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135-603: The native inhabitants of the islands since at least the 14th century were the Ainu . Various European explorers passed the area over the years but settlement varied between Russian and Japanese. The island was formally claimed as Japanese territory in 1855. Near the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Soviet Union occupied the southern Kurils and forcibly removed its Japanese residents. Japan continues to claim

270-553: A 15.7% lower enrollment into college from high school. Due to this noticeable and growing gap, the Japanese government has been lobbied by activists to research the Ainu's standard of living nationwide. The Japanese government will provide ¥ 7 million ( US$ 63,000), beginning in 2015, to conduct surveys nationwide on this matter. The existence of the Ainu has challenged the notion of ethnic homogeneity in post-WWII Japan . After

405-446: A 15.7% lower enrollment into college from high school. Due to this noticeable and growing gap, the Japanese government has been lobbied by activists to research the Ainu's standard of living nationwide. The Japanese government will provide ¥ 7 million ( US$ 63,000), beginning in 2015, to conduct surveys nationwide on this matter. The existence of the Ainu has challenged the notion of ethnic homogeneity in post-WWII Japan . After

540-404: A 1591 Latin manuscript titled De yezorum insula . This document gives the native name of Hokkaido as Aino moxori , or Ainu mosir , 'land of the Ainu'. The terms Aino and Ainu did not come into common use as ethnonyms until the early 19th century. The ethnonym first appeared in an 1819 German encyclopedia article. Neither European nor Japanese sources conceived of the Ainu as

675-404: A 1591 Latin manuscript titled De yezorum insula . This document gives the native name of Hokkaido as Aino moxori , or Ainu mosir , 'land of the Ainu'. The terms Aino and Ainu did not come into common use as ethnonyms until the early 19th century. The ethnonym first appeared in an 1819 German encyclopedia article. Neither European nor Japanese sources conceived of the Ainu as

810-432: A 2.3-kilometre-long (7,500 ft), 42-metre-wide (138 ft) runway and can receive Antonov An-74-200 aircraft. It also has a military use. The Burevestnik military airfield 60 km (37 mi) to the south, in the past received civilian aircraft as well, but was often closed because of fog. Burevestnik is now a reserve airfield for the new airport. On February 2, 2018, PBS NewsHour reported that Russia announced it

945-619: A distinct ethnic group until the late 1700s. The Ainu were also called the Kuye by their neighbors. The Qing dynasty called Sakhalin Kuyedao ("island of the Ainu"). The island was also called Kuye Fiyaka . The word Kuye used by the Qing is "most probably related to kuyi , the name given to the Sakhalin Ainu by their Nivkh and Nanai neighbors." When the Ainu migrated onto

1080-403: A distinct ethnic group until the late 1700s. The Ainu were also called the Kuye by their neighbors. The Qing dynasty called Sakhalin Kuyedao ("island of the Ainu"). The island was also called Kuye Fiyaka . The word Kuye used by the Qing is "most probably related to kuyi , the name given to the Sakhalin Ainu by their Nivkh and Nanai neighbors." When the Ainu migrated onto

1215-582: A fur tribute system, just as had the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Residents who were required to pay tributes had to register according to their hala ( ᡥᠠᠯᠠ , the clan of the father's side) and gashan ( ᡤᠠᡧᠠᠨ , village), and a designated chief of each unit was put in charge of district security as well as the annual collection and delivery of fur. By 1750, fifty-six hala and 2,398 households were registered as fur tribute payers, – those who paid with fur were rewarded mainly with Nishiki silk brocade , and every year

1350-531: A fur tribute system, just as had the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Residents who were required to pay tributes had to register according to their hala ( ᡥᠠᠯᠠ , the clan of the father's side) and gashan ( ᡤᠠᡧᠠᠨ , village), and a designated chief of each unit was put in charge of district security as well as the annual collection and delivery of fur. By 1750, fifty-six hala and 2,398 households were registered as fur tribute payers, – those who paid with fur were rewarded mainly with Nishiki silk brocade , and every year

