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108-622: The Hadīth Dhī ʾl-Qarnayn (or Hadith Dhulqarnayn ), also known as the Leyenda de Alejandro , is an anonymous Hispano-Arabic legend of Alexander the Great (whom it identifies as Dhu al-Qarnayn , a figure known from the eighteenth chapter of the Quran ). It dates to the 15th century. As with other Arabic Alexander legends in the tradition of the Alexander Romance literature,

216-470: A superstrate , prestige language and the dominant medium of literary and intellectual expression in the southern half of the peninsula from the 8th century to the 13th century. Arabic in al-Andalus existed largely in a situation of bilingualism with Romance until the 13th century. It also coexisted with Hebrew , and Arabic features and traditions had a major impact on Jewish poetry in Iberia. There

324-583: A "Christian" language, after which they would have to get rid of all Arabic written material. This triggered one of the largest revolts, the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–1571) . Still, Andalusi Arabic remained in use in certain areas of Spain (particularly the inner regions of Valencia and Aragon ) until the final expulsion of the Moriscos at the beginning of the 17th century. Andalusi Arabic

432-497: A "madman". He was succeeded by his son, Muhammad V . As Muhammad V was still a minor, state affairs were managed by the hajib (chamberlain) Ridwan, the vizier Ibn al-Khatib , and the commander of the Ghazi s, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu. Together, they maintained a policy of peace with Castile, paying tribute and providing military assistance against Castile's enemies when requested, such as against Aragon in 1359. Muhammad V's reign

540-602: A Castilian counteroffensive had failed and Gibraltar remained in Muslim control thereafter until 1462. On 25 August 1333, Muhammad IV was assassinated by the sons of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, who were opposed to his policy of close relations with the Marinids. Muhammad IV was succeeded by his brother, Yusuf I ( r.  1333–1354 ), whose reign would mark the beginning of the Nasrid emirate's golden age. He began by expelling

648-534: A cousin named Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad, who took the throne as Muhammad VI ( r.  1360–1362 ). While in Fez, Muhammad V was accompanied by Ibn al-Khatib, who remained loyal to him. Both men also met Ibn Khaldun , who supported their cause. Eventually, Muhammad V secured the support he needed from Peter of Castile. With the support of Peter, of Uthman ibn Yahya ibn Raḥḥu (the son of Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu), and of another figure named Ali ibn Kumasha, he returned to

756-524: A difficult siege. The siege is also notable for the first recorded use of cannons on the Iberian Peninsula, used in this case by the Muslim defenders. In the long term, the Battle of Rio Salado and the capture of Algeciras put an end to North African military interventions on the Iberian Peninsula, which had been a recurring feature of the conflicts around al-Andalus since the 11th century. This

864-718: A few business records and one letter written at the beginning of the 17th century in Valencia . Emirate of Granada The Emirate of Granada , also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada , was an Islamic polity in the southern Iberian Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages , ruled by the Nasrid dynasty . It was the last independent Muslim state in Western Europe . Muslims had been present in

972-574: A full siege and a fresh campaign of conquest. In the end, the Muslim kingdoms of Granada and North Africa did not provide extensive assistance. By 1265, the Castilians were invading the Vega (valley) of Granada and Ibn al-Ahmar was forced to renegotiate peace. By the time the rebellion was over, the surviving Mudéjar inhabitants of Andalucia were mostly expelled and their towns resettled by Christians from other parts of Castile. Ibn al-Ahmar's position

1080-513: A major invasion and besieged Granada. In the Battle of the Vega that followed, Granada scored one of its most decisive victories ever against the Castilians. Isma'il I went on to recover some towns, including Baeza and Martos . Isma'il I was assassinated by a cousin in July 1325 and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad IV ( r.  1325–1333 ), who was still a child. During this time, the emirate

1188-491: A more ambitious crusading military policy against Granada. The emirate's position was exacerbated by violent internal confrontations with the Banu Sarraj. This political chaos contributed to the final capture of Gibraltar by Castile in 1462. In the mid-15th century, Castile was preoccupied with several civil conflicts and disputes over succession. Henry IV had only one child, Isabella , who in 1468 married Ferdinand ,

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1296-575: A path forward by making or breaking alliances according to circumstances. Muhammad II also made major changes to the army of his emirate. In addition to local recruits, he recruited Zenata Berbers from North Africa, who thenceforth composed the most important element of the army and were known as the Ghazi s , or Warriors of the Faith . Many were political exiles from the Marinid kingdom, including some from

1404-515: A register of the less-privileged masses. Many features of Andalusi Arabic have been reconstructed by Arabists using Hispano-Arabic texts (such as the azjāl of ibn Quzman , al-Shushtari and others) composed in Arabic with varying degrees of deviation from classical norms, augmented by further information from the manner in which the Arabic script was used to transliterate Romance words. The first complete linguistic description of Andalusi Arabic

1512-466: A reliable defender of al-Andalus. One of Ibn Hud's foremost military commanders had been a man called Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr , commonly known as Ibn al-Ahmar, who was born in Arjona . His position in the army reportedly aroused the envy of others who accused him of planning a coup against Ibn Hud, forcing him to flee to Arjona. Ibn al-Ahmar's origins were likely modest, but he seems to have acquired

1620-672: A reputation for piety and as a successful military leader. With Ibn Hud's position weakened by his defeats, the inhabitants of the Arjona area declared Ibn al-Ahmar as their emir after Friday prayers on 16 July 1232 (26 Ramadan 629 AH ). Ibn al-Ahmar was related to the Nasrids on his father's side and to the Banu Ashqilula on his mother's side. These two families thus formed the initial core of his small army, along with other volunteers and Andalusi soldiers who had previously served

