The Audumbras , or Audumbaras (Hindi;ओदुम्बर) were a north Indian tribal nation east of the Punjab , in the Western Himalaya region. They were the most important tribe of the Himachal , and lived in the lower hills between Sirmaur , Chamba and Yamuna .
100-650: They issued coinage from the 1st century BCE, when they seemingly gained independence from the Indo-Greeks . The silver coins of the Kunindas , the Vemakas and the Audumbaras closely follow the coins of Apollodotus II in their characteristics (weight, size and material). Their coins were found in the area of Pathānkot District. Their favorite deities were Mahādeva or Shiva , and also Kārtikeya , standing with
200-513: A Nereid riding a Ketos sea monster are found. The Greeks in Asia are well known archaeologically for their stone palettes , also called "toilet trays", round trays commonly found in the areas of Bactria and Gandhara , which usually represent Greek mythological scenes. The earliest of them are attributed to the Indo-Greek period in the 2nd and 1st century BCE (a few were retrieved from
300-471: A dhoti loincloth before this innovation), the halo , the contrapposto stance of the upright figures, the stylized Mediterranean curly hair and top-knot apparently derived from the style of the Belvedere Apollo (330 BC), and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artistic realism (See: Greek art ). Some of the standing Buddhas (as the one pictured) were sculpted using
400-611: A Seleucid princess, in accordance with contemporary Greek practices to form dynastic alliances. An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana , described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek (" Yavana ") princess, daughter of Seleucus, before accurately detailing early Mauryan genealogy: " Chandragupta married with a daughter of Suluva , the Yavana king of Pausasa . Thus, he mixed
500-459: A composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas , Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took Pataliputra . In 305 BC, Seleucus I led an army to the Indus , where he encountered Chandragupta . The confrontation ended with a peace treaty, and "an intermarriage agreement" ( Epigamia , Greek: Ἐπιγαμία), meaning either
600-568: A danger to both; and that if they admitted them into the country, it would certainly be utterly barbarised. Following the departure of the Seleucid army, the Bactrian kingdom seems to have expanded. In the west, areas in north-eastern Iran may have been absorbed, possibly as far as into Parthia , whose ruler had been defeated by Antiochus the Great . These territories possibly are identical with
700-693: A degree of individuality never matched by the often more bland descriptions of their royal contemporaries further West". ("Greece and the Hellenistic world"). These Hellenistic kingdoms established cities on the Greek model, such as in Ai-Khanoum in Bactria , displaying purely Hellenistic architectural features, Hellenistic statuary, and remains of Aristotelician papyrus prints and coin hoards. These Greek elements penetrated India quite early as shown by
800-657: A dynastic marriage or an agreement for intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. Accordingly, Seleucus ceded his eastern territories to Chandragupta, possibly as far as Arachosia and received 500 war elephants (which played a key role in Seleucus's victory at the Battle of Ipsus ): The Indians occupy in part some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived
900-574: A great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads." Although there is no other mention of Emperor Wu worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature, the murals suggest that statues of the Buddha were already in existence during the 2nd century BC, connecting them directly to the time of the Indo-Greeks. The Book of Later Han describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around AD 67 by
1000-637: A great proselytizer in the line of the traditional Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism, directing his efforts towards the Indian and the Hellenistic worlds from around 250 BC. According to the Edicts of Ashoka , set in stone, some of them written in Greek, he sent Buddhist emissaries to the Greek lands in Asia and as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts name each of the rulers of the Hellenistic world at
1100-587: A living being which contradicts him obtaining his goal of enlightenment and achieving moksha . The clearest examples of Hellenistic art are found in the coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings of the period, such as Demetrius I of Bactria . Many coins of the Greco-Bactrian kings have been unearthed, including the largest silver and gold coins ever minted in the Hellenistic world, ranking among the best in artistic and technical sophistication: they "show
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#17327727071731200-530: A nickeliferous copper ore was the source from mines at Anarak . Copper-nickel would not be used again in coinage until the 19th century. The presence of Chinese people in the Indian subcontinent from ancient times is also suggested by the accounts of the " Ciñas " in the Mahabharata and the Manu Smriti . The Han dynasty explorer and ambassador Zhang Qian visited Bactria in 126 BC, and reported
1300-640: A political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians , although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians , the Kushans , and the Indo-Scythians , whose Western Satraps state lingered on encompassing local Greeks , up to 415 CE. Greeks first began to settle the Northwestern part of
