian Abyssinians : "These campaigns were clearly against the Christian Abyssinians, but it appears from the chronicle that the Gadabursi were also fighting the Galla. A later leader of the clan, Ugas 'Ali Makahil, who was born in 1575 at Dobo, north of the present town of Borama in the west of the British Protectorate, is recorded as having inflicted a heavy defeat on Galla forces at Nabadid,

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6084-466: The century. The earliest reference to Adal was following the collapse of the Makhzumi dynasty in July 1288 when 'Ali Baziyu led a campaign in Adal and Mora which was concluded by the killing of the lords of Adal and Mora , the victorious Sultan then annexed Adal and Mora to his Kingdom. Adal is also mentioned by Marco Polo in 1295 as a state continuously in conflict with Abyssinia. According to fourteenth century Arab historian Al Umari , Adal

6201-600: The city. A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of France in 1944. In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to remain with France or to be an independent country. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident French. There were also allegations of widespread vote rigging . The majority of those who had voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining

6318-426: The climate was already beginning to change, with sources of fresh water becoming more scarce. Engravings show dromedaries (animal of arid zones), some of which are ridden by armed warriors. The sedentary people now returned to a nomadic life. Stone tumuli of various shapes and sheltering graves dating from this period have been unearthed all over the territory. The earliest recorded ancient Egyptian expedition to Punt

6435-440: The coast of Somalia . Districts within Adal included Hubat , Gidaya and Hargaya . It also occasionally included the Hadiya Sultanate . The region was mostly located in modern day Awdal and had Zeila as a capital city but also controlled other interior towns like Abasa or Dakkar extending into the Harar plateau to the south-east and modern day Djibouti in the west. The Walashma dynasty are regarded by scholars as

6552-582: The desert-country of Coptos : they moored in peace, carrying the goods they had brought. [The goods] were loaded, in travelling overland, upon asses and upon men, being reloaded into vessels at the harbour of Coptos. [The goods and the Puntites] were sent forward downstream, arriving in festivity, bringing tribute into the royal presence. After the end of the New Kingdom period, Punt became "an unreal and fabulous land of myths and legends." However, Egyptians continued to compose love songs about Punt, "When I hold my love close, and her arms steal around me, I'm like

6669-410: The earliest cities in the world to embrace Islam , shortly after the hijra . Zeila 's two- mihrab Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi , an Arab Muslim scholar and traveler, wrote that the Kingdom of Adal was a small wealthy kingdom and that Zeila served as the headquarters for the kingdom, which dated back to the beginning of

6786-399: The early 1990s, tensions over government representation led to armed conflict between Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress (PRP) party and the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD) opposition group. The impasse ended in a power-sharing agreement in 2000. In April 2021, Ismael Guelleh , the second President of Djibouti since independence from France in 1977,

6903-412: The east coast of the Red Sea. A 2005 expedition to Mersa/Wadi Gawasis , Egypt by archaeologist Kathryn Bard found remains of Egyptian seagoing vessels and hieroglyphic texts on stelae about royal expeditions to Punt, including cedar planks from Queen Hatshepsut's expedition in te 15th century BCE, demonstrating that Mersa/Wadi Gawasis was the port in Egypt from which trade to Punt some 1200 km south on

7020-450: The eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II , would return to Adal from his exile in Arabia to restore his father's throne. He would proclaim himself "king of Adal" after his return from Yemen to the Harar plateau and established his new capital at Dakkar . Sabr ad-Din III and his brothers would defeat an army of 20,000 men led by an unnamed commander hoping to restore the "lost Amhara rule". The victorious king then returned to his capital, but gave

7137-425: The electorate supported disengagement from France, officially marking Djibouti's independence . Hassan Gouled Aptidon , an Issa (ethnic Somali) politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999). During its first year, Djibouti joined the Organization of African Unity (now the African Union ), the Arab League , and the United Nations. In 1986,