1728-608: A role in inciting the rebellion, but he did support it. The rebellion represents the last serious attempt to reverse the Castilian conquests of the 13th century and break the Christian hold on southern Iberian Peninsula. The conditions for this must have appeared favourable at the time. Ibn al-Ahmar was enjoying good relations with the Hafsids (based in present-day Tunisia ) and the Marinids (based in present-day Morocco), while

1836-544: A sizeable portion of this territory, roughly corresponding to the modern Spanish provinces of Granada , Almería , and Málaga . By 1250, the Nasrid emirate was the last independent Muslim polity in the peninsula. The emirate generally existed as a tributary state of the rising Crown of Castile , though it frequently warred with the latter and with other neighboring states over control of its frontier regions. Despite its precarious position, Granada enjoyed considerable cultural and economic prosperity for over two centuries and

1944-672: A substratum to an adstratum to a superstratum with respect to Arabic. Semantic fields such as plant and animal names, domestic objects, and agriculture received the most loanwords. Sometimes both the Romance and Arabic words were used, such as the words imlíq (from UMBILICU ) and surra ( سُرَّة ) for navel ; Consuelo Lopez-Morillas recalls "the many households made up of Hispano-Roman women and Arab men." Once subsumed into Arabic morphological patterns, Romance loanwords became difficult to distinguish as such. For example, nibšāriuh (from aniversario 'anniversary' or 'birthday')

2052-460: A third period of Taifa kingdoms. Of these leaders, the most powerful was initially Ibn Hud of Murcia ( r.  1228–1238 ), who had rebelled against the last Almohad governors and managed to unite much of what remained of al-Andalus. However, in 1231 Ibn Hud was defeated by the Leónese and lost control of Badajoz and the surrounding area, which compromised his authority and reputation as

2160-735: A while longer in Almería, but any hope of successful resistance ended after the Spanish capture of Baeza in November 1489. He negotiated the surrender of Almería and Guadix and agreed to retire himself to the Alpujarras region, but soon afterwards he abandoned al-Andalus completely. In 1489–90, he sold all his lands and moved to Oran (present-day Algeria ) in North Africa. Only Granada remained under Muslim control by 1490. Boabdil and

2268-493: Is evidence that code-switching was commonplace among bilingual populations in al-Andalus. It also had some contact with Berber languages or al-lisān al-gharbī ( اللسان الغربي 'the western tongue') in periods of Berber rule, particularly under the Almoravids and Almohads, though Federico Corriente identified only about 15 Berberisms that entered Andalusi Arabic speech. The influence of Romance on Andalusi Arabic

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2376-593: Is evidenced by occasional Romance or even local Arabic transcription of / a / as [ o ] or [ u ] . There was a fair amount of compensatory lengthening involved where a loss of consonantal gemination lengthened the preceding vowel, whence the transformation of عشّ /ʕuʃ(ʃ)/ ("nest") into عوش /ʕuːʃ/ . New phonemes introduced into Andalusi Arabic, such as /p/ and /t͡ʃ/ were often written as geminated بّ and جّ respectively. This would later be carried over into Aljamiado , in which /p/ and /t͡ʃ/ in Romance languages would be transcribed with

2484-830: Is still used in Andalusi classical music and has significantly influenced the dialects of such towns as Sfax in Tunisia, Rabat , Salé , Fès , Tétouan and Tangier in Morocco, Nedroma , Tlemcen , Blida , Jijel , and Cherchell in Algeria, and Alexandria in Egypt. Andalusi Arabic also influenced Andalusi Romance ("Mozarabic"), Spanish , Judaeo-Spanish varieties, Catalan-Valencian-Balearic , Portuguese , Classical Arabic and Moroccan , Tunisian , Egyptian , Hassani and Algerian Arabics. Under Muslim rule, Arabic became

2592-619: The Alcazar in the style of Granada's art and architecture. Muhammad V died in 1391, bringing an end to the Nasrid dynasty's golden years. Until its fall in the late 15th century, the dynasty became embroiled in succession disputes, rivalries, and assassinations. Internal conflicts often revolved around the Banu Sarraj family (known in Spanish sources as the Abencerrajes) and their rivals, who ruthlessly pursued their own interests at

2700-798: The Almoravids in the late 11th century and followed by the Almohads in the mid 12th century. The Almohad regime grew more unstable following the defeat of the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 by a coalition of Christian kingdoms from the north. In 1228, the Almohad caliph Idris al-Ma'mun , wishing to focus on retaining control of the Maghreb (North Africa), decided to abandon al-Andalus. The resultant power vacuum allowed local leaders to carve out their own small states, creating

2808-518: The Khazars , a semi-nomadic Turkic ethnic group. The Hadith Dhulqarnayn is known from one manuscript, though that manuscript is missing the first five folios; as such, the extant version begins mid-sentence. An Arabic edition with a translation into Spanish was published in 1929 by E. García Gómez. Andalusi Arabic Arabic in al-Andalus existed largely in a situation of bilingualism with Andalusi Romance (known popularly as Mozarabic ) until

2916-574: The Ottoman Empire and to the fact that the Moriscos had revealed themselves as agents of the enemy who helped the Ottomans against Spain, Philip II of Spain issued a royal decree in Spain forbidding Moriscos from the use of Arabic on all occasions , formal and informal, speaking and writing. Using Arabic henceforth would be regarded as a crime. Arabic speakers were given three years to learn

