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132-573: Islamic theology ( kalām ) regards Iblis as an example of attributes and actions which God punishes with hell ( Nār ). Regarding the origin and nature of Iblis, there are two different viewpoints. According to one, Iblis is an angel , and according to the other, he is the father of the jinn . Quranic exegesis ( tafsīr ) and the Stories of the Prophets ( Qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ ) elaborate on Iblis' origin story in greater detail. In Islamic tradition, Iblis

264-651: A mutakallim (plural mutakallimun ), a role distinguished from those of Islamic philosophers and jurists . After its first beginnings in the late Umayyad period , the Kalām experienced its rise in the early Abbasid period, when the Caliph al-Mahdi commissioned Mutakallimūn to write books against the followers of Iranian religions, and the Barmakid vizier Yahya ibn Khalid held Kalām discussions with members of various religions and confessional groups in his house. Until

396-583: A Syriac intermediary. The name itself is not found in Arab literature before the Quran, suggesting it is not of pre-Islamic Arabian origin. The Quranic story of Iblis parallels extrabiblical sources, such as Life of Adam and Eve , about Satan's fall from heaven, preponderant in Eastern Christian circles. On a conceptual perspective, Iblis' theological function as a divinely appointed tempter parallels

528-545: A "speaker with a specific function". In the anonymous Aḫbār al-ʿAbbās wa-waladihī , which dates from the eighth century, it is reported that when Abu Muslim (d. 755) wanted to establish himself in Merv , he sent mutakallimūn from his followers into the city to win the population over to their cause and make it clear to them that they were following the Sunnah and acting according to the truth. Shlomo Pines has concluded that

660-469: A 5-volume book called ذم الكلام وأهله and Imam Ghazali wrote a book called تهافت الفلاسفة. Besides, Imam Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, among other Muslim scholars have discussed in detail that 'Ilmul Kalam' and 'Falsafa' do not represent the correct Islamic belief. Similar sentiment were also stated by ʻUthmān ibn Jumʻah Ḍumayrīyah, an Islamic theology professor of University of Sharjah and Umm al-Qura University ; that kalam science inherently contradicts

792-430: A feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him in human form wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban and long sleeves, signifying long lasting devotion to God. Only in one, he wears traditional Islamic head covering. Most pictures show and describe Iblis at

924-565: A few exceptions among Muslim scholars. The Qadariyya asserted that evil was introduced by disobedience to God, and Iblis was the first who disobeyed. This view is sometimes attributed to Hasan al-Basri. An extreme position among the Qadariyya asserts that Iblis was not even created by God, but this view is generally rejected as beliefs of the Manichaeans ( majūs ). Al-Māturīdī argued that such dualistic worldviews are irreconcilable with

1056-619: A god besides Him", they would be rewarded with Hell by Us [...] Sijjin , mentioned in Surah 83:7, is described as a prison in hell by Quranic exegetes (for example by, Tabari, Tha'labi, Nasafi). Iblis is chained at the bottom and sends his demons to the surface. There are different opinions regarding the origin of Iblis. This dispute is closely related to doctrinal differences regarding free will . Like humans, jinn are created on earth to "worship" (' abada ) God (51:56), and are capable of righteous and evil acts (11:119). If angels can sin or not

1188-564: A heterodox theological movement and extreme rationalists. The group would continue to exist and primarily follow Shia and Ibadi . The most influential work of the post-classical Kalām was the Kitāb al-Mawāqif by the Iranian Shafi'i theologian Adud al-Din al-Iji (d. 1355). It received a total of five commentaries and 32 supercommentaries and became part of the Dars al-Nizāmī curriculum in

1320-622: A martyr!". A demon called "Semum", from the eponymous 2008 Turkish Horror Movie Semum , embodies qualities attributed to both Iblis and his offspring. Alluding to the Quran, Semum blames God for abandoning demon-kind after creating humanity and vows to destroy God's newest creatures. Referring to the Quranic cycle of God creating and then destroying his creatures, the "Semum" argues that humanity will be eventually abandoned by God, and should worship Iblis instead. Kalam Ilm al-kalam or ilm al-lahut , often shortened to kalam ,

1452-434: A paragon of self-sacrifice and devotion, stating: "Whoever doesn't learn monotheism from Satan is a heretic ( zindīq )." His student Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir asserted that Iblis' disobedience was wanted by God, or God would be powerless and a powerless being cannot be attributed to God. Despite the positive receptions of the story, other theologians and Sufis disapproved of Satan's Monotheism . Ibn Ghanim argues that Iblis

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1584-491: A prophet and a mere pretender to prophethood. Argument could not be distinguished from deceit and proof could not be distinguished from apparent proof. The art of the Kalam was preferable to every other art and education , which is why it was made the standard for all philosophical speculation and the basis of every syllogism . It was only held in such high esteem because every scholar needed it and could not do without it. Until

1716-703: A report quoted by Ibn Babawayh , Yahya ibn Khalid used to hold a discussion group (maǧlis) at his place on Sundays, in which mutakallimūn from every sect (firqa) and religious community (milla) participated, who then debated with each other about their religions and put forward arguments against each other. This discussion group is also mentioned by al-Masʿūdī . According to his report, many Islamic mutakallimūn participated in this discussion, including Muʿtazilites such as Abu l-Hudhail , Ibrahim al-Nazzam and Bishr ibn al-Muʿtamir , Imamites such as Hisham ibn al-Hakam , one Kharijite and one Murjite each , as well as representatives of other worldviews and faiths, including

1848-401: A short skirt. Similar to European arts depicting devils by traits of pagan deities, Islamic arts portray the devils with features often similar to that of Hindu deities. The complexity of Iblis' character from the Quranic story had lasting influence on Islamic literature. It elaborates on the necessity of evil and Iblis' disobedience in creative retelling of the exegetical tradition. Iblis and

1980-546: A slightly modified form, this definition was also adopted by the Ottoman scholar Tashköprüzāde (d. 1561) and the Indian scholar at-Tahānawī (c. 1745). For al-Taftazani (d. 1390), Kalām is "the knowledge of religious dogmas based on certain evidence", for Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) "a science that includes the disputation of the dogmas of faith with rational arguments" and for Morteza Motahhari (d. 1979) "a science that discusses

2112-584: Is actually envious of mankinds' exalted position. Hafez advises his audience not to reveal the secrets of love towards God to the imposter. Vathek , first composed in French (1782) by the English novelist William Beckford , in which the protagonists travel through, what he conceives as the supernatural world of the Orient. In their travels, they meet jinn, angels, faeries ( parī ), and prophets. The underworld