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7254-425: The formation of multiple rump states such as Aussa , Tadjourah and Rahayto. Mamluk Egypt being conquered by the Ottomans alarmed the Arabian merchants, who were afraid of these new Turkish conquerors hence they chose to travel towards Adal's shores. This was also followed by Indian merchants fleeing from the same enemy. The Ottomans noticing this sudden mass movement, hastidly occupied Zeyla and established

7371-426: The founders of the Ifat Sultanate. Ifat first emerged when Umar Ibn Dunyā-ḥawaz, later to be known as Sultan Umar Walasma , carved out his own kingdom and conquered the Sultanate of Shewa located in northern Hararghe . In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully imposed his rule on Hubat , Zeila and other Muslim states in the region. Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Walashma's military acts as an effort to consolidate

7488-428: The fourth millennium BCE, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths and plain ceramics used by early nomadic pastoralists with domesticated cattle. The site of Wakrita is a small Neolithic establishment located on a wadi in the tectonic depression of Gobaad in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa . The 2005 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of this region , which

7605-453: The frontier. During the 1960s, the struggle for independence was led by the Front for the Liberation of the Somali Coast (FLCS), who waged an armed struggle for independence with much of its violence aimed at French personnel. FLCS used to initiate few mounting cross-border operations into French Somaliland from Somalia and Ethiopia to attacks on French targets. On March 24, 1975, the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis kidnapped

7722-403: The history of the Gadabursi clan. This chronicle opens with an account of the wars of Imam 'Ali Si'id (d. 1392), from whom the Gadabursi today trace their descent and who is described as the only Muslim leader fighting on the Western flank in the armies of Sa'd ad-Din (d. 1415), ruler of Zeila." I. M. Lewis (1959) also highlights that the Gadabuursi were in conflict with the Galla, during and after

7839-455: The history of the Gadabuursi Somali. 'This Chronicle opens', Lewis tells us, 'with an account of the wars of Imam 'Ali Si'id (d. 1392) from whom the Gadabuursi today trace their descent, and who is described as the only Muslim leader fighting on the western flank in the armies of Se'ad ad-Din, ruler of Zeila . I. M. Lewis (1959) states: "Further light on the Dir advance and Galla withdrawal seems to be afforded by an Arabic manuscript describing

7956-402: The island, revealing it as the "Land of the Gods, a region far to the east in the direction of the sunrise, blessed with products for religious purposes", where traders returned with gold, ivory, ebony , incense , aromatic resins, animal skins, live animals, eye-makeup cosmetics, fragrant woods, and cinnamon. During the reign of Queen Hatshepsut in the 15th century BC, ships regularly crossed

8073-459: The label "God's Land", when interpreted as "Holy Land" or "Land of the gods/ancestors", meant that the ancient Egyptians viewed the Land of Punt as their ancestral homeland. W. M. Flinders Petrie believed that the Dynastic Race came from or through Punt and that "Pan, or Punt, was a district at the south end of the Red Sea, which probably embraced both the African and Arabian shores." Moreover, E. A. Wallis Budge stated that "Egyptian tradition of

8190-743: The long voyage to Punt must have seemed something akin to a journey to the moon for present-day explorers... the rewards of [obtaining frankincense, ebony and myrrh] clearly outweighed the risks." An extensive account of the expedition, based on the tableaux, was provided by Amelia Edwards in 1891. According to Stuart Tyson Smith , Egyptologist and professor of anthropology at University of California, Santa Barbara , "The scene of an expedition to Punt from Queen Hatshepsuis mortuary complex at Deir el-Bahri shows Puntites with red skin and facial features similar to Egyptians, long or bobbed hair, goatee beards, and kilts". Hatshepsut's 18th dynasty successors, such as Thutmose III and Amenhotep III , also continued

8307-463: The medieval historian al-Makrizi , Emperor Dawit I in 1403 pursued the Sultan of Adal , Sa'ad ad-Din II , to Zeila, where he killed the Sultan and sacked the city of Zeila . However, another contemporary source dates the death of Sa'ad ad-Din II to 1410, and credits Emperor Yeshaq with the slaying. His children and the remainder of the Walashma dynasty would flee to Yemen where they would live in exile until 1415. In 1415, Sabr ad-Din III ,