1485-517: A group composed mostly of the Ulchi , Nanai , and Oroch peoples of the Amur River, commonly interacted with the Ainu people independent of the Japanese government, especially in the northern part of Hokkaido. In addition to their trading ventures, Santan traders sometimes kidnapped or purchased Ainu women from Rishiri to become their wives. This further escalated Japan's presence in the area, as

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1620-408: A group composed mostly of the Ulchi , Nanai , and Oroch peoples of the Amur River, commonly interacted with the Ainu people independent of the Japanese government, especially in the northern part of Hokkaido. In addition to their trading ventures, Santan traders sometimes kidnapped or purchased Ainu women from Rishiri to become their wives. This further escalated Japan's presence in the area, as

1755-725: A hundred thousand years before the Children of the Sun came." The historical Ainu economy was based on farming as well as hunting, fishing, and gathering. The general consensus among historians is to associate the Ainu with the Satsumon culture , which was located in an area stretching from northern Honshu to Hokkaido. Linguists such as Juha Janhunen and Alexander Vovin argue for a Satsumon origin of Ainu dialects, with deeper links to cultures centered in Central or Northern Honshu . This

1890-510: A hundred thousand years before the Children of the Sun came." The historical Ainu economy was based on farming as well as hunting, fishing, and gathering. The general consensus among historians is to associate the Ainu with the Satsumon culture , which was located in an area stretching from northern Honshu to Hokkaido. Linguists such as Juha Janhunen and Alexander Vovin argue for a Satsumon origin of Ainu dialects, with deeper links to cultures centered in Central or Northern Honshu . This

2025-427: A parliamentary question on May 20, 2008, by stating, It is a historical fact that the Ainu are the earlier arrivers of the northern Japanese archipelago , in particular Hokkaido. The Japanese government acknowledges the Ainu to be an ethnic minority as it has maintained a unique cultural identity and has a unique language and religion. However, as there is no established international definition of "indigenous people",

2160-427: A parliamentary question on May 20, 2008, by stating, It is a historical fact that the Ainu are the earlier arrivers of the northern Japanese archipelago , in particular Hokkaido. The Japanese government acknowledges the Ainu to be an ethnic minority as it has maintained a unique cultural identity and has a unique language and religion. However, as there is no established international definition of "indigenous people",

2295-548: A reference to their hairiness and savagery. The term is considered an insult by contemporary Ainu. The Ainu are considered the native people of Hokkaido , southern Sakhalin , and the Kurils . Ainu toponyms support the historical view that the Ainu people lived in several places throughout northern Honshu. There is also a possibility that Ainu speakers lived throughout the Amur region as suggested by various Ainu loanwords found in

2430-446: A reference to their hairiness and savagery. The term is considered an insult by contemporary Ainu. The Ainu are considered the native people of Hokkaido , southern Sakhalin , and the Kurils . Ainu toponyms support the historical view that the Ainu people lived in several places throughout northern Honshu. There is also a possibility that Ainu speakers lived throughout the Amur region as suggested by various Ainu loanwords found in

2565-576: A relatively isolated group of people to having their land, language, religion, and customs assimilated into those of the Japanese. Their land was distributed to the Yamato Japanese settlers to create and maintain farms in the model of Western industrial agriculture. It was known as "colonization" (拓殖) at the time, but later by the euphemism , "opening up undeveloped land" ( 開拓  [ jp ] ). Additionally, factories like flour mills and beer breweries, along with mining practices, resulted in

2700-512: A relatively isolated group of people to having their land, language, religion, and customs assimilated into those of the Japanese. Their land was distributed to the Yamato Japanese settlers to create and maintain farms in the model of Western industrial agriculture. It was known as "colonization" (拓殖) at the time, but later by the euphemism , "opening up undeveloped land" ( 開拓  [ jp ] ). Additionally, factories like flour mills and beer breweries, along with mining practices, resulted in

2835-644: A society of hunter-gatherers, surviving mainly by hunting and fishing. They followed a religion that was based on natural phenomena. After the Mongols conquered the Jin dynasty (1234) , Karafuto (Sakhalin)-Ainu suffered raids by the Nivkh and Udege peoples . In response, the Mongols established an administration post at Nurgan (present-day Tyr, Russia ) at the junction of the Amur and Amgun rivers in 1263, and forced