2244-644: Is also found in the catalogue of the Ottoman Palace Library from the beginning of the 16th century, where the section containing the books on kalām was entitled "Section of the Books of the Science of the Foundations of Religion, i.e. the Science of Kalām". This classification probably also influenced the Ottoman scholars Taşköprüzade and Saçaklızāde (d. 1732), who also equated kalām science and

2376-514: Is also found within the Zahiri school.; The modern Wahhabi and Salafi movements generally consider kalam to be an innovation and reject its usage. The Hanbali Sufi , Khwaja Abdullah Ansari wrote a treatise entitled Dhamm al-Kalam where he criticized the use of kalam. Ibn al-Jawzi , 12th AD Hanbali scholar; has explained that that Ulama and Fiqh of his contemporary have considered kalam as "..useless discipline.." . He described

2508-521: Is based on Hindu and Greek philosophy. On the other hand, the main source of Tawheed is revelation. Moreover, Ilmul Kalam includes restlessness, imbalance, ignorance and doubt. That is why the Salaf Saleheen condemned Ilmul Kalam. And Tawheed is based on knowledge, conviction and faith,….. Another reason can be said that the foundation of philosophy is based on assumptions, false beliefs, imaginary thoughts and superstitious ideas". Imam Harawi wrote

2640-658: Is disputed in Islam. Those who say that Iblis was not an angel, but a jinni, argue that only jinn (and humans), but not angels are capable of disobedience. This is the generally opinion among the Qadariyah and most Mu'tazilites . This view is also found to be prominent among many Salafis . The Sunni school holds on to the doctrine of predestination, al-Razi being an exception, and asserts that Iblis acts in obedience to his inner nature and God's plan, but in disobedience to God's command. The term for celestial beings in early Islam

2772-476: Is hardly a Kalam scholar who understands more than the Kalam questions of a book, and the science of Kalam is limited to the study of the commentary on the ʿAqāʾid of Najm al-Dīn Abū Hafs an-Nasafī (d. 1142) and on the ʿAqāʾid of ʿAdud al-Dīn al-Īji (d. 1355). Mulla Sadra, 17th AD Twelver Shia philosopher and mystic; has felt that he owed to the greek philosophy, for the development of kalam as Islamic discourse. Modern philosopher Federico Campagna has suspected

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2904-584: Is identified with ash-Shayṭān (" the Devil "), often followed by the epithet ar-Rajim (Arabic: ٱلرَجِيم , lit.   'the Accursed';). Shayṭān is usually applied to Iblis in order to denote his role as the tempter, while Iblīs is his proper name. Some Muslim scholars uphold a more ambivalent role for Iblis, considering him not simply a devil but also "the truest monotheist " ( Tawḥīd-i Iblīs ), because he would only bow before

3036-567: Is illustrated in a story attributed to Wahb ibn Munabbih . Accordingly, Moses met Iblis on the slopes of Sinai . When Moses asks Iblis for the reason behind his disobedience, Iblis replies that the command was a test. This story is mentioned in the Kitāb al-Tawāsīn by the Persian poet al-Hallaj , who also became known as one of Iblis' greatest defenders. The idea also inspired later famous theologians and Sufis, including Ahmad Ghazali and Attar of Nishapur . Ahmad Ghazali depicted Iblis as

3168-730: Is mentioned by various scholars of the Sunni tradition, including Muqatil , Tabari, Mas'udi , Kisa'i , and Tha'labi. The angels passing by him were scared. Most afraid was Iblis. To overcome his anxiety, he enters Adam and moves through the body. He concludes that "this is hollow clay", whereas Iblis is "fire". Since fire overcomes clay, he vows to destroy Adam like fire destroys clay: You are nothing – because of his ringing – and you were made for nothing! If I am to rule over you, I will kill you, and if you are to rule over me, I will rebel against you. Some scholars (among them Thala'bi, Tabarsi, Diyarbakri) explain, with slightly variations, Iblis' entry to

3300-457: Is no room for diversity to enter into His Words and Knowledge. His Speech and His Knowledge is not like the speech and knowledge of human beings which, as a result of a new invention or information, has to be changed". Ibn Kathir says this verse means of the words in the Quran, "no one can alter them, distort them or misinterpret them." In verses 32–44, the surah discusses a parable of two men, one of whom had been given blessings from God and

3432-459: Is not happy about humanity's obedience towards himself either; rather he longs for humans who resist him. Before a human who resisted him, he would be willing to prostrate himself, and he could finally achieve salvation. Egyptian novelist Tawfiq al-Hakim 's ash-Shahid (1953) describes the necessity of Iblis' evil for the world. As a reference to Iblis' predetermined fall, his protagonist Iblis consults religious authorities to embrace salvation, but

3564-716: Is now Mauritania . A particularly zealous follower of the Kalam was the Ash'arite scholar Muhammad ibn 'Umar al-Bartallī (d. 1696) in Walatah . A West African biography collection reports that he was one of the famous Mutakallimūn and was constantly busy reading, copying and teaching Kalam books. The Kalām was also promoted among the Volga-Ural Tatars in Russia . At the end of the 18th century, it became an integral part of madrasa scholarship in villages and small towns, even if it

3696-452: Is particularly evident in the philosophers al-Farabi (d. 950) and Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri (d. 992). The former sees it as a mental ability through which man can refute everything that contradicts the views and actions established by the founder of the religion, the latter as "the defence of religion with the tongue". In the definitions of the Ashʿarite scholar Adud al-Din al-Iji (d. 1355),

3828-438: Is referring to God's predetermined judgement as an excuse to cover his unbelief. Furthermore, similar to Ruzbihan Baqli , he argues that Satan's Monotheism is a subtle deception by Iblis, in order to evoke sympathies and doubt about God's message. Jalāl al-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (1207–1273) argues that God's determinism can not be an excuse for one's own demise and failure. He invokes the analogy between Adam and Iblis to highlight

3960-612: Is rejected each time, because the world would require him to be sinful. He consults the Pope , the Rabbi , and the Al-Azhar Mosque , each of them explain the necessity of Iblis' unbelief. Without Iblis' evil deeds, a large portion of revelation would become obsolete. Afterwards, Iblis visits the angel Gabriel, but is rejected again. Realizing that Iblis is both doomed as well as appointed by God, he descends from heaven shouting out: "I am

4092-491: Is the domain of Iblis, however, they meet him only in person at the end of the journey. Although there are similarities to Dante 's Satan in the Halls of Eblis , Beckford's Satan, clearly inspired by the figure of Iblis, is that of a young man with mixed traits of pride and despair, and not that of a monstrous being. In Muhammad Iqbal 's poetry, Iblis is critical about overstressed obedience, which caused his downfall. But Iblis