3024-513: The Reconquista . Isabella urged Christians to pursue a conquest of North Africa. Initially, under the conditions of surrender, the Muslims who remained were guaranteed their property, laws, customs, and religion. This however, did not ensue, causing the Muslims to rebel against their Christian rulers, culminating with an uprising in 1500 . The rebellion was seen as a chance to formally end

3132-625: The Zirids on the Albaicín hill to a new citadel he founded on the Sabika hill to the south. This became the Alhambra ( al-Qal'a al-Hamra , the 'Red Citadel'). Despite Ibn al-Ahmar's earlier alliance with Castile, Ferdinand III still attacked and captured Arjona in 1244. In the summer of 1245 he began the siege of Jaén, a more important and well-fortified town. Ibn al-Ahmar initially supported

3240-423: The northern Christian kingdoms was recurrent, while mounting civil strife led to the fragmentation of al-Andalus into smaller Taifa states in the early 11th century. This marked a precipitous decline in the power of Iberian Muslim polities and facilitated the centuries-long Christian Reconquista and the recurrent conquest of al-Andalus by North African dynasties based in what is now Morocco , commencing with

3348-537: The 11th century on, in stanzaic dialectal poems ( zajal ) and dialectal proverb collections. Substantial material on late Granadan Arabic survives in the work of Pedro de Alcalá —the Vocabulista aravigo en letra castellana and Arte para ligeramente saber la lengua araviga , both published in 1505 to explain the language of the conquered to the conquerors following the Fall of Granada . Its last documents are

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3456-452: The 13th century. It was also characterized by diglossia : in addition to standard written Arabic, spoken varieties could be subdivided into an urban, educated idiolect and a register of the less-privileged masses. Spoken Andalusi Arabic had distinct features. It is unique among colloquial dialects in retaining from Standard Arabic the internal passive voice through vocalization. Through contact with Romance , spoken Andalusi Arabic adopted

3564-519: The 9th century that Christians were no longer using Latin, Richard Bulliet estimates that only 50% of the population of al-Andalus had converted to Islam by the death of Abd al-Rahman III in 961, and 80% by 1100. By about 1260, Muslim territories in Iberia were reduced to the Emirate of Granada , in which more than 90% of the population had converted to Islam and Arabic-Romance bilingualism seems to have disappeared. The colloquial Arabic of al-Andalus

3672-736: The Almohads. Other prominent families, such as the Banu 'l-Mawl of Cordoba and the Banu Sinadid of Jaén , joined them over the next years and thereafter remained attached to the Nasrid court. With the Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon – under kings Ferdinand III and James I , respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus, which the Taifa kingdoms attempted in vain to resist. Ibn al-Ahmar's new status attracted support from many Muslim towns in

3780-418: The Banu'l-Ula (the family of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula) from his realm, in revenge for the killing of his brother, and placed another Marinid family member, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu, in charge of the Ghazi s. Alfonso XI remained a threat and the war between Castile and the Marinids and Nasrids continued, culminating in the Battle of Rio Salado in 1340. At sea, the Marinid navy, assisted by Hafsid ships, defeated

3888-561: The Castilian fleet, assisted by Catalan ships. On land, however, the combined forces of Castile and Portugal, along with volunteers from elsewhere in Europe, decisively defeated the Marinid and Nasrid forces at the Salado River, near Tarifa. The Christian victory was a major milestone, allowing Castile to capture important towns on the frontier, such as Priego and Alcala la Real in 1342. Castile also captured Algeciras in 1344 after

3996-435: The Castilians. The fall of Seville and the long-term truce with Castile effectively established the political map of the region until the 15th century. The peace allowed the Nasrid emirate to consolidate its territory and build up its governing institutions. While Granada's vassalage is emphasized by Christian sources, in practice Ibn al-Ahmar pledged allegiance to different suzerains at different times, depending on what

4104-540: The Classical language. Alternatively in higher registers, [ e ] and [ o ] were only allophones of / i / and / u / respectively, while diphthongs were mostly resistant to monophthongization. However, / a / could turn into [ e ] or [ i ] via imāla . In the presence of velar or pharyngeal contour, / a / was backed into [ ɑ ] and sometimes even rounded into [ o ] or [ u ] , or even [ ɒ ] . This

4212-593: The Iberian Peninsula completely and focus on his campaigns in the Maghreb instead. He ceded Algeciras and Ronda to the Nasrids, thus restoring some of Granada's former territories. After Sancho IV's death in 1295, Muhammad II spent the rest of his reign going on the offensive against Castile, taking advantage of the weakness of the young new king, Ferdinand IV . He nurtured an alliance with James II of Aragon , raided Castilian territory, and recaptured two frontier forts at Alcaudete and Quesada. After his death in 1302, he

4320-522: The Iberian Peninsula in 1362. Peter and Muhammad V's forces marched on Granada, capturing various towns and the important city of Malaga. With his fortunes turning for the worse, Muhammad VI, reportedly on the advice of his allies, surrendered himself to Peter of Castile and asked for mercy. Peter executed him instead, leaving his ally Muhammad V to reclaim the throne in 1362. After his return to power, Muhammad V continued his policy of peace with Castile and remained pragmatic. Under his rule, Nasrid diplomacy

4428-484: The Iberian Peninsula, which they called Al-Andalus , since 711. By the late 12th century, following the expansion of Christian kingdoms in the north, the area of Muslim control had been reduced to the southern parts of the peninsula governed by the Almohad Caliphate . After Almohad control retreated in 1228, the ambitious Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar rose to power and established the Nasrid dynasty in control of