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2970-435: A society of hunter-gatherers, surviving mainly by hunting and fishing. They followed a religion that was based on natural phenomena. After the Mongols conquered the Jin dynasty (1234) , Karafuto (Sakhalin)-Ainu suffered raids by the Nivkh and Udege peoples . In response, the Mongols established an administration post at Nurgan (present-day Tyr, Russia ) at the junction of the Amur and Amgun rivers in 1263, and forced

3105-550: A source of photographs of the Japanese and Ainu close to the missions. The discrimination and negative stereotypes assigned to the Ainu have manifested in lower levels of education, income, and participation in the economy as compared to their ethnically Japanese counterparts. The Ainu community in Hokkaido in 1993 received welfare payments at a 2.3 times higher rate than that of Hokkaido as a whole. They also had an 8.9% lower enrollment rate from junior high school to high school and

3240-494: A source of photographs of the Japanese and Ainu close to the missions. The discrimination and negative stereotypes assigned to the Ainu have manifested in lower levels of education, income, and participation in the economy as compared to their ethnically Japanese counterparts. The Ainu community in Hokkaido in 1993 received welfare payments at a 2.3 times higher rate than that of Hokkaido as a whole. They also had an 8.9% lower enrollment rate from junior high school to high school and

3375-678: Is in part supported by Ainu-derived loanwords observed in Eastern Old Japanese and the probable distant link between the Ainu and the Emishi . It has also been noted that the Okhotsk culture played a role in the formation of the later Ainu culture. The origin of the Okhotsk culture itself is subject to research. While Okhotsk remains display affinity to the modern Nivkh people of northern Sakhalin, both also display affinities to

3510-446: Is in part supported by Ainu-derived loanwords observed in Eastern Old Japanese and the probable distant link between the Ainu and the Emishi . It has also been noted that the Okhotsk culture played a role in the formation of the later Ainu culture. The origin of the Okhotsk culture itself is subject to research. While Okhotsk remains display affinity to the modern Nivkh people of northern Sakhalin, both also display affinities to

3645-476: Is now sometimes specifically conflated with Iturup despite its placement on most maps more closely matching Kunashiri . The Japanese are first recorded reaching Iturup in 1661, when Shichirobei and his company drifted there by accident. Following Bering and Spanberg's voyages under the Russian flag, a settlement was established in the late 18th century, prompting the Japanese to establish a garrison around 1800 at

3780-946: The History of Yuan , a group of people known as the Guwei ( 骨嵬 ; Gǔwéi , the phonetic approximation of the Nivkh name for Ainu) from Sakhalin invaded and fought with the Jilimi (Nivkh people) every year. On November 30, 1264, the Mongols attacked the Ainu. The Karafuto-Ainu resisted the Mongol invasions but by 1308 had been subdued. They paid tribute to the Mongol Yuan dynasty at posts in Wuliehe, Nanghar, and Boluohe. The Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) placed Sakhalin under its "system for subjugated peoples" ( ximin tizhi ). From 1409 to 1411

3915-569: The History of Yuan , a group of people known as the Guwei ( 骨嵬 ; Gǔwéi , the phonetic approximation of the Nivkh name for Ainu) from Sakhalin invaded and fought with the Jilimi (Nivkh people) every year. On November 30, 1264, the Mongols attacked the Ainu. The Karafuto-Ainu resisted the Mongol invasions but by 1308 had been subdued. They paid tribute to the Mongol Yuan dynasty at posts in Wuliehe, Nanghar, and Boluohe. The Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) placed Sakhalin under its "system for subjugated peoples" ( ximin tizhi ). From 1409 to 1411

4050-559: The Ainu language was forbidden. In 1966, there were about 300 native Ainu speakers; in 2008, there were about 100. In recent years, there have been increasing efforts to revitalize the Ainu language. This people's most widely known ethnonym , Ainu ( Ainu : アィヌ ; Japanese : アイヌ ; Russian: Айны ), means 'human' in the Ainu language , particularly as opposed to kamui , 'divine beings'. Ainu also identify themselves as Utari ('comrades' or 'people'). Official documents use both names. The name first appeared as Aino in