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4224-414: Is the major opinion among Arab scholars, who maintain the tradition that the personal name of this being was ʿAzāzīl . Some Muslim teachers, such as al-Jili , relate this name to talbis meaning confusion, because God's command confused him. Another possibility is that the name is derived from Ancient Greek διάβολος ( diábolos ) (which is also the source of the English word ' devil ') via

4356-410: Is the scholastic, speculative, or rational study of Islamic theology ( aqida ). It can also be defined as the science that studies the fundamental doctrines of Islamic faith ( usul al-din ), proving their validity, or refuting doubts regarding them. Kalām was born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islam against the philosophical doubters. A scholar of kalam is referred to as

4488-409: Is usually malāk (angel). Tabarsi says that if Iblis were a jinni, he could not have been one of the custodians of paradise. Many of those who say that Iblis was an angel read Surah 18:50 as a nisba for the term jannāt , thus referring to Iblis' heavenly origin (this reading is preferred by – among others – Ash'ari , Suyuti , and Al-Tha'labi ). The Hanābila and Ash'arites argue that Iblis

4620-591: The Caspian area against the northern barbarians, or a conflation of the two. Arab Muslim historian and hagiographer , Ibn Ishaq , reported in his traditional book (oral traditions) of biography of Muhammad , Sirat Rasul Allah that the 18th surah of the Qur'an (which includes the story of Dhu l-Qarnayn) was revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad by God on account of some questions posed by rabbis residing in

4752-639: The Muʿtazila and the Qadariya , with Wasil ibn Ata again playing the decisive role. However, neither Wasil ibn Ata nor any other persons mentioned here have recorded book titles or sayings that indicate that they themselves used the term kalām as a name for a particular science or knowledge culture. According to a report quoted by al-Masudi (d. 956) in his work The Meadows of Gold , the Abbasid CaliphateAbbasid caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785)

4884-563: The Muʿtazila . Historian Daniel W. Brown describes Ahl al-Kalām as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam: the Ahl al-Ra'y and Ahl al-Hadith being the other two. (Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later ahl al-Kalām ", suggesting the ahl al-Kalām were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites. ) In

5016-531: The Qur'an with 110 verses ( āyāt ). Regarding the timing and contextual background of the revelation ( asbāb al-nuzūl ), it is an earlier Meccan surah , which means it was revealed before Muhammad's hijrah to Medina, instead of after. Verses 9–26 of the chapter retell the Christian folktale of the " companions of the cave ". A few young believers lived in a time when they were tortured for their beliefs. Upon

5148-481: The Tunisia such as Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani and Abu al-Hassan al-Qabisi . In al-Andalus, Ash'arism was flourishing since the time of the theologian-philosopher Ibn Hazm (d. 1064). The theologian Abu Bakr al-Baqillani's works were widely circulated in the region, which helped fostered the growth of Ash'arite theology and sparked debates. Eventually, Mu'tazilite beliefs in the region were subdued. Shortly after,

5280-537: The Upanishads with Sufi cosmology. Qiṣaṣ is a form of exegesis by Muslim scholars focusing on establishing a coherent story from material of Islamic scripture (Quran, ḥadīṯ ). According to many of them, before Adam was created, the jinn, offspring of al-Jānn (الجان), lived on earth. First they were obedient but over time, immorality increased and, then they became infidels, God sent an army of angels, headed by Iblis, called "al-Jinn" (named after paradise, not

5412-415: The "science of the foundations of religion" in their Arabic scientific encyclopedias. At-Tahānawī explains this equation by saying that the Kalām is the basis of the religious legal sciences and that they are based on it. Some later scholars defined the kalām science of dogmas. For Adud al-Din al-Iji (d. 1355), kalām is "the science of proving religious dogmas by citing arguments and removing doubts." In

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5544-710: The 10th century, the Muʿtazilites were considered the real "masters of the Kalām". Later, two important Sunni Kalām schools emerged: the Ashʿariyya and the Maturidiyya . They positioned the Kalām particularly against the growing Neoplatonic and Aristotelian philosophy and elevated the "Kalām science" (ʿilm al-kalām) to the highest ranking science in Islam. Some of the arguments of the Mutakallimūn also found their way into Jewish and Christian theological discussions in

5676-524: The Aqeedah studies "Ilmul Kalam" and the philosophers called "Al-Falsafa al-Islamiyyah" or Islamic philosophy, "Al-Ilahiyat" and "Metaphysics" (supernaturalism). About the latter names, Dr. Nasser al-Aql and many others say that it is not pure to call the Islamic Aqeedah by these names. Explaining the reason, Muhammad Ibrahim Al Hamad said, "Because the source of Ilmul Kalam is human intellect, which

5808-481: The Ash'ari doctrine to the Holy Sanctuary of Mecca . Among the hundreds of Andalusi and Maghrebi pupils that Abu Dharr al-Harawi trained to become jurists and judges , and who helped Ash'arism expand to their home countries are Abu al-Walid al-Baji and Abu Imran al-Fasi . However, research shows that his students weren't the first to introduce Ash'arism as there were already known Ash'ari presence in

5940-711: The Ash'ari theology became the mainstream doctrine of the Maliki school. The Mu'tazila , also known as the Ahl al-Tawhid wal-'Adl, or the "People of Divine Unity and Justice," were originally the dominant school of kalam, but by the tenth century, two madhabs—the Ash'ariyya and the Maturidiyya—rose in fierce opposition to the Mu'tazila. Each school bore the names of its founders, Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari and Abu Mansur al-Maturidi , and represented Ahl al-Sunnah (People of Prophetic ways). In

6072-843: The Ash'arite theology as ineffective against philosophical doubts. Al-Albani , prominent figure of Salafism and modern era Hadith scholar; considered kalam doctrine as misguided in the Islamic creed due to their Ta'til methodology, which consequently divesting the Names of God in Islam . Al-Albani stated the notable example was the rejection of kalam scholars of the al-ʿAliyy (Most highest) attribute of God. Manzoor Elahi, 21th century AD Bangladeshi Salafi scholar and academic; has stated in his book "The Importance of Right Aqeedah in Reforming Society" edited by Abubakar Muhammad Zakaria says about Ilmul Kalam, The Mutaqallimin called

6204-575: The Creator and not his creations, while preserving the term shayṭān exclusively for evil forces. The idea that Iblis is not evil but a necessity for the world is also used in Muslim literature . Others have strongly rejected sympathies with Iblis, considering it a form of deception to lead people astray. In Islamic traditions, Iblīs is known by many alternative names or titles, such as Abū Murrah ( Arabic : أَبُو مُرَّة , "Father of Bitterness") as