8424-533: The most famous ancient Egyptian expedition that sailed to Punt. Her artists revealing much about the royals, inhabitants, habitation and variety of trees on the island, revealing it as the "Land of the Gods, a region far to the east in the direction of the sunrise, blessed with products for religious purposes", where traders returned with gold, ivory, ebony , incense , aromatic resins, animal skins, live animals, eye-makeup cosmetics, fragrant woods, and cinnamon. During

8541-543: The mummified baboons were all born outside of Egypt and were hamadryas baboons . The hamadryas baboon is a species of baboon native to the Horn of Africa and the southwestern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. The strontium ration in the tooth enamel confirmed that the baboons were born in an area stretching across present day Eritrea , Ethiopia and north western Somalia . It has been suggested that Punt might be located in eastern Sudan and western Eritrea where

8658-451: The mysterious land of Punt. In the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt , Hatshepsut built a Red Sea fleet to facilitate trade between the head of the Gulf of Aqaba and points south as far as Punt to bring mortuary goods to Karnak in exchange for Nubian gold. Hatshepsut personally made the most famous ancient Egyptian expedition that sailed to Punt. Her artists revealing much about the royals, inhabitants, habitation and variety of trees on

8775-454: The name is disputed. There are several theories and legends about its origin, varying based on ethnicity. One theory derives it from the Afar word gabouti , meaning "plate", possibly referring to the area's geographical features. Another connects it to gabood , meaning "upland/plateau". Djibouti could also mean "Land of Tehuti " or "Land of Thoth ( Egyptian : Djehuti / Djehuty )", after

8892-552: The nascent republic was also among the founding members of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development regional development organization. During the Ogaden War , influential Issa politicians envisioned a Greater Djibouti or "Issa-land", where Djibouti's borders would extend from the Red Sea to Dire Dawa . That dream was dashed towards the end of the war as Somali forces were routed from Ethiopia. In

9009-569: The nation is the site of various foreign military bases. The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) regional body also has its headquarters in Djibouti City. Djibouti is officially known as the Republic of Djibouti . In local languages it is known as Gabuuti (in Afar ) and Jabuuti (in Somali ). The country is named for its capital, the City of Djibouti . The etymology of

9126-704: The neighboring Italians during the East African Campaign . In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse. In response, the British blockaded the port of Djibouti City but it could not prevent local French from providing information on the passing ship convoys. In 1942, about 4,000 British troops occupied

9243-593: The north like Damot , Amhara , Angot , Inderta , Begemder , and Gojjam . He also threatened to plant khat at the capital, a stimulant used by Muslims but forbidden to Ethiopian Orthodox Christians . In 1376, Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din Abdul Muhammad , also called Sa'ad ad-Din II, succeeded his brother and came to power, who continued to attack the Abyssinian Christian army. He attacked regional chiefs such as at Zalan and Hadeya, who supported

9360-553: The oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region. Up to 4000 years BCE, the region benefited from a climate very different from the one it knows today and probably close to the Mediterranean climate . The water resources were numerous with lakes in Gobaad, lakes Assal and Abbé larger and resembling real bodies of water. The humans therefore lived by gathering, fishing and hunting. The region

9477-594: The only depiction of a secretary bird ( Sagittarius serpentarius ) known from ancient Egypt in the Bas-reliefs from the Portico of Punt that depicted the great Pharaonic expedition to the Land of Punt. In December 2020, primatologists from Dartmouth College examined tissues from mummified baboons recovered from New Kingdom and Ptolemaic sites in Egypt that were believed to have come from Punt. The study revealed that

9594-715: The order to his many followers to continue and extend the war against the Christians. The Emperor of Ethiopia Tewodros I was soon killed by the Adal Sultanate upon the return of Sa'ad ad-Din's heirs to the Horn of Africa. Sabr ad-Din III died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother Mansur ad-Din who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor Dawit I to Yedaya where according to al-Maqrizi , Sultan Mansur destroyed