4185-559: The Ainu language was forbidden. In 1966, there were about 300 native Ainu speakers; in 2008, there were about 100. In recent years, there have been increasing efforts to revitalize the Ainu language. This people's most widely known ethnonym , Ainu ( Ainu : アィヌ ; Japanese : アイヌ ; Russian: Айны ), means 'human' in the Ainu language , particularly as opposed to kamui , 'divine beings'. Ainu also identify themselves as Utari ('comrades' or 'people'). Official documents use both names. The name first appeared as Aino in

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4320-597: The Jōmon peoples of Japan, pointing to a possible heterogeneous makeup of Okhotsk society. Satsumon pottery has been found among Okhotsk sites, pointing to a complex network of contacts in the wider area around the Sea of Okhotsk. The emergence of the Ainu culture is henceforth primarily attributed to the Satsumon culture, which later received some contributions from the Okhotsk culture via cultural contacts in northern Hokkaido after

4455-445: The Jōmon peoples of Japan, pointing to a possible heterogeneous makeup of Okhotsk society. Satsumon pottery has been found among Okhotsk sites, pointing to a complex network of contacts in the wider area around the Sea of Okhotsk. The emergence of the Ainu culture is henceforth primarily attributed to the Satsumon culture, which later received some contributions from the Okhotsk culture via cultural contacts in northern Hokkaido after

4590-574: The Khabarovsk Krai . They have occupied these areas, known to them as "Ainu Mosir" ( Ainu : アイヌモシㇼ , lit.   'the land of the Ainu';), since before the arrival of the modern Yamato and Russians . These regions are often referred to as Ezochi ( 蝦夷地 ) and its inhabitants as Emishi ( 蝦夷 ) in historical Japanese texts. Along with the Yamato and Ryukyu ethnic groups,

4725-747: The Tōhoku region of Honshu, as well as the land surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk , such as Sakhalin , the Kuril Islands , the Kamchatka Peninsula , and the Khabarovsk Krai . They have occupied these areas, known to them as "Ainu Mosir" ( Ainu : アイヌモシㇼ , lit.   'the land of the Ainu'), since before the arrival of the modern Yamato and Russians . These regions are often referred to as Ezochi ( 蝦夷地 ) and its inhabitants as Emishi ( 蝦夷 ) in historical Japanese texts. Along with

4860-503: The Uilta and Ulch languages. Ainu shares a number of cognates with Old Korean , that appear to be unlikely to be the result of a Japonic intermediary. The ancestors of the Ainu, who were referred to as Emishi, came under Japanese subjugation starting in the 9th century and were pushed to the northern islands. Following the Zoku-Jōmon period , which began in the 5th century BC, and

4995-400: The Uilta and Ulch languages. Ainu shares a number of cognates with Old Korean , that appear to be unlikely to be the result of a Japonic intermediary. The ancestors of the Ainu, who were referred to as Emishi, came under Japanese subjugation starting in the 9th century and were pushed to the northern islands. Following the Zoku-Jōmon period , which began in the 5th century BC, and

5130-571: The VOC ) and a large and prosperous Staten Island (named after the States General ) bear no relation to anything in the area, a fact established by Vitus Bering 's lieutenant Martin Spanberg in a series of voyages in 1738, 1739, and 1742. The phantom Staten Island ( Staten Eyland ; French : Isle des États ) still continued to appear on European maps for decades afterward, however, and

5265-516: The indigenous Japanese hunter-gatherers who lived in Japan during the Jōmon period ( c. 14,000 to 300 BCE). The exact origins of the early Ainu remain unclear, but it is generally agreed to be linked to the Satsumon culture of the Epi-Jōmon period , with later influences from the nearby Okhotsk culture . The Ainu culture may be better described as an "Ainu cultural complex", taking into account