6336-481: The Garden of Eden by the aid of a serpent and a peacock. Some traditions have the Garden of Eden being warded by an angelic guardian . Thus, Iblis persuades a peacock to get help, by promising him that, if he enters the Garden, the beauty of the peacock will never decay thanks to the fruit of immortality. The peacock, unable to carry Iblis, persuades the serpent, who decides to slip Iblis by carrying him in his mouth. From

6468-460: The Islamic creed of al-Burooj Quran   85:16 chapter regarding the attribute of God's name as omnipotent (al-Jabbār) ; which contain the attribute of capability to perform any wills (yurīd). ʻUthmān views that kalam's doctrine omitted such attribute by human's logic only. Al-Kahf Al-Kahf ( Arabic : الكهف , lit.   'the Cave';) is the 18th chapter ( sūrah ) of

6600-422: The Islamic doctrine of tawḥīd . Some extreme positions went as far as to consider belief that actions are uncaused by God to be a form of širk (association), as it implies a second power independent from God. Iblis' disobedience is seen as an example and warning for the thaqalān (the two who are accountable for their deeds; i.e. humans and jinn). Those who say that Iblis was predestined to fall, say that he

6732-427: The Islamic dogmas [...] in such a way that it explains, proves and defends them". In Arabic , the term Kalām generally means "speech, conversation, debate." There are different theories as to why this term came to be used to describe the discipline that deals with the rational justification of one's own religious doctrines: According to Josef van Ess , the many explanations given by Arab scholars "clearly demonstrate

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6864-513: The Kalam (aṣḥāb al-kalām) in Basra : the two Muʿtazilites Amr ibn Ubayd and Wasil ibn Ata , the poet Bashshar ibn Burd , Salih ibn Abd al-Quddus and Abdul Karim bin Abi Al-Awja', and a man from the tribe of Azd who was inclined towards Sumanīya, an Indian doctrine, and who made his house available to the group for their meetings. Since Wāsil died around 748, the Kalām must have existed in

6996-403: The Kalam, since the sole purpose of the Kalam was to silence the adversary and bring the stubborn to their knees. The great Mutakallimūn, on the other hand, drew their doctrines solely from the "lamp of prophethood". Such statements can also be found in al-Ghazali . Thus, in his work Jawahir al-Qur'an (The Jewels of the Qur'an ), he judged that the purpose of the science of kalam was "to protect

7128-528: The Kalām consists of "defensive apology" is also the declared leitmotif of the French handbook Introduction à la théologie musulmane , co-authored by Gardet and M.M Anawati in 1948. The Indian scholar ʿAbd an-Nabī al-Ahmadnagarī (d. 1759) even believed that the value of the Kalam was limited to this apologetic function alone. The great Mutakallimūn, he explains in his encyclopedia Dustūr al-ʿulamā, never justified or authenticated their doctrines with arguments from

7260-637: The Middle Ages. After the Kalām science in the early modern period was essentially limited to the study of manuals and commentaries, from the late 19th century onwards various reform thinkers appeared in British India and the Ottoman Empire who called for the founding of a "new Kalām". According to several of the definitions given above, kalām has an apologetic function: it serves to defend one's own religious views. This apologetic function

7392-591: The Mobed of the Zoroastrians . The Caliph al-Ma'mun also distinguished himself by promoting the Kalam. Al-Yaʿqūbī reports that he openly professed the "People of Monotheism and Justice" (Ahl al-Tawhid wal 'Adl), that is, the Muʿtazila, attracted Mutakallimūn to his court and paid them maintenance so that their numbers increased. Each one, explains al-Yaʿqūbī, wrote books to defend his own doctrine and to refute his opponents. Al-Jahiz (d. 869), who wrote one of

7524-530: The Mu'tazilites, when Iblis blames God for leading him astray in Surah 15:39 , these words belong to Iblis alone and cannot serve as a confirmation of God being the cause of Iblis' fall. Islamist writer Sayyid Qutb denies that angels could sin and thus, rejects readings which depict Iblis as an angelic being. Within Muslim thought, Iblis is generally not considered to be the originator of evil. However, there are

7656-451: The Ottoman scholar Taşköprüzade (d. 1561) and the Indian scholar at-Tahānawī (around 1745), who worked in Iran, kalām has the task of averting doubts from religious dogmas or truths. Against the background of such definitions, the French orientalist Louis Gardet judged that the function of kalām as a defensive "apology" could not be overestimated. The view that the "fundamental character" of

7788-515: The Rationalists), and bayan muwafaqat al-'aql al-sarih li al-Naql as-Sahiha . Ibn Taymiyya even further criticize Ash'arite rationalists such as al-Ghazali, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi , and al-Shahrastani for their method in discourses by abandoning the scripturalism way. In general, Ibn Taymiyya has detailed his criticism in Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin . Regarding al-Ghazali in particular, Through

7920-568: The South Asian madrasas . The book also played an important role in Ottoman schools . The Ottoman scholar Sāčaqlızāde recommended it to scholars in the Kalām section of his encyclopedia Tartīb al-ʿulūm , together with the Kitāb al-Maqāṣid by Saʿd ad-Dīn at-Taftāzānī , as a basis for teaching. The work contains an introductory chapter at the beginning in which the author discusses the definition, subject, utility, rank, problems and naming of

8052-436: The ability to attempt to mislead Adam and his descendants, whereupon God grants the request, thus depicting God as the power behind both the angels and devils. Surah al-Kahf states in reference to Iblis: [...] except Iblis, he was one of the jinni [...] (Arabic: إِلَّاۤ إِبۡلِیسَ كَانَ مِنَ ٱلۡجِنِّ " illā iblīsa kāna mina l-jinni ") (18:50) This led to a dispute among the mufassirūn (exegetes), who disagree on whether

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8184-466: The aggregate, the story can be summarised as follows: When God created Adam, He ordered the angels to bow before the new creation. All of the angels bowed down, but Iblis refused to do so. He argued that since he was created from fire, he is superior to humans, who were made from clay-mud, and that he should not prostrate himself before Adam. As punishment for his haughtiness, God banished Iblis from heaven and condemned him to hell. Later, Iblis requested

8316-605: The angels feared that humanity will become as corrupt as the jinn. Some later traditions place Iblis among the genus of the jinn instead. In one narration of the Tarikh Khamis , among the masses of infidel jinn only Iblis dedicated his life to worship of God, withdrawing to a high mountain. The angels soon notice him and elavate him to the heavens, where he becomes one like them in worship. With reference to Surah 76:1, Islamic narrative tradition considers Adam to be created step by step, beginning as an inanimate body. The story