1400-576: A quarter Greek." Also several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes , followed by Deimachus and Dionysius , were sent to reside at the Mauryan court. Presents continued to be exchanged between the two rulers. The intensity of these contacts is testified by the existence of a dedicated Mauryan state department for Greek ( Yavana ) and Persian foreigners, or the remains of Hellenistic pottery that can be found throughout northern India. On these occasions, Greek populations apparently remained in
1500-477: A reduced rate, while sea trade between Greek Egypt and Bactria developed. Diodotus was succeeded by his son Diodotus II , who allied himself with the Parthian Arsaces in his fight against Seleucus II : Soon after, relieved by the death of Diodotus, Arsaces made peace and concluded an alliance with his son, also by the name of Diodotus; some time later he fought against Seleucos who came to punish
1600-596: A river bearing the same name and emptying into the Oxus ), and Darapsa, and several others. Among these was Eucratidia , which was named after its ruler. When the ruler of neighbouring Parthia , the former satrap and self-proclaimed king Andragoras , was eliminated by Arsaces , the rise of the Parthian Empire cut off the Greco-Bactrians from direct contact with the Greek world. Overland trade continued at
1700-649: A spear in right hand. They are also known as Audumbara or Audumbatira. It is a name of the tribe. They are the same people as the Odemboerce of Pliny. Hist Nat VI 23. Professor Lassen mentions them as the name of the people of Kutch of Gujarat state. They appear in the Ganapatha of Panini of 5th Century B.C. K K Das Gupta has attempted to show that they existed even in Brahmana period. They were enterprising people having prosperous trade and commerce. Their capital
1800-616: A three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra (modern Balkh ), before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son Demetrius around 206 BC. Classical accounts also relate that Euthydemus negotiated peace with Antiochus III by suggesting that he deserved credit for overthrowing the original rebel Diodotus, and that he was protecting Central Asia from nomadic invasions thanks to his defensive efforts: ...for if he did not yield to this demand, neither of them would be safe: seeing that great hordes of Nomads were close at hand, who were
1900-693: A very realistic Greco-Buddhist style. The Bodhisattvas , characteristic of the Mahayana form of Buddhism, are represented under the traits of Kushan princes, completed with their canonical accessories. Winged cupids are another popular motif in Greco-Buddhist art. They usually fly in pair, holding a wreath , the Greek symbol of victory and kingship, over the Buddha. These figures, also known as " apsarases " were extensively adopted in Buddhist art, especially throughout East Asia, in forms derivative to
2000-416: Is 10 million Ishvara. It is the name of Shiva. Audumvara like other tribes namely Sibi, Mujavats and Mahavrises were worshipers of Shiva, whereas Aryans worshiped Vishnu in the earliest times. Kotesvara is now only a small village and the temple Kotesvara is still there and worshipped. Kachh is also called Rann of Kachh. The word Rann is evidently a corruption of Irana, which means a salt land (Amarkosha). It
2100-419: Is another very popular Gandharan motif, directly inspired from Greek art. It is sometimes argued that the only concession to Indian art appears in the anklets worn by the cupids. These scenes had a very broad influence, as far as Amaravati on the eastern coast of India, where the cupids are replaced by yakṣas . Some Greco-Buddhist friezes represent groups of donors or devotees, giving interesting insights into
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#17327727071732200-477: Is characterized by Buddhist subject matter, sometimes adapting Greco-Roman elements, rendered in a style and forms that are heavily influenced by Greco-Roman art. It has the strong idealistic realism and sensuous description of Hellenistic art , and it is believed to have produced the first representations of Gautama Buddha in human form, ending the early period of aniconism in Buddhism . The representation of
2300-597: Is represented holding Buddhist monuments with decorated Greek columns. The motif was adopted extensively throughout the Indian sub-continent, Atlas being substituted for the Indian Yaksa in the monuments of the Shunga Empire around the 2nd century BC. Sometime between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD, the first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha were developed. These were absent from earlier strata of Buddhist art, which preferred to represent
2400-697: Is the Eirinon of the periplus of the Erythraean sea. There was another place Audumvara in Punjab which is the present city Pathankot. It was also known as Pratishsthana. It is on Jalandhar Jammu road about 80 km before Jammu. It was also known as Dahmeri, Dhamari, Dhammeri etc., which is apparently a corruption of Sanskrit name Audumvara of the country and tribe, whose coins have been found in Kangra (In Himachal Pradesh), Pathankot, Ropar and Hoshairpur (Punjab). From