5400-413: The indigenous Japanese hunter-gatherers who lived in Japan during the Jōmon period ( c. 14,000 to 300 BCE). The exact origins of the early Ainu remain unclear, but it is generally agreed to be linked to the Satsumon culture of the Epi-Jōmon period , with later influences from the nearby Okhotsk culture . The Ainu culture may be better described as an "Ainu cultural complex", taking into account

5535-430: The 1899 Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act . This law and its associated policies were designed to fully integrate the Ainu into Japanese society while erasing Ainu culture and identity. The Ainu's position as manual laborers and their forced integration into larger Japanese society have led to discriminatory practices by the Japanese government that can still be felt today. Intermarriage between Japanese and Ainu

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5670-430: The 1899 Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act . This law and its associated policies were designed to fully integrate the Ainu into Japanese society while erasing Ainu culture and identity. The Ainu's position as manual laborers and their forced integration into larger Japanese society have led to discriminatory practices by the Japanese government that can still be felt today. Intermarriage between Japanese and Ainu

5805-629: The 18th century, there were 80,000 Ainu, but by 1868, there were only about 15,000 Ainu in Hokkaido, 2,000 in Sakhalin, and around 100 in the Kuril Islands. Despite their growing influence in the area in the early 19th century as a result of these policies, the Tokugawa shogunate was unable to gain a monopoly on Ainu trade with those on the Asian mainland, even by the year 1853. Santan traders,

5940-402: The 18th century, there were 80,000 Ainu, but by 1868, there were only about 15,000 Ainu in Hokkaido, 2,000 in Sakhalin, and around 100 in the Kuril Islands. Despite their growing influence in the area in the early 19th century as a result of these policies, the Tokugawa shogunate was unable to gain a monopoly on Ainu trade with those on the Asian mainland, even by the year 1853. Santan traders,

6075-410: The Ainu as an ethnically distinct group, political figures in Japan continue to define ethnic homogeneity as key to the overall Japanese national identity. For example, then Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō notably claimed in 2020, "No other country but this one has lasted for as long as 2,000 years with one language, one ethnic group, and one dynasty ." The Ainu are regarded as having descended from

6210-410: The Ainu as an ethnically distinct group, political figures in Japan continue to define ethnic homogeneity as key to the overall Japanese national identity. For example, then Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō notably claimed in 2020, "No other country but this one has lasted for as long as 2,000 years with one language, one ethnic group, and one dynasty ." The Ainu are regarded as having descended from

6345-430: The Ainu people are one of the primary historic ethnic groups of Japan . Official estimates place the total Ainu population in Japan at 25,000. Unofficial estimates place the total population at 200,000 or higher, as the near-total assimilation of the Ainu into Japanese society has resulted in many individuals of Ainu descent having no knowledge of their ancestry. The Ainu are one of the few ethnic minorities native to

6480-661: The Ainu') or "Kuye Fiyaka" ( ᡴᡠᠶᡝ ᡶᡳᠶᠠᡴᠠ ). The Manchus called it "Sagaliyan ula angga hada" (Island at the Mouth of the Black River). The Qing first asserted influence over Sakhalin after the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk , which defined the Stanovoy Mountains as the border between the Qing and the Russian Empires . In the following year the Qing sent forces to the Amur estuary and demanded that

6615-417: The Ainu') or "Kuye Fiyaka" ( ᡴᡠᠶᡝ ᡶᡳᠶᠠᡴᠠ ). The Manchus called it "Sagaliyan ula angga hada" (Island at the Mouth of the Black River). The Qing first asserted influence over Sakhalin after the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk , which defined the Stanovoy Mountains as the border between the Qing and the Russian Empires . In the following year the Qing sent forces to the Amur estuary and demanded that

6750-406: The Ainu. The Emishi may, however, have also included non-Ainu groups, which can either be associated with groups distantly related to the Ainu (Ainu-like groups) but forming their own ethnicity, or early Japonic-speakers outside the influence of the Yamato court. The Emishi display clear material culture links to the Ainu of Hokkaido. Based on Ainu-like toponyms throughout Tohoku, it is argued that