8448-517: The angels feature in Hafez's poetry (1325–1390), collected in The Divān of Hafez . Hafez iterates that angels are incapable of love. They can merely praise the creator but without the passion of a human-being. When Iblis protests, either because he considers Adam's offspring unworthy or himself devoted to God alone, he is described as an imposter ( mudda'ī ). He claims to act for the sake of God's love, but

8580-525: The beliefs of the masses from disruption by innovators". On the other hand, this science was never about "revealing the truths". Several Muslim authors defined kalām by its relationship to the "fundamentals of religion" (Uṣūl al-Dīn). For example, Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi (d. 1023) described the science of kalām as "a way of contemplating the fundamentals of religion in which deliberation is based on reason alone." Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi (d. 1099) defined it as "the explanation of those questions which constitute

8712-429: The category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people. The early Muslim scholar al-Shafi'i held that there should be a certain number of men trained in kalam to defend and purify the faith, but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people. Similarly, the Islamic scholar al-Ghazali held

8844-438: The chapter (verses 60–82 ) is that of Musa ( Moses ) traveling to gain knowledge from another servant of God who is never mentioned by name, in tafsir of ibn Kathir he is called Al-Khidr . Finally, the surah mentions in verses 83–98 a man who traveled a great deal and reached the east and the west of the earth – namely, Dhul-Qarnayn ( Arabic : ذو القرنين , lit.   'the one with two horns'). In one part of

8976-524: The circle of lā , they worship the nafs (carnal desires) instead of God. Only those who proceed to ʾillā 'llāh surprass Iblis, the divine chamberlain. As such, Iblis unknowingly symbolizes, suffers, and reflects the dark and wrathful aspect of God, uttering God's anger and executes God's justice. Due to the similarities in function between Iblis's web and the Hindu concept of māyā , the seventeenth-century Mughal prince Dara Shikoh sought to reconcile

9108-460: The city of Medina – the verse was revealed during the Meccan period of Muhammad's life. According to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad's tribe, the powerful Quraysh , were greatly concerned about their tribesman who had started claiming prophethood and wished to consult rabbis about the matter. The Quraysh sent two men to the rabbis of Medina, reasoning that they had superior knowledge of the scriptures and about

9240-692: The city who were carrying heavy loads on their heads or backs and at the same time arguing about the interpretation of the Quran and questions of the Kalam. During the course of the 10th century, the Kalam also spread more widely to the eastern regions of the Islamic Empire. One of the early Kalam scholars representing the Mu'tazila in Khorasan was Abū al-Qāsim al-Balkhī (d. 931). Other Kalam scholars such as Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar (d. 1024) settled in Rayy . In

9372-603: The conflicts arising from the intricacies of the conflicts addressed in the school of kalam . In sum, there are two distinct interpretations of the role of Iblis within the Sufi tradition. The first interpretation holds that Iblis refused to bow before Adam because he would not prostrate himself before anyone but his creator, considering Iblis to be a "true monotheist " only bested by Muhammed , an idea known as "Satan's monotheism" ( tawḥīd-i Iblīs ). Oblivious to rewards and punishment, Iblis acts out of pure love and loyalty and disobey

9504-517: The cosmos. Iblis is part of God's universe and does not form an exterior reality independent of God. He is God's veil, the visible universe itself, which hides the Godhead from the unworthy. 'Ayn al-Quzat links the cosmic structure to the Shahada : " Lā is the circle of negation. One must place his first step within this circle, but he should not stop here nor dwell here. (...)". Those who remain at

9636-418: The development of Arabic terminology itself". Louis Gardet and M.-M. Anawati considered the first possibility of derivation mentioned by Ibn at-Tilimsānī to be the most likely and suspected that kalām initially meant "speech about..." and then, through antonomasia, became "discourse" per se (about the things of God). W. Montgomery Watt took a similar path of explanation to Ibn Taymiyyah when he wrote about

9768-651: The difference between a believer and an unbeliever: While both Adam and Iblis were destined to fall, Iblis and his offspring blamed God, while Adam pleaded for forgiveness nontheless. He advises humans to do the same. In this context, Rumi declares that love is more important than intelligence and states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam." In his story of Mu'awiya , in his Masnavi (Book 2), Mu'awiya realizes that he cannot outsmart Iblis' excuses, thus seeking refuge in God's protection. Whereupon, Iblis confesses that he only attempts to trick people. Rumi reminds

9900-412: The disciples of Iblis, caught in the labyrinth of images and unable to discern the underlying, all-pervading divine principle. In his ignorance and damnation, Iblis hovers over the mere surface of visible things, and those he leads astray suffer the same fate. Other Sufi authors, including Sana'i, 'Ayn al-Quzat , Ruzbihan , Attar, and Rumi, independently conceptualized a similar image of Iblis' function in

10032-656: The early 10th century, the Kalam was essentially limited to Iraq and Greater Khorasan . A very important center of the Kalam culture was the Muʿtazilite stronghold of ʿAskar Mukram in Khuzistan , the place of work of Al-Jubba'i and his son Abu Hashim al-Jubba'i . The geographer Ibn Hauqal (d. 977) reports that members of the common people also practiced the Kalam method here and achieved such mastery that they could compete with scholars from other cities. Ibn Hawqal reprots in his book Surat Al-Ard that he saw two porters in

10164-483: The eponymous founder of Māturīdī theology , argues that humans and jinn are tested on earth, but angels in heaven. If angels were not tested, the Quran would not compliment angels for obedience. The Mu'tazilites, absolving God from all negative associations, reject the notion that Iblis' function as a tempter was initiated by God. Al-Zamakhshari blames the Ahl al-Sunnah for ascribing negative attributes to God. According to

10296-503: The evil angel Mastema from the Book of Jubilees . Iblis is mentioned 11 times in the Quran by name, nine times related to his refusal against God's Command to prostrate himself before Adam . The term šayṭān is more prevalent, although Iblis is sometimes referred to as šayṭān ; the terms are not interchangeable. The different fragments of Iblis's story are scattered across the Quran. In

10428-416: The explicit command and obey the hidden will of God. In a unio oppositorum , Iblis finds in his banishment proximity to God. The second interpretation disapproves of Iblis' refusal to prostrate himself before Adam. Adam, as a reflection of God's names, is more complete than the angels. Iblis, being blind to the hidden reality of Adam, refuses to bow due to his own spiritual ignorance. Satan's Monotheism

10560-426: The first treatises on the kalam, praised the art of the kalam as a "precious jewel" (juhar tamīn), as "the treasure that never perishes" (al-kanz allaḏī lā yafnā wa-lā yablā) and as the "companion who does not bore and does not deceive". It is the standard for every other art, the rein for every expression, the scales with which one can clarify the lack or excess of every thing, and the filter with which one can recognize