9711-640: The oxygen isotope samples in the ancient baboons to those found in their modern-day brethren. The isotope samples in baboons in Somalia and Yemen did not match, but those in Eritrea and eastern Ethiopia did match. The research team concluded that Punt was most likely a circumscribed region that included eastern Ethiopia and all of Eritrea. In June 2018, Polish archaeologists who have been conducting research in The Temple of Hatshepsut since 1961 discovered

9828-549: The population fell after the completion of the railwayline to Dire Dawa and the original company failed and required a government bail-out, the rail link allowed the territory to quickly supersede the caravan-based trade carried on at Zeila (then in the British area of Somaliland ) and become the premier port for coffee and other goods leaving southern Ethiopia and the Ogaden through Harar . The 6th Somali Marching Battalion

9945-464: The reign of Queen Hatshepsut in the 15th century BC, ships regularly crossed the Red Sea in order to obtain bitumen , copper, carved amulets, naptha and other goods transported overland and down the Dead Sea to Elat at the head of the gulf of Aqaba where they were joined with frankincense and myrrh coming north both by sea and overland along trade routes through the mountains running north along

10062-717: The request of integration in a possible " Greater Somalia " influenced by the Somali government or the simple independence of the territory. In 1975 the African People's League for the Independence (LPAI) and FLCS met in Kampala , Uganda with several meeting later they finally opted for independence path, causing tensions with Somalia . In 1976, members of the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis which sought Djibouti's independence from France , also clashed with

10179-575: The route to Berbera, during the Conquest of Abyssinia. The Habar Makadur of the Gadabuursi, consider the Imam Ahmed Gurey of the Adal Sultanate, a descendant from Abrayn of the Mahad 'Ase from the Awdal region. Born in Zeila , the Habar Makadur claim Imam Ahmed Gurey as from Abrayn, Mahad Ase, Makadur. The genealogy of the Habar Makadur traces back to Sheikh Samaroon. Prominent figures from

10296-441: The ruling party and the opposition. Djibouti is a multi-ethnic nation with a population of 1,066,809 at the census held on 20 May 2024 ( the smallest in mainland Africa). French and Arabic are its two official languages; Afar and Somali are national languages. About 94% of Djiboutians adhere to Islam , which is the official religion and has been predominant in the region for more than 1,000 years. The Somalis and Afar make up

10413-669: The south are in the minority, but they are the only ones cited in the current consensus about the location of the country. Punt, we are told by the Egyptians, is situated – in relation to the Nile Valley – both to the north, in contact with the countries of the Near East of the Mediterranean area, and also to the east or south-east, while its furthest borders are far away to the south. Only the Arabian Peninsula satisfies all these indications." Some scholars have argued that Punt

10530-471: The span of fourteen years the Imam was able to conquer the heartland of the country, wreaking havoc on the Christian nation. The Bahri Negash joined Emperor Gelawdewos and the Portuguese in the decisive Battle of Wayna Daga , where tradition states that Imam Ahmad was shot in the chest by a Portuguese musketeer named João de Castilho, who had charged alone into the Muslim lines and died. The wounded Imam

10647-486: The sultan would received an annual stipend from the local governor. Abubakr Pasha explained to Vice-Admiral Alphonse Fleuriot de Langle that when the Imam of Sana'a still controlled the Yemeni coast, some soldiers sent to Tadjoura were one day massacred by the inhabitants of the city. The governor of Mocha then dispatched a new detachment to avenge them. Rather than suffer these reprisals, the city preferred to commit to paying

10764-407: The temple murals at Deir el-Bahari , the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati. The Adal (also Awdal , Adl , or Adel ) was centered around Zeila , its capital. It was established by the local Somali clans in the early 9th century. Zeila attracted merchants from around the world, contributing to the wealth of the city. Zeila is an ancient city and it was one of

10881-569: The temple reliefs, the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati. This well illustrated expedition of Hatshepsut occurred in Year 9 of the female pharaoh's reign with the blessing of the god Amun : Said by Amen, the Lord of the Thrones of the Two Land: "Come, come in peace my daughter, the graceful, who art in my heart, King Maatkare [i.e. Hatshepsut]... I will give thee Punt,