2500-565: Is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism , a cultural syncretism between Ancient Greek art and Buddhism . It had mainly evolved in the ancient region of Gandhara , located in the northwestern fringe of the Indian subcontinent . The series of interactions leading to Gandhara art occurred over time, beginning with Alexander the Great 's brief incursion into the area, followed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converting
2600-431: Is the same as the one on the back of Demetrius' coins, and it is exclusively associated to him (and his son Euthydemus II ), seen only on the back of his coins. Soon, the figure of the Buddha was incorporated within architectural designs, such as Corinthian pillars and friezes. Scenes of the life of the Buddha are typically depicted in a Greek architectural environment, with protagonist wearing Greek clothes. Deities from
2700-638: The Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma . In his edicts, Ashoka mentions that he had sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far as the Mediterranean ( Edict No. 13 ), and that he developed herbal medicine in their territories, for the welfare of humans and animals ( Edict No. 2 ). The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in
2800-612: The Dharmachakra , lotus , and the Bodhi tree have become common iconography representing Buddhism. Additionally, these Buddhist artforms included various mythological beings such as yakshas including Kubera and yakshini such as Chanda, as well as celestial Devas (Suras) and Asuras . Furthermore, Mauryan art especially those found on reliefs throughout stupas, depict the life of the Buddha including his birth, royal processions,
2900-730: The Kushan Empire as the Western Satraps and the Kushan Empire would consolidate power throughout most of Central Asia and North India. The Kushan Emperor Kanishka , was also a devout Buddhist and Buddhism and its art flourished during the Kushan Era. Furthermore, he was responsible for spreading Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhist art throughout the Silk Road . Buddhist art first became evident and widespread under
3000-510: The Kushan Empire from the 1st century AD. According to some authors, Hellenistic sculptors had some connection with the creation of Buddhist art at Sanchi and Bharhut . The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as the fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif. Around 115 BC,
3100-645: The Punjab were left to the rule of Porus and Taxiles , who were confirmed again at the Treaty of Triparadisus in 321 BC, and the remaining Greek troops in these satrapies were left under the command of Alexander's general Eudemus . After 321 BC Eudemus toppled Taxiles, until he left India in 316 BC. To the south, another general also ruled over the Greek colonies of the Indus: Peithon, son of Agenor , until his departure for Babylon in 316 BC. Around 322 BC,
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3200-595: The Seleucid Empire , a dynastic alliance or the recognition of intermarriage between Greeks and Indians were established (described as an agreement on Epigamia in Ancient sources), and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes , resided at the Mauryan court. Subsequently, each Mauryan emperor had a Greek ambassador at his court. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka converted to the Buddhist faith and became
3300-811: The Seres (Chinese) and the Phryni Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers have been found north of the Tien Shan , on the doorstep to China, and are today on display in the Xinjiang museum at Urumqi (Boardman ). Greek influences on Chinese art have also been suggested ( Hirth , Rostovtzeff ). Designs with rosette flowers, geometric lines, and glass inlays, suggestive of Hellenistic influences, can be found on some early Han dynasty bronze mirrors. Numismatics also suggest that some technology exchanges may have occurred on these occasions:
3400-557: The Shakyamuni Buddha achieving enlightenment, and the Buddha footprints to convey his legacy after moving on from this world. There is much debate on why the Buddha was not depicted as a human unlike other sculptures found throughout Buddhist art. It is considered that the orthodox Buddhists choose not to represent the Shakyamuni Buddha out of respect, as giving him a human form would bound him to this Earth as
3500-560: The Yavana Kingdom , was a Hellenistic-era Greek kingdom covering various parts of modern-day Afghanistan , Pakistan and northwestern India . The term "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various Hellenistic states, ruling from regional capitals like Taxila , Sagala , Pushkalavati , and Alexandria in the Caucasus (now Bagram ). Other centers are only hinted at; e.g. Ptolemy 's Geographia and
3600-495: The 5th century BC, and later in the designs of Greco-Bactrian perfume trays as those discovered in Sirkap . Among the most popular fantastic animals are tritons , ichthyo- centaurs and ketos sea-monsters . Similar fantastic animals are found in ancient Egyptian reliefs, and might therefore have been passed on to Bactria and India independently. As fantastic animals of the sea, they were, in early Buddhism, supposed to safely bring
3700-514: The Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants. The details of the marriage agreement are not known, but since the extensive sources available on Seleucus never mention an Indian princess, it is thought that the marital alliance went the other way, with Chandragupta himself or his son Bindusara marrying