10692-484: The fundamentals of religion, which it is an individual duty to learn." Ibn al-Athir (d. 1233) in his book al-Lubāb fī Tahḏīb al-Ansāb was the first to define kalām science as "the science of the foundations of religion" (ʿilm Uṣūl al-Dīn). Ibn Khallikan (d. 1282) and Siraj al-Din Urmavi (d. 1283) even equated kalām science with the foundations of religion itself. The equation of ʿilm al-kalām and ʿilm uṣūl al-dīn

10824-433: The genus) to defeat them. These angels were created from nār as-samūm , while the rest of the angels from light, and the genus of jinn from mārijin min nār (smokeless fire). In reference to the interpretation of the events in Surah 2:30-34, when the angels complain over mankinds' potential to shed blood and cause injustice, Islamic haggadic narratives relate this to the previous story. Tabari and al-Thaʿlabi explain that

10956-534: The guidance of God, they fled the city where believers were persecuted, together with their dog , and took refuge in a cave where they fell asleep. When they awoke they found that the people of the city had become believers. And recite (and teach) what has been revealed to thee of the Book of thy Lord: none can change His Words, and none wilt thou find as a refuge other than Him. Translation Yusuf Ali (Orig. 1938) The commentary by Ozma Nasir Makarim Shirazi says, "There

11088-500: The immanent aspect of God's attributes within Adam, and refuses to bow down. By his attempt to avoid idolatry, he becomes the supreme idolater, because he cannot see through idols (the exterior). Since he cannot perceive God's immanent aspect (love), he can only understand (and reflect) God's transcendent aspects (wrath). According to ibn Arabi and Jami , those who cannot comprehend the unity of God, and separate God from his Creation, are

11220-585: The important aspect of literal meanings, while it kept al-Ghazali busy with irrelevant semantic argumentations. Al-Shawkani , a 18th AD Atharism, Zahiri scholar, early Salafi movement figure, and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab contemporary; has expressed his view for literal theological interpretation and opposition to kalam (speculative theology) Siddiq Hasan Khan , 19th AD North Indian Salafi scholar, co-founder of Ahl-i Hadith movement, and also Nawab (viceroy) of Bhopal State ; has rejected kalam as he regards it as "full of speculations". It

11352-510: The innquisition against the Sunnis be released. According to Al-Shahrastani , the golden age of the science of kalam began with the caliphs Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833), al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842), al-Wathiq (r. 842–847) and al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) and ended in the time of Sahib ibn Abbad , who served as vizier of the Buyids of Ray from 979 to 995. One of

11484-407: The interpretations of ibn Abbas and Hasan al-Basri respectively. Muslim scholars then followed one of these two interpretations. Iblis is arguably implicitly mentioned in Surah 21:29 ( al-’anbiyā) , claiming divinity for himself by inviting to follow egoistic desires ( nafs ), a position shared by Tabari, Suyuti, al-Nasafi , and al-Māturīdī among others: Whoever of them were to say, "I am

11616-422: The kalam scholars progression was at first "because they were exposed to foreign literatures about philosophy...", then in the end they established kalam, which in practice damaged their creed of Islam. Ibn Qudama , 13th AD Hanbali scholar; harshly criticized kalam as one of the worst of all heresies. He characterized their scholars, the mutakallimūn , as innovators and heretics who had betrayed and deviated from

11748-697: The late 10th century, the two renowned Ash'ari Kalam scholars, Ibn Furak and Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini (d. 1027) having studied in Baghdad arrived to teach in Khurasan at this time. Some of the prominent Shafi'i families in Nishapur took up the cause of Ash'arism and it became well-established in the city, which developed into the main hub of Shafi'ite learning in the East. Ash'arism swiftly proliferated throughout Iran's other Shafi'ite communities. It developed into

11880-409: The late Umayyad period if this report is authentic. In two narrations cited by Abdullah Ansari (d. 1089), Amr ibn Ubayd is identified as the one who "invented these innovations of kalām". Abu Hanifa is said to have cursed ʿAmr ibn ʿUbaid for "opening the way for people to speak (kalām) about what it is not their business to speak about." Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), on the other hand, believed that

12012-502: The main leader of the Iranian Revolution ; has used kalam to facilitate his socio-religious revival of moral spirit of the masses. As he formulate the revolutionary system on his states building, Khomeini's political thoughts was closely linked with kalam discourse. Including: Although seeking knowledge in Islam is considered a religious obligation, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond

12144-620: The mainstream Shafi'ite ideology in the Islamic world during the Seljuk era . In the Maghreb and al-Andalus, on the other hand, the Kalam was not yet a topic of discussion until the early 11th century. Al-Baqillani a Maliki jurist contributed to the propagation of Ash'arism within the Maliki circles in North Africa. One of his students, Abu Dharr al-Harawi was the first to introduce

12276-464: The man. Q18:45 Imam Musa al-Kadhim narrates in Kitab al-Kafi that Ali would bequeath his companions to view this world with the vision of an ascetic because it dislodges its residents. Ali provides them with the parable of a lush, green garden with scented dew that accumulates under the blades of grass but then gets separated from it in the morning, as Allah has said, The third main story within

12408-492: The moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. In the manuscripts of Bal‘ami's ‘ Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil. In his demonic form, Iblis is portrayed similar to his cohorts ( shayāṭīn ) in Turko-Persian art as Asian demons ( Dīv ). They are bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by

12540-537: The most important promoters of kalam discussions in the early Abbasid period was the Barmakid Yahya ibn Khalid , who served as vizier under Harun al-Rashid . Al-Yaʿqūbī (d. after 905) reports that he loved kalam and discussion (Naẓar), and that in his days the mutakallimūn became numerous and they debated with each other and wrote books. Al-Yaʿqūbī cites Hisham ibn al-Hakam and Dirar ibn Amr (d. 815) as examples of mutakallimīn of this period. According to

12672-423: The mouth of the serpent, Iblis speaks to Adam and Ḥawwāʾ. Iblis is perhaps one of the most well-known individual supernatural entities in Islamic tradition and was depicted in multiple visual representations like the Quran and Manuscripts of Bal‘ami's ‘Tarjamah-i Tarikh-i Tabari . Iblis was a unique individual, described as both a pious jinni and an angel before he fell from God's grace when he refused to bow before