10998-491: The term Punt probably applied more to African than Arabian territory." In 2003, Ian Shaw wrote that "There is still some debate regarding the precise location of Punt, which was once identified with the region of modern Somalia. A strong argument has now been made for its location in either southern Sudan or the Eritrean region of Ethiopia, where the indigenous plants and animals equate most closely with those depicted in

11115-626: The territory formerly ruled by the Ifat Sultanate, as well as the land further east all the way from the Bab el Mandeb to Cape Guardafui, according to Leo Africanus. Adal is mentioned by name in the 14th century in the context of the battles between the Muslims of the Somali and Afar seaboard and the Abyssinian King Amda Seyon I 's Christian troops. Adal originally had its capital in the port city of Zeila, situated in

11232-623: The tip of the Horn of Africa is named in honor of this ancient kingdom. The earliest recorded ancient Egyptian expedition to Punt was organized by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (25th century BC), returning with cargoes of antyue and Puntites. However, gold from Punt is recorded as having been in Egypt as early as the time of Pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty . Subsequently, there were more expeditions to Punt in

11349-574: The two largest ethnic groups, with the former comprising the majority of the population. Both speak a language of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic languages . Djibouti is near some of the world's busiest shipping lanes, controlling access to the Red Sea and Indian Ocean . It serves as a key refuelling and transshipment center and the principal maritime port for imports from and exports to neighboring Ethiopia . A burgeoning commercial hub,

11466-578: The water failed. Sa'd al Din was wounded in the forehead and fell to the ground, whereupon they pierced him with their swords. But he died happily, falling in God's cause. After Sa'ad ad-Din's death “the strength of the Muslims was abated”, as Maqrizi states, and then the Amhara settled in the country “and from the ravaged mosques and they made churches”. The followers of Islam were said to have been harassed for over twenty years. The sources disagree on which Ethiopian Emperor conducted this campaign. According to

11583-542: The western Awdal region. The polity at the time was an Emirate in the larger Ifat Sultanate ruled by the Walashma dynasty . According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly established Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by

11700-406: The whole of it... I will lead your soldiers by land and by water, on mysterious shores, which join the harbours of incense... They will take incense as much as they like. They will load their ships to the satisfaction of their hearts with trees of green [i.e., fresh] incense, and all the good things of the land." While the Egyptians "were not particularly well versed in the hazards of sea travel, and

11817-513: The wild animals depicted in Punt included giraffes , baboons , hippopotami , and leopards . Richard Pankhurst states: "[Punt] has been identified with territory on both the Arabian and the Horn of Africa coasts. Consideration of the articles that the Egyptians obtained from Punt, notably gold and ivory, suggests, however, that these were primarily of African origin. ... This leads us to suppose that

11934-462: The work of Homo ergaster . An Acheulean site (from 800,000 to 400,000 years BCE), where stone was cut, was excavated in the 1990s, in Gombourta, between Damerdjog and Loyada , 15 km south of Djibouti City . Finally, in Gobaad, a Homo erectus jaw was found, dating from 100,000 BCE. On Devil's Island , tools dating back 6,000 years have been found, which were used to open shells. In

12051-537: Was re-elected for his fifth term. Djibouti is a unitary presidential republic , with executive power resting in the presidency, which is by turn dominant over the cabinet, and legislative power in both the government and the National Assembly . The president , Ismaïl Omar Guelleh , is the prominent figure in Djiboutian politics—the head of state and commander-in-chief . The president exercises their executive power assisted by their appointee,

12168-593: Was a military leader of the medieval Adal Sultanate in the northern Horn of Africa. Between 1529 and 1543, he embarked on a campaign referred to as the Futuh Al-Habash , bringing the three-quarters of Christian Abyssinia under the control of the Muslim empire. With an army composed of Afar, Harari (Harla), and Somalis, al-Ghazi's forces came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom, slaughtering any Ethiopian who refused to convert to Islam. Within

12285-500: Was a simple trading mission to a land, Punt, which was by this time a well-established trading post. Moreover, Nehsi's visit to Punt was not inordinately brave since he was "accompanied by at least five shiploads of [Egyptian] marines" and greeted warmly by the chief of Punt and his immediate family. The Puntites "traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but [also] in goods from other African states including gold, ivory and animal skins." According to