6885-406: The Ainu. The Emishi may, however, have also included non-Ainu groups, which can either be associated with groups distantly related to the Ainu (Ainu-like groups) but forming their own ethnicity, or early Japonic-speakers outside the influence of the Yamato court. The Emishi display clear material culture links to the Ainu of Hokkaido. Based on Ainu-like toponyms throughout Tohoku, it is argued that

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7020-656: The Emishi, like the Ainu, descended from the Epi-Jōmon tribes and initially spoke Ainu-related languages. The term "Emishi" in the Nara period (710–794) referred to people who lived in the Tohoku region and whose lifestyle and culture differed markedly from that of the Yamato people ; it was originally a highly cultural and political concept with no racial distinction. From the mid-Heian period onward, Emishi who did not fall under

7155-449: The Emishi, like the Ainu, descended from the Epi-Jōmon tribes and initially spoke Ainu-related languages. The term "Emishi" in the Nara period (710–794) referred to people who lived in the Tohoku region and whose lifestyle and culture differed markedly from that of the Yamato people ; it was originally a highly cultural and political concept with no racial distinction. From the mid-Heian period onward, Emishi who did not fall under

7290-593: The Holocene deposits on Iturup Island are poorly studied, relying primarily on C14 dates from Kasatka Bay and Olga Bay[14]. Three transgressive phases of sedimentation, comparable to the Atlantic, Subboreal and Sub-Atlantic periods, with a maximum sea level rise of up to 3.5 metres above the present level in the Atlantic, have been identified at the mouth of the Kurilka River. Fieldwork conducted in 2017-2018 on

7425-626: The Iturup strawberry) or bare rocks. The island also contains some high waterfalls , such as the Ilya Muromets . Rheniite , a rhenium sulfide mineral (ReS 2 ), was discovered in active hot fumaroles on Kudriavy volcano and first described in 2004. In the field it was originally mistaken for molybdenite . The development of the Kuril Island arc was significantly influenced by extensive caldera-forming volcanic eruptions during

7560-694: The Japanese government and mainstream population regarded them as dirty and primitive barbarians. The majority of Ainu were forced to be petty laborers during the Meiji Restoration , which saw the introduction of Hokkaido into the Japanese Empire and the privatization of traditional Ainu lands. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Japanese government denied the rights of the Ainu to their traditional cultural practices, such as hunting, gathering, and speaking their native language. The legal denial of Ainu cultural practices mostly stemmed from

7695-563: The Japanese government and mainstream population regarded them as dirty and primitive barbarians. The majority of Ainu were forced to be petty laborers during the Meiji Restoration , which saw the introduction of Hokkaido into the Japanese Empire and the privatization of traditional Ainu lands. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Japanese government denied the rights of the Ainu to their traditional cultural practices, such as hunting, gathering, and speaking their native language. The legal denial of Ainu cultural practices mostly stemmed from

7830-408: The Japanese government passed an act labeling the Ainu as "former aborigines", with the idea that they would assimilate . This resulted in the Japanese government taking the land where the Ainu people lived and placing it under Japanese control. Also at this time, the Ainu were granted automatic Japanese citizenship, effectively denying them the status of an indigenous group. The Ainu went from being

7965-408: The Japanese government passed an act labeling the Ainu as "former aborigines", with the idea that they would assimilate . This resulted in the Japanese government taking the land where the Ainu people lived and placing it under Japanese control. Also at this time, the Ainu were granted automatic Japanese citizenship, effectively denying them the status of an indigenous group. The Ainu went from being

8100-483: The Japanese islands. They were subject to forced assimilation and colonization by the Japanese since at least the 18th century. Japanese assimilation policies in the 19th century around the Meiji Restoration included forcing Ainu peoples off their land. This, in turn, forced them to give up traditional ways of life such as subsistence hunting and fishing. Ainu people were not allowed to practice their religion and were placed into Japanese-language schools, where speaking

8235-493: The Jomon and Epi-Jomon periods, which were anterior to the Ainu cultural period. This implies that the Okhotsk culture contributed to the formation of the Ainu culture. While the view that the ancient Emishi were identical to the Ainu has been largely disproven by current research, the exact relationship between them is still under dispute. It is agreed that at least some Emishi spoke Ainu languages and were ethnically related to