12804-503: The name stems from the word " murr" – meaning "bitter", ‘ aduww Allāh or ‘ aduwallah ( Arabic : عُدُوّ الله , "enemy or foe" of God) and Abū Al-Harith ( Arabic : أَبُو الْحَارِث , "the father of the plowmen"). The designation Iblīs ( Arabic : إِبْلِيس ) may be an epithet referencing an attribute , deriving from the Arabic verbal root BLS ب-ل-س (with the broad meaning of "remain in grief"). According to Ibn Manzur this

12936-457: The one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the Traditions ) into some internal harmony". Other factors that might have led the establishment of kalam was an effort by some Islamic scholars to oppose

13068-420: The other poor. The rich one wronged his soul and started showing off with his wealth and noble lineage. And he had fruit, so he said to his companion while he was conversing with him, "I am greater than you in wealth and mightier in [numbers of] men." Verse 36 explains that the rich man also told his companion that he doubted the existence of Judgment Day. At the end of the parable, God destroys what He had given

13200-486: The people. Indeed, I love to speak with the Shia ." The fact that the verb kallama is used here for "to speak with", from which the word kalām is derived, is seen by Josef van Ess as an indication that the specifically theological meaning of the kalām concept may have already developed at this time. According to a report quoted in the Kitab al-Aghani by Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 967), there were six representatives of

13332-468: The perplexity of native philologists and theologians when faced with the term kalām ". As for Western scholarship, Tjitze de Boer and Duncan Black MacDonald suggested that the term kalām was derived from the Greek word logos. Arent Jan Wensinck , on the other hand, rejected the view that the term kalām could have anything to do with logos or its derivatives in 1932, and argued that it had arisen "through

13464-420: The point where the Quran and hadith would only be accepted if it aligned with their interpretation of rationalism. The Hanbali school and followers of Ahmed Ibn Hanbal would generally avoid kalam and philosophical talk all together, seeing it as an innovation, and only address it out of necessity. However, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also provided an episode of long feud of Mu'tazila Quran creationism doctrine opposed by

13596-413: The progenitor of tempters, known as the "father of the devils" ( Abū ash-Shayāṭīn ). Ḥādīth literature emphasizes their evil influences over humans rather than treating them as proper personalities. Muslims are advised to "seek refuge" from such influences and are recommended to recite duʿāʾ (prayers) for protection. Sufi formulations of mystical union derive from careful and sustained dedication to

13728-582: The prophet Adam . After this incident, Iblis turned into a shaytan . In visual appearance, Iblis' depiction was described in On the Monstrous in the Islamic Visual Tradition by Francesca Leoni as a being with a human-like body with flaming eyes, a tail, claws, and large horns on a grossly disproportionate large head. Illustrations of Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced,

13860-474: The prophets of God. The two Quraysh men described their tribesman, Muhammad, to the rabbis. The rabbis told the men to ask Muhammad three questions: They [the rabbis] said, "Ask him about three things which we will tell you to ask, and if he answers them then he is a Prophet who has been sent; if he does not, then he is saying things that are not true, in which case how you will deal with him will be up to you. Ask him about some young men in ancient times, what

13992-415: The purity or impurity of every thing. All scholars depend on it, and it is the tool and model for every acquisition. What could be more important than something without which one cannot prove the glory of God or prophethood, and without which one cannot distinguish the true argument from the false argument and the proof from the false proof. The kalam makes it possible to distinguish the community (jama'a) from

14124-552: The questions. There is a hadith in Sahih Muslim that states that Muhammad said (Concerning The False Messiah, Al-Masih ad-Dajjal ): "He who amongst you would survive to see him should recite over him the opening verses of Sura Kahf" Another Hadith in Sahih Muslim states: "If anyone learns by heart the first ten verses of Surah Al-Kahf, he will be protected from the Dajjal" The story of believers falling asleep in

14256-469: The reader that the Quran emphasizes that Iblis is the enemy of humanity and thus, there is no reason to have sympathies for him. Within the context of Sufi cosmology , the al-Insān al-Kāmil is a manifestation of God's attributes, not in the sense of incarnation but as a mirror reflecting the divine attributes. God ordered the angels to bow down to acknowledge this special status given to Adam. Due to his defective spiritual insights, Iblis cannot comprehend

14388-404: The rejection that their discipline experiences in society, and for even being willing to accept the sacrifice of poverty and lack of career opportunities as a Qadi . In another writing, al-Jahiz stated that without the Kalam, there would be no religion for God and no one would be distinguished from the heretics . There would be no difference between falsehood and truth and no separation between

14520-628: The said matter about the nature of Quran. The Hanbali scholars and followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal rarely mention about kalam in their teaching, as they consider it as bid'ah (heresy). After the longtime persecution of Mihna towards the Ahl a-Hadith since the time of his great-grandfather, caliph al-Mutawakkil changed the caliphate policy by restoring them to favor, while abandoning Mu'tazilites led by Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad. The caliph also attempted to reconcile with Ahmad ibn Hanbal, and finally, in March 852, he ordered that all prisoners held on account of

14652-401: The science of Kalām. At the end of the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun believed that the science of Kalam was no longer necessary for students of his time, because the heretics and innovators had since perished and it was sufficient to study what the Sunni imams had written to defend themselves against them. However, the science of Kalam experienced a revival in the 17th and 18th centuries in what

14784-476: The scripturalists (Atharism) doctrine that Quran as shifat (attribution) of God which championed by Ahmad ibn Hanbal , the founder of Hanbali school . Ibn Battah has recorded in his work, Al-Ibāna , that Ahmad ibn Hanbal has instructed his students of total academic boycott against the scholars of kalam. Furthermore, Ahmad ibn Hanbal also recorded engaged in long debates against the leading Mu'tazilite and qadi of caliphate, Ahmad ibn Abi Du'ad regarding

14916-492: The sect (firqa) and the Sunnah from the Bid'ah . Al-Jahiz also compares the kalam to a border fortress, the defence of which requires great personal commitment. It is like a border fortress because all people are hostile towards its followers. Whoever gives this science its due can expect a corresponding reward. [ 85 ] Al-Jāhiz praises the Mutakallimūn for remaining loyal to their discipline out of conviction of its high value, despite

15048-431: The seventh chapter of his book, Mi'yar Al-'Ilm , Ibn Taymiyyah wrote that although he recognized that al-Ghazali's intention are not inherently bad in his attempt to describe the limit of human's mind in metaphysical and esoterical concepts, as it was aimed to oppose the core idea of kalam scholars that everything must be grasped by logic; although he still held that such discourse are moot as it only distract al-Ghazali from