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4536-492: The Marinid family itself, and some were failed rebels against the Marinid sultan Abu Yusuf ( r.  1258–1286 ). Muhammad II's first preoccupation was the Banu Ashqilula, who retained Malaga and even received some recognition from Alfonso X and from Abu Yusuf. He sought assistance from the Marinid sultan and offered him a base on the Iberian Peninsula. Abu Yusuf, who had recently captured Tangier and Ceuta on

4644-455: The Marinids as a greater threat. He made an alliance with Alfonso X and incited the Zayyanids of Tlemcen , led by Yaghmurasan , to attack the Marinids. While Alfonso X blockaded Malaga by sea, Muhammad II convinced the Marinid governor of Malaga to surrender the city to him in 1279. After a Castilian attack against Algeciras failed, however, Alfonso X made peace with the Marinids. In 1281,

4752-489: The Marinids, the Castilians, and the Banu Ashqilula joined forces to attack Granada. Muhammad II's forces managed to repel the attack, thanks in large part to the effectiveness of his new Zenata troops. The deaths of Alfonso X in 1284 and of Abu Yusuf in 1286 relieved the pressure on Granada. In 1288, Muhammad II was able to finally expel the last Banu Ashqilula from Guadix, who fled to Morocco. The Marinids, now led by Abu Ya'qub , still retained Tarifa and Algeciras. In 1292,

4860-662: The Muslim population to reorganize themselves politically. After the surrender of Granada, Boabdil remained for a little over a year in a country estate in the mountainous Alpujarras, as lord of Mondújar  [ es ] , before leaving for Fez in North Africa. According to al-Maqqari (d. 1632), he died in 1518 or in 1533 and was buried in Fez. Another account, by 16th-century writer Luis del Mármol Carvajal , claims that Boabdil died instead in battle in 1536. Al-Maqqari also reports that in his time (c. 1617), Boabdil's descendants were living in poverty in Fez. About 200,000 Muslims are thought to have emigrated to North Africa after

4968-703: The Muslims in the old territories of Castile to the north, who lived in stable communities and were relatively well-integrated into Castilian society. Instead, it involved the Muslim inhabitants of the Guadalquivir valley and of Castilian Andalucia , for whom the Castilian conquests of the 13th century had represented a major and still recent disruption of their communities. Some of these communities, like those of Murcia and Niebla , had been allowed to govern themselves under Castilian overlordship, while others were subjected to forced displacement and lived under harsher conditions. It's unclear whether Ibn al-Ahmar played

5076-434: The Muslims tried to start a dialogue to mitigate its effects, the authorities insisted on implementing its content. In 1568, a new rebellion broke out, which lasted three years and spread to most of the areas where there was a Muslim presence. The Spanish authorities eventually succeeded in repressing it. As a result of the repression of the Moriscos, some of them requested help from the Muslim sultans and princes, headed by

5184-563: The Nasrids attempted to leverage the aid of the North African Marinids to ward off Castile, although Marinid interventions in the peninsula ended after Battle of Rio Salado (1340). The population of the emirate was swelled by Muslim refugees from the territories newly conquered by Castile and Aragon, resulting in a small yet densely-populated territory which was more uniformly Muslim and Arabic-speaking than before. The Alhambra palace complex, which Ibn al-Ahmar founded,

5292-412: The Nasrids became one of the longest-lived Muslim dynasties in the Iberian Peninsula. The famed Alhambra palace complex was built during this period. The population of the emirate, swollen by refugees from the north, was more homogenously Muslim and Arabic -speaking than in earlier Muslim states on the peninsula, with a Jewish minority also present. The political and cultural apogee of Nasrid Granada

5400-553: The Nasrids. Boabdil returned to Granada in 1487, this time with Castilian support, and managed to force al-Zaghal to flee. Once in control, he made initial offers to surrender Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella and he even cooperated at times with the Spanish forces. Meanwhile, al-Zaghal continued to lead a fierce resistance against the Spanish from outside Granada, forcing the Catholic Monarchs to deal with him first. The Siege of Málaga took place from May to August 1487 and

5508-550: The Treaty of Granada, withdrawing the rights of Muslims. Muslims in the area were given the choice of expulsion or conversion. Those who remained and officially converted were thereafter known as Moriscos . Philip II of Spain ( r.  1556–1598 ) issued multiple decrees against the Morisco population, including the decree issued in 1563, which prohibited them from carrying arms, and the decree issued in 1566, which prohibited

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5616-515: The Zayyanid sultan in Tlemcen. When Henry captured Seville in 1366, forcing Peter to flee north, Muhammad V adapted by negotiating a new peace with him. When Peter returned to Seville in 1367, Muhammad V again renewed his loyalty to him. When Peter was assassinated in 1369, leaving Castile in further chaos, Muhammad V took advantage of the situation to recapture Algeciras that year. He destroyed

5724-455: The above letters, each containing a shadda . Andalusi Arabic is uniquely conservative among colloquial Arabic dialects for retaining the internal passive voice ( صيغة المجهول ' sighatu l-majhūl ') of Standard Arabic verbs , using the same stem of the active voice verb with different vocalization. The passive voice is expressed in the past or perfect tense with kasra (/i/) on the last syllable and damma (/u/) on all other syllables, and in