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8370-441: The Jomon and Epi-Jomon periods, which were anterior to the Ainu cultural period. This implies that the Okhotsk culture contributed to the formation of the Ainu culture. While the view that the ancient Emishi were identical to the Ainu has been largely disproven by current research, the exact relationship between them is still under dispute. It is agreed that at least some Emishi spoke Ainu languages and were ethnically related to

8505-743: The Kuril islands are the Ainu . They have lived there since at least the 14th century. Europeans are first recorded visiting this part of the Kurils in 1643 when the Castricum under Maarten Gerritsz Vries was exploring Hokkaido and the surrounding area for the Dutch East India Company (VOC). As with neighboring Urup , Iturup is sometimes said to have been the particular island intended in his account, but in fact his description of an enormous continental Company Land (named after

8640-561: The Late Neo-Pleistocene-Holocene, which introduced large amounts of pumice-pyroclastic material and tephra into the wave processing zone. On Iturup Island, the formation of four large collapse calderas during the Late Neo-Pleistocene-Holocene resulted in the release of about 450 km of predominantly dacite pyroclastics. The formation of the subaerial Vetrovoy isthmus is attributed to the accumulation of such material during powerful explosive caldera-forming eruptions in

8775-614: The Matsumae, took control of Sakhalin in 1807. Mogami's interest in the Sakhalin trade intensified when he learned that Yaenkoroaino, the above-mentioned elder from Nayoro, possessed a memorandum written in Manchurian, which stated that the Ainu elder was an official of the Qing state. Later surveys on Sakhalin by shogunal officials such as Takahashi Jidayú and Nakamura Koichiró only confirmed earlier observations: Sakhalin and Sóya Ainu traded foreign goods at trading posts, and because of

8910-499: The Matsumae, took control of Sakhalin in 1807. Mogami's interest in the Sakhalin trade intensified when he learned that Yaenkoroaino, the above-mentioned elder from Nayoro, possessed a memorandum written in Manchurian, which stated that the Ainu elder was an official of the Qing state. Later surveys on Sakhalin by shogunal officials such as Takahashi Jidayú and Nakamura Koichiró only confirmed earlier observations: Sakhalin and Sóya Ainu traded foreign goods at trading posts, and because of

9045-865: The Ming established an outpost called the Nurgan Regional Military Commission near the ruins of Tyr on the Siberian mainland, which continued operating until the mid-1430s. There is some evidence that the Ming eunuch Admiral Yishiha reached Sakhalin in 1413 during one of his expeditions to the lower Amur, and granted Ming titles to a local chieftain. The Ming recruited headmen from Sakhalin for administrative posts such as commander ( 指揮使 ; zhǐhuīshǐ ), assistant commander ( 指揮僉事 ; zhǐhuī qiānshì ), and "official charged with subjugation" ( 衛鎮撫 ; wèizhènfǔ ). In 1431, one such assistant commander, Alige, brought marten pelts as tribute to

9180-667: The Ming established an outpost called the Nurgan Regional Military Commission near the ruins of Tyr on the Siberian mainland, which continued operating until the mid-1430s. There is some evidence that the Ming eunuch Admiral Yishiha reached Sakhalin in 1413 during one of his expeditions to the lower Amur, and granted Ming titles to a local chieftain. The Ming recruited headmen from Sakhalin for administrative posts such as commander ( 指揮使 ; zhǐhuīshǐ ), assistant commander ( 指揮僉事 ; zhǐhuī qiānshì ), and "official charged with subjugation" ( 衛鎮撫 ; wèizhènfǔ ). In 1431, one such assistant commander, Alige, brought marten pelts as tribute to

9315-855: The Ming took tribute from Sakhalin and the Amur River region. Due to Ming rule in Manchuria, Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year , the " Chinese god ", and motifs such as dragons, spirals, and scrolls spread among the Ainu, Nivkh, and Amur natives such as the Udeghes , Ulchis , and Nanais . These groups also adopted material goods and practices such as agriculture, husbandry, heating, iron cooking pots, silk, and cotton. The Manchu Qing dynasty , which came to power in China in 1644, called Sakhalin "Kuyedao" ( Chinese : 库页岛 ; pinyin : Kùyè dǎo ; lit. 'island of