3800-561: The Bactrian satrapies of Tapuria and Traxiane . To the north, Euthydemus also ruled Sogdiana and Ferghana , and there are indications that from Alexandria Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar and Ürümqi in Chinese Turkestan , leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 220 BC. The Greek historian Strabo too writes that: they extended their empire even as far as
3900-404: The Buddha ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", Marshall, p101). There is some debate regarding the exact date for the development of the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha, and this has a bearing on whether the innovation came directly from the Indo-Greeks , or was a later development by the Indo-Scythians , the Indo-Parthians or the Kushans under Hellenistic artistic influence. Most of
4000-771: The Buddha were already current by that time, going back to the rule of the Indo-Greeks ( Alfred A. Foucher and others). The next datable findings come later, such as the Kanishka casket (c. AD 120) and Kanishka 's Buddhist coins. These works indicate that the anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha was already extant in the 1st century AD. Chinese texts and mural paintings in the Tarim Basin city of Dunhuang describe ambassador Zhang Qian traveling to Central Asia , as far as Bactria around 130 BC. The same murals describe Emperor Wu (156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BC by
4100-560: The Buddha with symbols such as the stupa, the Bodhi tree, the empty seat, the wheel, or the footprints. But the innovative anthropomorphic Buddha image immediately reached a very high level of sculptural sophistication, naturally inspired by the sculptural styles of Hellenistic Greece. Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the Greek himation (a light toga -like wavy robe covering both shoulders: Buddhist characters are always represented with
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4200-703: The Buddhists and the Yavanas. He ruled for 60 years. From him, Vindusara was born and ruled for the same number of years as his father. His son was Ashoka ." Chandragupta , however, followed Jainism until the end of his life. He got in his court for marriage the daughter of Seleucus Nicator , Berenice ( Suvarnnaksi ), and thus, he mixed the Indians and the Greeks. His grandson Ashoka , as Woodcock and other scholars have suggested, "may in fact have been half or at least
4300-434: The Chinese people, and placing great value on the rich produce of China A number of Chinese envoys were then sent to Central Asia, triggering the development of the Silk Road from the end of the 2nd century BC. The Indian emperor Chandragupta , founder of the Mauryan dynasty , had re-conquered northwestern India upon the death of Alexander the Great around 322 BC. However, contacts were kept with his Greek neighbours in
4400-543: The Great Departure, enlightenment , and acension from this world. Interestingly, although these sculptures depict other humans and various divinities in anthropomorphic forms, the Buddha is purposefully not shown in a human representation. Instead, the Buddha is depicted with various symbols. This includes a riderless horse depicting his departure from his kingdom as shown on the Bharhut stupa, Bodhi tree to depict
4500-570: The Greco-Bactrians were the first in the world to issue cupro-nickel (75/25 ratio) coins, an alloy technology only known by the Chinese at the time under the name "White copper" (some weapons from the Warring States period were in copper-nickel alloy ). The practice of exporting Chinese metals, in particular iron, for trade is attested around that period. Kings Euthydemus, Euthydemus II, Agathocles and Pantaleon made these coin issues around 170 BC and it has alternatively been suggested that
4600-513: The Greco-Buddhist representation. The progressive evolution of the style can be seen in the art of Qizil and Dunhuang . It is unclear however if the concept of the flying cupids was brought to India from the West, of if it had an independent Indian origin, although Boardman considers it a Classical contribution: "Another Classical motif we found in India is the pair of hovering winged figures, generally called apsaras." (Boardman) Scenes of cupids holding rich garlands , sometimes adorned with fruits,
4700-457: The Greek mythological pantheon also tend to be incorporated in Buddhist representations, displaying a strong syncretism. In particular, Herakles (of the type of the Demetrius coins, with club resting on the arm) has been used abundantly as the representation of Vajrapani , the protector of the Buddha. Other Greek deities abundantly used in Greco-Buddhist art are representation of Atlas , and
4800-650: The Greek wind god Boreas . Atlas in particular tends to be involved as a sustaining elements in Buddhist architectural elements. Boreas became the Japanese wind god Fujin through the Greco-Buddhist Wardo/Oado and Chinese Feng Bo /Feng Po ("Uncle Wind"; among various other names). The mother deity Hariti was inspired by Tyche . Particularly under the Kushans, there are also numerous representations of richly adorned, princely Bodhisattvas all in
4900-512: The Greeks (described as Yona or Yavana in Indian sources) may then have participated, together with other groups, in the uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda dynasty , and gone as far as Pataliputra for the capture of the city from the Nandas. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, often identified with Porus , and according to these accounts, this alliance gave Chandragupta