5832-481: The case that ق most often represented /q/ , sometimes /k/ , and marginally /ɡ/ based on a plethora of surviving Andalusi writings and Romance transcriptions of Andalusi Arabic words. The vowel system was subject to a heavy amount of fronting and raising, a phenomenon known as imāla , causing /a(ː)/ to be raised, probably to [ ɛ ] or [ e ] and, particularly with short vowels, [ ɪ ] in certain circumstances, particularly when i-mutation

5940-515: The city and from then on its former territory became attached to Gibraltar instead. Domestically, Muhammad V eliminated the office of the shaykh al-ghuzat , the chief of the Ghazi s, in 1370, placing the Zenata troops under the direct command of the Nasrid family for the first time. The emirate was relatively free of internal conflict during his second reign. This period also marked the pinnacle of Nasrid culture. The vizier Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1375)

6048-420: The city opened its gates to the rebels and Nasr was forced to abdicate and retire to Guadix. Isma'il I ( r.  1314–1325 ) became the new sultan and proved to be an effective ruler. From Guadix, Nasr caused him trouble and secured an alliance with Castile, which was then under the reign of Alfonso XI , a child overseen by two regents, Pedro and Juan. Border conflicts ensued until 1319, when Castile launched

6156-462: The city. After taking direct control of it, he decided to make it his new capital instead of Jaén, as Granada was a more important city in al-Andalus and its location was more strategic: it was geographically more defensible, farther from the Castilian frontier, and had better access to the sea. Additionally, he chose to move the ruler's residence from the Old Citadel ( al-Qasaba al-Qadima ) of

6264-650: The complex today, and commissioned the construction of the Alhambra's main mosque (no longer extant). Muhammad III then set his aims on controlling the Strait of Gibraltar. With the help of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula , a rebel Marinid prince, he incited a rebellion against the Marinids in Ceuta and in the Gomara Mountains of Morocco. In 1306 or 1307, he captured Ceuta. He secured an alliance with Tlemcen, which

6372-610: The defenders, but in March 1246 he met with Ferdinand and negotiated a new treaty. In the Treaty of Jaén, referred to in Arabic sources as al-silm al-kabir ('the great peace'), Ibn al-Ahmar agreed to surrender Jaén and to become Ferdinand's vassal , while Castile recognized the existence of the Emirate of Granada as a state and agreed to a twenty-year truce. In 1248, Ibn al-Ahmar actively aided Ferdinand in his successful siege of Seville by sending his own military contingent to assist

6480-532: The end of independent Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula. Since the Muslim conquest of 711 , much of the Iberian Peninsula had been under Muslim control. At its greatest geographical extent, Muslim control extended to most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern France . By the 10th century, under the Caliphate of Córdoba , the region was one of the most prosperous and advanced in Europe. Conflict with

6588-457: The expense of the emirate's stability. Externally, the emirate remained at peace during some periods thanks mainly to the fact that Castile continued to struggle with its own internal problems as well. War with Castile did break out between 1405 and 1410, followed by a period of peace until 1428. External wars and internal disputes continued through the 1430s and 1440s. During the early reign of Henry IV ( r.  1454–1474 ), Castile resumed

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6696-648: The extensive Berber presence in al-Andalus. Corriente identified about 15 Berberisms that entered Andalusi Arabic, only a few of which were still in use in the early 16th century. The phoneme represented by the letter ق in texts is a point of contention. The letter, which in Classical Arabic represented either a voiceless pharyngealized velar stop or a voiceless uvular stop , most likely represented some kind of post-alveolar affricate or velar plosive in Andalusi Arabic. Federico Corriente presents

6804-400: The fall of Granada. It is known that many Muslims emigrated to Morocco after the departure of their emir, and some of them successively emigrated to Egypt and the Levant . For Jews as well, a period of tolerance under Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula came to an end with their expulsion by the Christian monarchy in 1492. The Christian conquest of Granada did not extinguish the spirit of

6912-417: The following years, Castile became too preoccupied with internal conflicts to be a serious threat to Granada and a relative peace prevailed on the frontier. Despite the military defeats during his reign, Yusuf I seems to have remained trusted by his subjects and faced no serious internal challenges. Yusuf I was murdered suddenly in 1354 while at prayer in the main mosque of Granada, by a civilian described as

7020-496: The imperfect (prefix) form of a verb, preceded by either kān or kīn (depending on the register of the speech in question), of which the final -n was normally assimilated by preformatives y- and t- . An example drawn from Ibn Quzmān will illustrate this: The oldest evidence of Andalusi Arabic utterances can be dated from the 10th and 11th century, in isolated quotes, both in prose and stanzaic Classical Andalusi poems ( muwashshahat ), and then, from

7128-441: The imperfect tense with damma /u/ on the personal subject prefix—the first syllable—and fatḥah /a/ on the following syllables. Some nouns in Andalusi Arabic shifted gender to match the gender of corresponding terms in Romance, such as the feminine Arabic nouns ʿayn ( عين 'eye') and shams ( شمس 'sun'), which became masculine in al-Andalus, matching ojo and sol . Gender distinction in second-person pronouns and verbs

7236-452: The king of Castile, Alfonso X , was preoccupied with other matters. Initially, the Marinids even sent a contingent to assist the rebellion, landing at Tarifa . A number of cities fell into Muslim hands, including Jerez , Utrera , Lebrija , Arcos , and Medina Sidonia . Alfonso X also had to contend with revolts by some of the Castilian nobles. However, his forces progressively took back control. In some cases, as in Jerez, this involved