12402-513: Was a treaty where the Afars sold lands surrounding in Obock . The French were interested in having a coaling station for steamships , which would become especially important upon the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. (Up to that time French ships had to buy coal at the British port of Aden across the gulf, an unwise dependency in case of war.) Later on, that treaty was used by the captain of

12519-474: Was also identified at the nearby site of Asa Koma . The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close to Lake Abbé , but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices. Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, similar in range to Asa Koma. These two sites represent

12636-427: Was also met with demonstrations and rioting. In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum. In 1967, a second plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France. Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual union with Somalia, and

12753-428: Was celebrated in popular literature in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor . In the reign of Mentuhotep III (11th dynasty, ca. 2000 BC), an officer named Hannu organized one or more voyages to Punt, but it is uncertain whether he personally traveled on these expeditions. Trading missions of the 12th dynasty pharaohs Senusret I , Amenemhat II and Amenemhat IV had also successfully navigated their way to and from

12870-802: Was formed in Madagascar on May 11, 1916, with recruits from the French Somali Coast and renamed the 1st Battalion of Somali Tirailleurs upon arrival in France in June. Originally intended as a staging unit, the battalion’s officers responded to the Somalis' desire to fight, leading to their participation alongside the RICM in the October 1916 assault on Fort Douaumont. For their distinguished role,

12987-405: Was in Eritrea . A primarily German team of researchers published the results of extracting mitochondrial DNA from a mummified baboon. By comparing that with mitochondrial DNA extracted from 14 museum specimen baboons from the 19th and 20th centuries with known provenances, they concluded that the mummified baboon came from modern-day Eritrea. As the mummified baboon dates from a period when Egypt

13104-588: Was one of the founding regions of the Ifat Sultanate alongside Biqulzar , Shewa , Kwelgora , Shimi, Jamme and Laboo. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabitant low land portion east of the Ethiopian Empire . Including north of the Awash River towards Lake Abbe in modern Djibouti–Ethiopia border as well as the territory between Shewa and Zeila on

13221-424: Was organized by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (25th century BC), returning with cargoes of antyue and Puntites. However, gold from Punt is recorded as having been in Egypt as early as the time of Pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty . Subsequently, there were more expeditions to Punt in the Sixth , Eleventh , Twelfth and Eighteenth dynasties of Egypt. In the Twelfth Dynasty, trade with Punt

13338-445: Was populated by a very rich fauna: felines , buffaloes , elephants , rhinos , etc., as evidenced, for example, by the bestiary of cave paintings at Balho . In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE, few nomads settled around the lakes and practiced fishing and cattle breeding. The burial of an 18-year-old woman, dating from this period, as well as the bones of hunted animals, bone tools and small jewels have been unearthed. By about 1500 BCE,

13455-416: Was the seat of the medieval Adal and Ifat Sultanates. In the late 19th century, the colony of French Somaliland was established after the ruling Dir Somali and Afar sultans signed treaties with the French, and its railroad to Dire Dawa (and later Addis Ababa ) allowed it to quickly supersede Zeila as the port for southern Ethiopia and the Ogaden . It was renamed the French Territory of

13572-523: Was then beheaded by an Ethiopian cavalry commander, Azmach Calite. Once the Imam's soldiers learned of his death, they fled the battlefield. This conflict provided an opportunity for the Oromo people to conquer and migrate into the historically Gafat land of Welega south of the Blue Nile and eastward to the walls of Harar , establishing new territories. The collapse of the Adal Sultanate led to

13689-449: Was trading with Punt, it may be assumed to come from there, and the authors suggested (but were unable to prove) that Punt is likely to be the same as the later- classical port city of Adulis . Dimitri Meeks disagrees with the Horn of Africa hypothesis and points to ancient inscriptions that locate Punt in the western coast of the Arabian Peninsula, from the Gulf of Aqaba to Yemen, he has written that "Texts locating Punt beyond doubt to

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