5000-448: The Hellenistic Pataliputra capital (3rd century BC) during the Maurya Era, but the influence became especially strong, particularly in northwestern India following the invasion of the Greco-Bactrians in 180 BC, with the establishment of the Indo-Greek kingdom in India. Architectural styles used Hellenistic decorative motifs such as fruit garland and scrolls. Stone palettes for aromatic oils representing purely Hellenistic themes such as
5100-416: The Indian parts of the Persian empire. In the fourth century BC, Alexander the Great defeated and conquered the Persian empire. In 326 BC, this included the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent as far as the Hyphasis River . Alexander established satrapies and founded several settlements, including Bucephala ; he turned south when his troops refused to go further east. The Indian satrapies of
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#17327727071735200-442: The Indian subcontinent during the time of the Persian Achaemenid empire . Darius the Great conquered the area, but along with his successors also conquered much of the Greek world, which at the time included all of the western Anatolian peninsula . When Greek villages rebelled under the Persian yoke, they were sometimes ethnically cleansed, by relocation to the far side of the empire. Thus there came to be many Greek communities in
5300-443: The Indo-Greek Kingdoms in the North Western Indian Subcontinent. During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols , as seen on their coins, and blended Greek and Indian ideas, as seen in the archaeological remains. The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art . The ethnicity of
5400-452: The Indo-Greek may also have been hybrid to some degree. Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius, a Magnesian Greek . His son, Demetrius I , founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek ethnicity at least by his father. A marriage treaty was arranged for the same Demetrius with a daughter of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III . The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is sometimes less clear. For example, Artemidoros (80 BC)
5500-478: The Indo-Greek stratum No.5 at Sirkap ). Production continued until the time of the Indo-Parthians , but they practically disappeared after the 1st century. As soon as the Greeks invaded Northwestern South Asia to form the Indo-Greek kingdom , a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist elements started to appear, encouraged by the benevolence of the Greek kings towards Buddhism. This artistic trend then developed for several centuries and seemed to flourish further during
5600-531: The Maurya Empire during the reign of Ashoka the Great . Mauryan art heavily influenced early Buddhist art and its iconography. This is evident in the art found throughout the Maurya Empire such as capitals including the Pillars of Ashoka , and stupas such as the Sanchi and Bharhut stupas, which were constructed and first decorated during the Maurya Era. Early Buddhist art, including Mauryan art, depicted various structures and symbols pertaining to dharmic religions which are still used today. Symbols such as
5700-410: The Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma. After the overthrow of the Maurya Empire by the Shunga Empire , which did not extend to the north-western corners of the Mauryan territories, many of the Greek satrapies continued to practice Buddhism and developed the Greco-Buddhist art. This
5800-401: The advantage of explaining why the Seleucid king Antiochus II issued very few coins in Bactria, as Diodotos would have become independent there early in Antiochus' reign. On the other hand, the low chronology, from the mid-240s BC, has the advantage of connecting the secession of Diodotus I with the Third Syrian War , a catastrophic conflict for the Seleucid Empire. Diodotus, the governor of
5900-458: The architraves of the gateway, but none on the railings which all had Indian markings, summarizing that the gateways, which are artistically more refined, must have been made by artists from the North, whereas the railings were made by local artists. The Bharhut gateway is dated to 100-75 BC (most probably 75 BC based on artistic analysis). The structure as a whole as well as various elements point to Hellenistic and other foreign influence, such as
6000-407: The centuries. The presence of stupas at the Greek city of Sirkap , which was built by Demetrius around 180 BC, already indicates a strong syncretism between Hellenism and the Buddhist faith , together with other religions such as Hinduism and Zoroastrianism . The style is Greek, adorned with Corinthian columns in excellent Hellenistic execution. Later in Hadda , the Greek divinity Atlas
6100-614: The coins of 200 B.C. – 48 A.D. it appears that for some time Audumvara were under Indo-Greek and after that under Kusanas. The Prakrit legends Aduinvarisa – ‘of the Audumvara’ appears on the copper coins and pieces of Audumbara tribe in Punjab. The word Audumvara refers either the people connected to the Fig tree, Audumvara or where the tree was grown in abundance. It appears that a section of Audumvara tribe migrated to Gujarat, may be due to internal conflict or some aggression. In course of time these people merged into local population. Indo-Greeks The Indo-Greek Kingdom , also known as