7344-463: The new Castilian king, Sancho IV , made an alliance with Granada, Tlemcen, and Portugal with the intention to remove the Marinids from the Iberian Peninsula. He captured Tarifa in October 1292. Muhammad II expected the city to be returned to Nasrid control after this, but Sancho IV refused to cede it and the city thus remained under Christian control permanently. When a Marinid attempt to retake Tarifa failed in 1294, Abu Yaq'ub decided to withdraw from

7452-504: The new Marinid sultan, Abu al-Rabi , and solicit his aid in the defense of Algeciras . Both Algeciras and Almería successfully held out until 1310, when the Aragonese retreated. After managing to capture a few frontier forts, Castile's attacks also ended with the death of Ferdinand IV in 1312. In 1312, Nasr's cousin, Isma'il , launched a rebellion with the help of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula. In response, Nasr sought assistance from Castile, but this only made him more unpopular. In February 1314,

7560-424: The peace was often interrupted by wars, after which vassalage was often renewed. The political history of the emirate was turbulent and intertwined with that of its neighbors. The Nasrids sometimes provided refuge or military aid to Castilian kings and noblemen, even against other Muslim states, while in turn the Castilians provided refuge and aid to some Nasrid emirs against other Nasrid rivals. On other occasions

7668-416: The phonemes / p / and / tʃ / . Like the other Iberian languages, Andalusi lacked vowel length but had stress instead (e.g. Andalusí in place of Andalusī ). A feature shared with Maghrebi Arabic was that the first-person imperfect was marked with the prefix n- ( نلعب nalʿab 'I play') like the plural in Standard Arabic, necessitating an analogical imperfect first-person plural, constructed with

7776-403: The region hoping for protection. The Nasrid kingdom thus took shape initially by communities consenting to Ibn al-Ahmar's authority, rather than being submitted by conquest. Jaén, Guadix , and Baeza accepted his authority quickly in 1232, while Almería accepted him 1238 and Malaga did so in 1238 or 1239. Ibn al-Ahmar had more difficulty being recognized in larger cities, where his rule

7884-544: The remaining Nasrid elites negotiated with Ferdinand and Isabella, though little progress was made either way during that year. By 1491, the city itself lay under siege. On 25 November 1491, the Treaty of Granada was signed, setting out the conditions for surrender. On 2 January 1492, Boabdil surrendered Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella. Although some remained, the Castilians encouraged the Nasrid aristocracy to leave for North Africa, as it would likely frustrate any attempts by

7992-527: The restless Castilian nobility against a common enemy and instill subjects with a sense of loyalty to the crown. Granada's successful capture of the Castilian frontier town of Zahara in December 1481 marked the last time it was able to gain ground against Castile. The Granada War began in 1482, with Christian forces capturing Alhama de Granada in February. This was a major Christian victory, as Alhama

8100-415: The same time, internal turmoil rocked the Nasrid state. A coup d'état in March 1309 forced Muhammad III to abdicate in favour of his brother, Nasr ( r.  1309–1314 ). In the summer, Castile captured Gibraltar with the aid of Aragonese ships, Aragon laid siege to Almería , and a rebellion returned Ceuta to Marinid control. With Ceuta no longer under Granada's hold, Nasr was able to make peace with

8208-480: The seeds of what was to grow into an indigenous Andalusi Arabic." Unlike the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania , through which Latin remained the dominant language, the Muslim conquest brought a language that was a vehicle for a cultural and religious subjugation. Over the centuries, Arabic spread gradually in al-Andalus, primarily through conversion to Islam . While Alvarus of Cordoba lamented in

8316-486: The service of the Nasrids as commander of the Ghazi s, a position which his family continued to hold for much of that century. Abu Thabit died in 1308, before he was able to retake Ceuta from the Nasrids. The Nasrid successes in the Strait of Gibraltar aroused concerns in Castile and Aragon. Ferdinand IV and James II agreed to launch a joint invasion of Granada, planning to divide the Nasrid territories between them. At

8424-551: The son of John II of Aragon . By 1479, both Henry IV and John II had died, leaving Isabella and Ferdinand as rulers of a united Castile and Aragon. This was a pivotal turning point, as Granada could no longer play the two kingdoms against each other to ensure its own survival. The new royal couple, known as the Catholic Monarchs , were also united in their intention to conquer the emirate. The war against Granada offered an opportunity for Ferdinand and Isabella to harness

8532-529: The southern side of the Strait of Gibraltar , thus occupied Algeciras and Tarifa in 1275, along with Ronda further inland. While he conducted damaging raids into Christian territory, he invited both Muhammad II and the Banu Ashqilula leaders ( Abu Muhammad ibn Ashqilula of Malaga and Abu Ishaq of Guadix) to join him. In 1278, the Banu Ashqilula decided to give Malaga to Abu Yusuf, who now occupied this city as well. By now, Muhammad II felt disillusioned and saw

8640-671: The story describes Alexander's journeys across the world (such as an encounter with the king of China ), his relationship with the mystical prophet Khidr , and the piety of the main character, Alexander. It is closely related to the Sīrat al-Iskandar , including in how both texts interpolate from the Syriac Alexander Legend , such as in how it describes the construction of the Gates of Alexander designed to keep out and confine Gog and Magog . The text identifies Gog and Magog with

8748-555: The successful siege of Teba in 1330. Muhammad IV reacted to the Castilian victories by seeking an alliance with the Marinids, to whom he ceded Ronda and Algeciras again in 1327 and 1328, respectively, to use as a base. In 1332, he visited Fez to personally seek the intervention of the Marinid sultan, Abu al-Hasan ( r.  1331–1348 ), against Castile. Abu al-Hasan pledged his support and sent an army to Algeciras in 1333. It besieged Gibraltar and captured it in June. By August,