15180-531: The similarity between the unique cosmological kalam philosophy taught by Mulla Sadra with Hindu Vedic Upanishads philosophy. In retrospect, Muhammad Kamal from Islamic studies at the Melbourne institute has stated Mulla Sadra philosophy was influenced by Avicenna and Ibn Arabi . Ruhollah Khomeini , Iranian Islamic revolutionary, politician, religious leader who served as the first Supreme Leader of Iran , founder of modern day Islamic Republic of Iran and

15312-428: The simple and pious faith of the early Muslims. Al-Dhahabi, 14th AD Hanbali scholar and historian; has made his derogatory statement towards kalam scholar by comparing them with Abu Jahl , the reviled figure in Islam during the time of Muhammad. Ibn Taymiyya, 14th AD Hanbali scholar; was notable for his bold stance against the doctrines of Mutakallimin in his works such as ar-Radd 'ala al-mantiqiyyın (Refutation of

15444-504: The special type of argumentation that characterizes the Kalam first appeared at the beginning of the second Islamic century with Jaʿd ibn Dirham (d. 724) and Jahm bin Safwan (d. 746). From them it then reached Amr ibn Ubayd and Wasil ibn Ata . According to the Ottoman scholar Taşköprüzade (d. 1561), the spread of the Kalam began as early as the year 100 of the Hijra (= 718/19 AD) through

15576-590: The story, Dhul-Qarnayn helps a tribe of people build a massive wall of iron between two mountains to protect them from the nations of Gog and Magog. It goes on to say that this wall will be only destroyed on Judgement Day . The wall may have reflected a distant knowledge of the Great Wall of China (the 12th-century scholar al- Idrisi drew a map for Roger II of Sicily showing the "Land of Gog and Magog" in Mongolia ), or of various Sassanid Persian walls built in

15708-471: The tenth and eleventh centuries, the Maturidites flourished in Khurasan and Central Asia, while the Ash'arites posed a threat to Mu'tazila hegemony in central Iraq and Iran. Both schools use kalam to defend what we now refer to as "orthodox Islam" or traditionalist Islamic theological doctrine. Mu'tazalism would eventually fall because of this. This is noted by Western historians, who label the Mu'tazila as

15840-501: The term is meant to be a nisbah to designate Iblis's heavenly origin (i.e. an angel) in contrast to the earthly Adam (and the jinn preceding him), or if the term is meant to set Iblis apart from the angels and that he is the progenitor of the jinn dwelling in paradise until his fall (comparable to how Adam fell when he sinned in the Garden). This dispute goes back to the formative stage of Islam. These two conflicting opinions are based on

15972-413: The term mutakalli : "Undoubtedly this was once a derisive name, perhaps creating the image of people 'who talk forever.' Eventually, however, it became accepted as a neutral term." In fact, the origins of the kalām are obscure. This is also due to the fact that the specifically theological meaning of the words kalām and mutakallim was very slow to gain acceptance. Mutakallim initially only referred to

16104-562: The term originally arose in Abū Muslim's army and referred to political and religious propagandists such as the Dawah . However, there are reports that indicate that the culture of kalām existed before this. The Arab historian Abu Zakariya al-Azdi (d. 945) cites a report according to which the Umayyad caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 717–720) is said to have said: "I have argued and spoken with

16236-554: The thoughs of Zandaqa in the Islamic world. Later schools of Kalam like the Kullabis , Asharites and Matuiridis representing as Sunni Islam would develop systems that would defend the core orthodox creedal points of Islam completely on rational grounds, and were open to engaging in kalam in accordance to the Quran and Sunnah . This was unlike the Mutazilites , whose kalam instead prioritised reason over revelation to

16368-475: The times of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the history of Islam , according to historian Majid Fakhry. One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews". Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the predestination of sinners to hell on

16500-485: The view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty. Like al-Shafi'i, he discouraged the masses from studying it and that only the most able do so. Despite the dominance of kalam as an intellectual tradition within Islam, some scholars were critical of its use. For example, Hanbali school and followers of Ahmed Ibn Hanbal would generally avoid kalam and philosophical talk all together, seeing it as an innovation . The same sentiments

16632-461: Was created in such a way that God can demonstrate his entire spectrum of attributes (for example; jalal (majesty)) in his eternal speech (i.e. the Quran), and teaching the consequences of sin. Three things to avoid are marked by the fall of Iblis: Transgression ( ma'siyah ), arrogance ( istikbār ), and comparison ( qiyās ) to another creature of God. Although not the cause of evil, Iblis is known as

16764-474: Was ignorant ( jahl ) and did not understand God's will ( irāda ). However, Iblis' unbelief ( kufr ) would be ultimately caused by God. Al-Maghrībī states that, when the angels questioned the creation of Adam, God opened the angels' eyes for the characteristics of Adam, but closed the eyes of Iblis, so he would remain in resistance ( iḥtijāj ). Therefore, Iblis would have been created as a disobedient angel and function as God's tempter. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi ,

16896-459: Was informed of the three questions from the rabbis, he said that he would have the answers in the morning but did not say "if God wills it". For fifteen days, Muhammad waited eagerly for the revelation. Muhammad did not answer the question until then. Doubt in Muhammad began to grow amongst the people of Mecca . Then, after fifteen days, Muhammad received the revelation of al-Kahf as an answer to

17028-423: Was limited to commentaries and glosses. However, the early modern period was a phase of "frozen conservatism" for Kalām science, as Louis Gardet writes. Muslim scholars also diagnosed a decline in this discipline. The Ottoman-Turkish scholar İsmail Hakkı İzmirli (d. 1946), for example, complained that in his time there were very few people who really knew the Kalām problems and understood the Kalām riddles. There

17160-474: Was stated by himself that his opposition towards kalam were influenced by the thoughts of Al-Shawkani, Al-San'ani and Ibn Taymiyya. Rashid Rida , 19th century AD reformer of Islamics school; in his later years of life has perceived the Athari theology as more rational than Kalam and actively condemning Kalam, as he view the Athari methodology had stronger religious foundations of Islam. Furthermore, he also saw

17292-433: Was the first ruler to commission Mutakallimūn representing Islam to write books against Mulhid from the circle of the Manichaeans , Bardesanites and Marcionites and to refute their arguments. The reason for this was that at that time writings of these groups had spread and were being translated from New Persian and Middle Persian into Arabic. In early Islam, the Ahl al-Kalām or "Kalamites" essentially referred to

17424-493: Was their story for theirs is a strange and wondrous tale. Ask him about a man who traveled a great deal and reached the east and the west of the earth. What was his story and ask him about the Ruh (Holy spirit) – what is it? If he tells you about these things, then he is a Prophet, so follow him, but if he does not tell you, then he is a man who is making things up, so deal with him as you see fit." According to Ibn Ishaq, when Muhammad

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