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#17327727071736200-412: The construction of the gateways at Bharhut , which are dated to 100-75 BC: this is because mason 's marks in Kharosthi have been found on several elements of the Bharhut remains, indicating that some of the builders at least came from the north, particularly from Gandhara where the Kharoshti script was in use. Cunningham explained that the Kharosthi letters were found on the ballusters between
6300-406: The cultural identity of those who participated in the Buddhist cult. Some groups, often described as the " Buner reliefs ," usually dated to the 1st century AD, depict Greeks in perfect Hellenistic style, either in posture, rendering, or clothing (wearing the Greek chiton and himation ). It is sometimes even difficult to perceive an actual religious message behind the scenes. (The devotee scene on
6400-439: The duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him. Alexander had also established several colonies in neighbouring Bactria , such as Alexandria on the Oxus (modern Ai-Khanoum ) and Alexandria of the Caucasus (medieval Kapisa , modern Bagram ). After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Bactria came under the control of Seleucus I Nicator , who founded the Seleucid Empire . The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
6500-406: The early images of the Buddha (especially those of the standing Buddha) are anepigraphic, which makes it difficult date definitely. The earliest known image of the Buddha with approximate dating is the Bimaran casket , which was found buried with coins of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (or possibly Azes I ), indicating a 30–10 BC date, although this date is not undisputed. Such dating, as well as
6600-421: The east between the Oxus River, which forms the boundary between the Bactrians and the Sogdians, and the Iaxartes River. And the Iaxartes forms also the boundary between the Sogdians and the nomads. Euthydemus was attacked by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III around 210 BC. Although he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the Arius and had to retreat. He then successfully resisted
6700-440: The eastern Roman Empire in regions where Greek settlers were still important. Most of the considerable quantity of Gandharan art that can be dated comes from after about 50 CE, although some clearly was created earlier. For this reason, some scholars prefer to call this Romano-Indian art , or talk of an "Indo-Classical style". The French scholar Alfred C. A. Foucher first identified the Western influences on Gandharan art at
6800-451: The embassy of Heliodorus from king Antialkidas to the court of the Sungas king Bhagabhadra in Vidisha is recorded. In the Sunga capital, Heliodorus constructed the Heliodorus pillar in a dedication to Vāsudeva . This would indicate that relations between the Indo-Greeks and the Sungas had improved by that time, that people traveled between the two realms, and also that the Indo-Greeks readily followed Indian religions. Also around
6900-401: The emperor Emperor Ming (AD 58–75). He sent an envoy to the Yuezhi in northwestern India, who brought back paintings and statues of the Buddha, confirming their existence before that date: In Gandharan art, the Buddha is often shown under the protection of the Greek god Herakles , standing with his club (and later a diamond rod) resting over his arm. This unusual representation of Herakles
7000-405: The end of the 19th century. He was initially a proponent of the continuity between the first Greek settlements and this art, and dated much of the art much earlier than more recent scholars do. However, he later revised his views and datings somewhat. His views as to dates and the crucial period of Western influence came to be widely rejected, but then received considerable support by the discovery of
7100-435: The fluted bell, addorsed capital of the Persepolitan order, and the abundant use of the Hellenistic flame palmette or honeysuckle motif. Later, Greco-Buddhist art depicts the life of the Buddha in art . The Bodhisattvas are depicted as bare-chested and jewelled Indian princes, and the Buddhas as Greek kings wearing the light toga -like himation. The buildings in which they are depicted incorporate Greek style, with
7200-555: The general Hellenistic style and pose of the Buddha on the Bimaran casket ( himation dress, contrapposto pose, general depiction) makes it a possible Indo-Greek work, used in dedications by Indo-Scythians soon after the end of Indo-Greek rule in Gandhara . Since it already displays quite a sophisticated iconography ( Brahma and Śakra as attendants, Bodhisattvas ) in an advanced style, it would suggest much earlier representations of
7300-434: The human form in large sculpture had a considerable influence, both to the south in the rest of India, and to the east, where the spread of Buddhism carried its influence as far as Japan. There has been disagreement among art historians as to whether Gandharan art owes more to the culture established immediately after Alexander's campaigns, or to a synthesis several centuries later between travelling Greco-Roman artists from
7400-492: The important deserted city site of Ai-Khanoum (Alexandria on the Oxus), which was excavated in the 1960s and 1970s, where quantities of clearly Greek-influenced art were found, datable to the 3rd and (mostly) 2nd centuries BCE. Greco-Buddhist art originated after a series of cultural exchanges between populations. During the time of Alexander the Great 's military campaign in the Indian subcontinent and South Asia , Buddhism