8856-509: The suffix -ū ( نلعبوا nalʿabū 'we play'). A feature characteristic of it was the extensive imala that transformed alif into an /e/ or /i/ (e.g. al-kirā ("rent") > al-kirē > Spanish " alquiler "). The Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, about a century after the death of Muhammad , involved a few thousand Arab tribesmen and a much larger number of partially Arabicized Amazigh , many of whom spoke little or no Arabic . According to Consuelo López-Morillas , "this population sowed

8964-468: The use of the Arabic language. Philip believed that the most effective way to solve the problem of the Moriscos lay in confiscating their properties and lands and completely erasing their identity, thus ending their existence as a distinct community. He issued a decree in the year 1567 forbidding them to wear their traditional embroidered clothes, mandating the use of Christian hats and pants, and further prohibited their language, customs and celebrations. When

9072-428: The verbal system was substantially altered. One example is the initial n- on verbs in the first person singular , a feature shared by many Maghrebi varieties. Likewise the form V pattern of tafaʻʻal-a ( تَفَعَّلَ ) was altered by epenthesis to atfa``al ( أتْفَعَّل ). Andalusi Arabic developed a contingent/subjunctive mood (after a protasis with the conditional particle law ) consisting of

9180-554: The war effort. Meanwhile, civil war erupted in Granada as a result of succession struggles in the Nasrid ruling house, which undermined any focused resistance to the Spanish advance. In July 1482, Muhammad XII , known as Boabdil to the Christians, led a successful coup against his father, Abu'l Hasan . Abu'l Hasan, a capable military leader, was forced to flee to Malaga and the emirate was divided between him and his son. Boabdil

9288-675: Was a major figure of literature, as was his successor, Ibn Zamrak (d. 1392). In the Alhambra, Muhammad V undertook major construction projects, including the Palace of the Lions . For the general population in the city, he sponsored the construction of a hospital ( maristan ), the Maristan of Granada , between 1365 and 1367. His reign was also a high point of cultural exchange with the Castilian court of Peter in Seville, who built his palace in

9396-457: Was abandoned. There were about twenty suffixes from Romance that were attached to Arabic bases. The -an which, in Classical Arabic, marked a noun as indefinite accusative case (see nunation ), became an indeclinable conjunctive particle, as in ibn Quzmān's expression rajul-an 'ashīq . The unconjugated prepositive negative particle lis developed out of the classical verb lays-a . The derivational morphology of

9504-424: Was especially pronounced in situations of daily Arabic-Romance contact . For example, an Arabic letter written by a Valencian Morisco in 1595 contained constructions such as taʿmál alburšíblī 'do what is possible' and aquštiš matáʿī 'at a cost to me.' It was also characterized by diglossia : in addition to standard written Arabic, spoken varieties could be subdivided into an urban, educated idiolect and

9612-503: Was exceptionally effective, even amidst the convoluted politics of the Iberian Peninsula in this era. The ongoing Castilian Civil War meant that Castile was not in a position to threaten Granada. Muhammad V initially supported Peter, his former ally, against his rival, Henry of Trastámara . He sent troops to help Peter, which provoked Henry's Aragonese allies into attacking Granadan ships at sea. Muhammad V, in turn, used these Christian attacks to solicit materials and funds from Musa II ,

9720-446: Was further threatened by the rebellion of the Banu Ashqilula in 1266. The latter were probably alienated by his decision to establish a line of succession through his sons Muhammad and Yusuf, which would distance them from the throne. They occupied Malaga and turned to Alfonso X for aid. Granada and Castile became embroiled in conflict and in each other's affairs, with Ibn al-Ahmar also supporting new Castilian rebels in 1272. The situation

9828-678: Was given by the Spanish Arabist Federico Corriente , who drew on the Appendix Probi , zajal poetry, proverbs and aphorisms, the work of the 16th century lexicographer Pedro de Alcalá , and Andalusi letters found in the Cairo Geniza . As Arabisms moved into varieties of Iberian Romance over time, Andalusi Arabic borrowed widely from the Romance lexicon. Corriente observes three periods in which Romance words entered Arabic, as Romance shifted from

9936-420: Was his ally. In Granada, which was under the authority of Ibn Hud, the local Banu Khalid family led a propaganda campaign on behalf of the Nasrids. A revolt successfully stormed the city's citadel on 17 April 1238 (1 Ramadan 635 AH). Ibn al-Ahmar was then officially declared the new ruler with the help of Abu l-Hasan Ali al-Ru'ayni, a former secretary of Ibn Hud. On hearing of this, Ibn al-Ahmar quickly came to

10044-477: Was in the 14th century, particularly in the second reign of Muhammad V . After this period, internal dynastic conflicts escalated. After 1479, Granada faced a united Castile and Aragon under the Catholic Monarchs intent on conquering it. In 1491, after the decade-long Granada War , the emirate was forced to capitulate . Muhammad XII , the last Nasrid ruler, formally surrendered Granada in January 1492, marking

10152-521: Was interrupted by a palace coup in August 1359 that placed his half-brother, Isma'il II ( r.  1359–1360 ), on the throne. Muhammad V escaped to Guadix, where he had support from the local garrison, but was unable to rally further support from Almería or from Peter I , the Castilian king. He moved on and took refuge at the court of the Marinid ruler Abu Salim in Fez. Isma'il II was soon assassinated in June 1360 by one of his former co-conspirators,

10260-469: Was located in the heart of the emirate, on the road between Granada and the emirate's second city, Malaga. This marked the beginning of a grinding 10-year war. The Christian force was made up of troops provided by Castilian nobles, towns, and the Santa Hermandad , as well as Swiss mercenaries. The Catholic Church also encouraged other Christian countries to offer their troops and their finances to

10368-425: Was made plural as nibšāriyāt and lubb (from lobo 'wolf') became a broken plural as lababah . Romance loanwords were used in Andalusi Arabic through the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, even after Granada had been monolingually arabophone for two centuries. The lexical impact of Berber language on Andalusi Arabic appears to be considerably less than that of Romance and very small in proportion to

10476-446: Was not resolved by the time Ibn al-Ahmar died in 1273 and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad II ( r.  1273–1302 ). During Muhammad II's reign a long-term pattern of diplomacy and geopolitical competition became evident, with the Nasrids, Castilians, and Marinids each playing with or against each other at various times. Each of these dynasties was also faced by other internal and external enemies. The Nasrids thus sought to forge

10584-435: Was one of the most difficult and prolonged engagements of the war. The strongly-fortified city put up a vigorous resistance, led by one of al-Zaghal's commanders, while Boabdil continued to stand back or actively help the Catholic Monarchs. Because the city resisted, its inhabitants were given little mercy and either killed or enslaved, which encouraged other Muslim towns to surrender more quickly after this. Al-Zaghal held out

10692-461: Was partly due also to the weakness of the Marinid state, which suffered from internal disarray in the second half of the 14th century. Spurred by his successes, Alfonso XI went on to begin a new siege of Gibraltar in 1349, but the following year he died from the Black Death that was sweeping through the region. After his death, the siege ended, leaving Gibraltar under Marinid control. Over

10800-430: Was possible. Contact with native Romance speakers led to the introduction of the phonemes / p / , / ɡ / and, possibly, the affricate / tʃ / from loanwords . Monophthongization led to the disappearance of certain diphthongs such as /aw/ and /aj/ which were leveled to / oː / and / eː / , respectively, though Colin hypothesizes that these diphthongs remained in the more mesolectal registers influenced by

10908-491: Was progressively expanded under his successors. Ibn al-Ahmar reigned with relative peace and stability until 1264, when the Mudéjar revolt took place in Castile, lasting until 1266. Mudéjar is a term used to refer to the Muslims who lived under the rule of the Christian kingdoms at this time, among whom different communities lived under different circumstances. The rebellion of 1264 was wide-ranging but it did not involve

11016-526: Was prominent among the varieties of Arabic of its time in its use for literary purposes, especially in zajal poetry and proverbs and aphorisms . In 1502, the Muslims of Granada were forced to choose between conversion and exile; those who converted became known as the Moriscos . In 1526, this requirement was extended to Muslims in the rest of Spain, the Mudéjars . In 1567, due to the wars against

11124-592: Was seen as too harsh. Cordoba accepted him in 1232 for a few months and Seville accepted him for only a month in 1234. He was temporarily forced to acknowledge the authority of Ibn Hud again in 1234, in return for the latter's recognition of his authority over Arjona and Jaén. Towards 1236, the Castilian offensive intensified and the strategic situation became increasingly precarious for al-Andalus. On multiple occasions, Ibn al-Ahmar responded by aligning himself with Ferdinand III, even against other Muslim rulers. When Ferdinand conquered Cordoba in 1236 , Ibn al-Ahmar

11232-437: Was shaken by more internal turmoil, due in particular to the intrigues of the Ghazi s, led by Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula and his family. In 1327–28, they assassinated the vizier , Ibn Mahruq, and took effective control of the young emir. Meanwhile, Alfonso XI, now grown up, was eager to establish himself as a crusader . Aided by volunteers from Northern Europe , he led his army on multiple offensives against Granada, culminating in

11340-531: Was subsequently captured by the Castilians in 1483 and was only released after making major concessions that undermined his credibility in Granada. He agreed to resettle in Guadix while his father resumed control of Granada. Abu'l Hasan died in 1485, shortly after abdicating to his brother, Muhammad ibn Sa'd (Muhammad XIII) , known as al-Zaghal. After this, the Spanish campaigns continued unabated and made slow but steady progress, while internal strife continued among

11448-467: Was succeeded by his son, Muhammad III ( r.  1302–1309 ), who largely continued the same policies. Eventually, when Ferdinand IV solidified his control over his kingdom in 1306, Muhammad III changed diplomatic direction by making peace with him and resuming tribute payments to Castile. At the Alhambra, Muhammad III erected the Partal Palace , which is the oldest palace still standing within

11556-665: Was tactically advantageous. Aside from Ibn Hud in 1234, on subsequent occasions he also declared his allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad (before 1244), to the Almohad caliph Abd al-Wahid II al-Rashid (also before 1244), and to the Hafsids in Tunis (in 1242 and 1264). Arabic sources do not mention his vassalage to Castile. In the long-term, the Treaty of Jaén still formed a basis for Nasrid relations with Castile, but

11664-498: Was under a Marinid siege at the time, and proceeded to occupy Asilah , Larache , and Ksar es-Seghir along the Moroccan coast. When the Marinid sultan Abu Ya'qub died in 1307, Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula declared himself sultan in his stead, but his bid for the throne failed as Abu Thabit , Abu Ya'qub's grandson, lifted the siege of Tlemcen and returned to retake Asilah and Ksar es-Seghir. Uthman took refuge in Granada and entered into

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