7500-735: The king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas , the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma . Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Ashoka's emissaries were Greek Buddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between the two cultures: Greco-Buddhist art The Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art
7600-444: The level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia, who became interested in developing commercial relationships with them: The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana ( Dayuan ) and the possessions of Bactria ( Daxia ) and Parthia ( Anxi ) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of
7700-475: The local king Sophagasenus : He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus (the Caucasus Indicus or Paropamisus: mod. Hindú Kúsh ) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus
7800-659: The nomenclature of later kings suggest that a certain Theophilus in the south of the Indo-Greek sphere of influence may also have been a royal seat at one time. The kingdom was founded when the Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius I of Bactria invaded India from Bactria in about 200 BC. The Greeks to the east of the Seleucid Empire were eventually divided from the Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom and
7900-411: The northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Mauryan rule. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka , who had converted to the Buddhist faith declared in the Edicts of Ashoka , set in stone, some of them written in Greek, that Greek populations within his realm also had converted to Buddhism: Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas , the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas,
8000-483: The presence of Chinese products in the Bactrian markets: "When I was in Bactria ( Daxia )", Zhang Qian reported, "I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth made in the province of Shu (territories of southwestern China). When I asked the people how they had gotten such articles, they replied, "Our merchants go buy them in the markets of Shendu (India)." Upon his return, Zhang Qian informed the Chinese emperor Han Wudi of
8100-646: The propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka such as Dharmaraksita , or the teacher Mahadharmaraksita , are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (" Yona ", i.e., Ionian) Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa , XII). It is also thought that Greeks contributed to the sculptural work of the Pillars of Ashoka , and more generally to the blossoming of Mauryan art. Some Greeks (Yavanas) may have played an administrative role in
8200-589: The rebels, and he prevailed: the Parthians celebrated this day as the one that marked the beginning of their freedom Euthydemus , a Magnesian Greek according to Polybius and possibly satrap of Sogdiana , overthrew Diodotus II around 230 BC and started his own dynasty. Euthydemus's control extended to Sogdiana, going beyond the city of Alexandria Eschate founded by Alexander the Great in Ferghana : "And they also held Sogdiana, situated above Bactriana towards
8300-480: The region to Buddhism. Buddhism became the prominent religion in the Indo-Greek Kingdoms . However, Greco-Buddhist art truly flowered and spread under the Kushan Empire , when the first surviving devotional images of the Buddha were created during the 1st-3rd centuries CE. Gandhara art reached its zenith from the 3rd-5th century CE, when most surviving motifs and artworks were produced. Gandhara art
8400-523: The right might, with doubt, depict of the presentation of Prince Siddharta to his bride. It may also just be a festive scene.) About a century later, friezes also depict Kushan devotees, usually with the Buddha as the central figure. Various fantastic animal deities of Hellenic origin were used as decorative elements in Buddhist temples, often triangular friezes in staircases or in front of Buddhist altars. The origin of these motifs can be found in Greece in
8500-433: The same time, circa 115 BC, it is known that architectural decorations such as decorative reliefs started to be introduced at nearby Sanchi , 6 km away from Vidisha, by craftsmen from the area of Gandhara , a central Indo-Greek region. Typically, the earliest medallions at Sanchi Stupa No.2 are dated to 115 BC, while the more extensive pillar carvings are dated to 80 BC. These early decorative reliefs were apparently
8600-485: The sculpture. Sculpting in stucco was popular wherever Buddhism spread from Gandhara - India, Afghanistan, Central Asia and China. Stylistically, Greco-Buddhist art started by being extremely fine and realistic, as apparent on the standing Buddhas, with "a realistic treatment of the folds and on some even a hint of modelled volume that characterizes the best Greek work" (Boardman). It then lost this sophisticated realism, becoming progressively more symbolic and decorative over
8700-468: The specific Greek technique of making the hands and sometimes the feet in marble to increase the realistic effect, and the rest of the body in another material. Foucher especially considered Hellenistic free-standing Buddhas as "the most beautiful, and probably the most ancient of the Buddhas", assigning them to the 1st century BC, and making them the starting point of the anthropomorphic representations of
8800-576: The territories ruled by Ashoka: the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana King/ Governor named Tushaspha was in charge in the area of Girnar , Gujarat , mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir. Again in 206 BC, the Seleucid emperor Antiochus led an army to the Kabul valley, where he received war elephants and presents from
8900-520: The thousand cities of Bactria ( Latin : Theodotus, mille urbium Bactrianarum praefectus ), defected and proclaimed himself king; all the other people of the Orient followed his example and seceded from the Macedonians. The new kingdom, highly urbanized and considered one of the richest of the Orient ( opulentissimum illud mille urbium Bactrianum imperium "The extremely prosperous Bactrian empire of
9000-464: The thousand cities" Justin, XLI,1 ), was to further grow in power and engage into territorial expansion to the east and the west: The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Ariana , but also of India , as Apollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander... Their cities were Bactra (also called Zariaspa, through which flows
9100-562: The time. The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (4,000 miles) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy , Antigonos , Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas , the Pandyas , and as far as Tamraparni . Some of the Greek populations that had remained in northwestern India apparently converted to Buddhism: Here in
9200-457: The ubiquitous Indo-Corinthian capitals and Greek decorative scrolls. Surrounding deities form a pantheon of Greek ( Atlas , Herakles ) and Indian gods ( Indra ). Stucco as well as stone was widely used by sculptors in Gandhara for the decoration of monastic and cult buildings. Stucco provided the artist with a medium of great plasticity, enabling a high degree of expressiveness to be given to
9300-496: The work of craftsmen from the northwest (around the area of Gandhara ), since they left mason's marks in Kharoshthi , as opposed to the local Brahmi script. This seems to imply that these foreign workers were responsible for some of the earliest motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa. Craftsmen from the Gandhara area, a central region of the Indo-Greek realm, are known to have been involved in
9400-440: Was Kotesvara or Kachchhesvara. Mahabharat Chapter 52. A. Cunningham has also mentioned about them in the archaeological survey report V page 155 and also his book Ancient Geography of India at page 254. Kotesvara was a celebrated place of pilgrimage on the western shore of Kachh, close to Indus and to the great ocean. It is on the bank of Kori branch of Indus. There was a temple of Shiva in the middle of city. The meaning of Kotesvara
9500-674: Was considerably reduced. Many new kingdoms and republics east of the Ravi River began to mint new coinage depicting military victories. The most prominent entities to form were the Yaudheya Republic, Arjunayanas , and the Audumbaras . The Yaudheyas and Arjunayanas both are said to have won "victory by the sword". The Datta dynasty and Mitra dynasty soon followed in Mathura . The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as
9600-493: Was evident during the reign of the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250–130 BCE) and the Indo-Greek kingdom (180–10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and especially later under the Kushan Empire , Greco-Buddhist art flourished in the area of Gandhara and even spread to Central Asia , affecting the art of the Tarim Basin , as well as permeating again into India. The Yavana (Greek) king Menander I
9700-484: Was founded when Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria (and probably the surrounding provinces) seceded from the Seleucid Empire around 250 BC. The preserved ancient sources (see below) are somewhat contradictory and the exact date of Bactrian independence has not been settled. Somewhat simplified, there is a high chronology (c. 255 BC) and a low chronology (c. 246 BC) for Diodotos' secession. The high chronology has
9800-613: Was given the title of Soter ("Savior"), presumably for his aid of Buddhists that were being persecuted . According to the Milinda Panha , Menander was a devout Buddhist and achieved the title of an arhat , and was buried in a stupa according to the Buddhist fashion. Following the death of Menander, the Indo-Greek Kingdoms disintegrated and their realm was conquered by invading Indo-Scythians or other regional entities. The Indo-Scythians were in turn subjugated by
9900-639: Was mostly limited to North Eastern India and not common in North Western India, where the Greek satrapies formed. Buddhism became widespread throughout South and Central Asia under the Maurya Empire . The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converted his Greek subjects among others to Buddhism as mentioned in his Edicts of Ashoka . Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas,
10000-476: Was supposed to have been of Indo-Scythian descent, although he is now seen as a regular Indo-Greek king. Menander I Soter , being the most well known amongst the Indo-Greek kings, is often referred to simply as "Menander," despite the fact that there was indeed another Indo-Greek King known as Menander II. Menander I's capital was at Sagala in the Punjab (present-day Sialkot). Following the death of Menander, most of his empire splintered and Indo-Greek influence
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