9450-633: The Ming took tribute from Sakhalin and the Amur River region. Due to Ming rule in Manchuria, Chinese cultural and religious influence such as Chinese New Year , the " Chinese god ", and motifs such as dragons, spirals, and scrolls spread among the Ainu, Nivkh, and Amur natives such as the Udeghes , Ulchis , and Nanais . These groups also adopted material goods and practices such as agriculture, husbandry, heating, iron cooking pots, silk, and cotton. The Manchu Qing dynasty , which came to power in China in 1644, called Sakhalin "Kuyedao" ( Chinese : 库页岛 ; pinyin : Kùyè dǎo ; lit. 'island of

9585-457: The Qing dynasty when the Qing exercised jurisdiction in Sakhalin and took tribute from them. In 1635, Matsumae Kinhiro , the second daimyō of Matsumae Domain in Hokkaidō, sent Satō Kamoemon and Kakizaki Kuroudo on an expedition to Sakhalin. One of the Matsumae explorers, Kodō Shōzaemon, stayed in the island in the winter of 1636 and sailed along the east coast to Taraika (now Poronaysk ) in

9720-402: The Qing dynasty when the Qing exercised jurisdiction in Sakhalin and took tribute from them. In 1635, Matsumae Kinhiro , the second daimyō of Matsumae Domain in Hokkaidō, sent Satō Kamoemon and Kakizaki Kuroudo on an expedition to Sakhalin. One of the Matsumae explorers, Kodō Shōzaemon, stayed in the island in the winter of 1636 and sailed along the east coast to Taraika (now Poronaysk ) in

9855-418: The Qing office. The Ainu also sold the silk uniforms ( mangpao , bufu , and chaofu ) given to them by the Qing, which made up the majority of what the Japanese knew as nishiki and jittoku . As dynastic uniforms, the silk was of considerably higher quality than that traded at Nagasaki , and enhanced Matsumae prestige as exotic items. Eventually the Tokugawa government, realizing that they could not depend on

9990-418: The Qing office. The Ainu also sold the silk uniforms ( mangpao , bufu , and chaofu ) given to them by the Qing, which made up the majority of what the Japanese knew as nishiki and jittoku . As dynastic uniforms, the silk was of considerably higher quality than that traded at Nagasaki , and enhanced Matsumae prestige as exotic items. Eventually the Tokugawa government, realizing that they could not depend on

10125-450: The Qing sent officials directly to these regions every year to collect tribute and to present awards. By the 1730s, the Qing had appointed senior figures among the indigenous communities as "clan chief" ( hala-i-da ) or "village chief" ( gasan-da or mokun-da ). In 1732, 6 hala , 18 gasban , and 148 households were registered as tribute bearers in Sakhalin. Manchu officials gave tribute missions rice, salt, other necessities, and gifts during

10260-450: The Qing sent officials directly to these regions every year to collect tribute and to present awards. By the 1730s, the Qing had appointed senior figures among the indigenous communities as "clan chief" ( hala-i-da ) or "village chief" ( gasan-da or mokun-da ). In 1732, 6 hala , 18 gasban , and 148 households were registered as tribute bearers in Sakhalin. Manchu officials gave tribute missions rice, salt, other necessities, and gifts during

10395-450: The Satsumon culture expanded northwards and into Sakhalin. This view has been corroborated by later analyses. Archaeologists have considered that bear worship, which is a religious practice widely observed among the northern Eurasian ethnic groups (including the Ainu, Finns, Nivkh, and Sami), was also shared by the Okhotsk people. On the other hand, no traces of such a religious practice have ever been discovered from archaeological sites of

10530-450: The Satsumon culture expanded northwards and into Sakhalin. This view has been corroborated by later analyses. Archaeologists have considered that bear worship, which is a religious practice widely observed among the northern Eurasian ethnic groups (including the Ainu, Finns, Nivkh, and Sami), was also shared by the Okhotsk people. On the other hand, no traces of such a religious practice have ever been discovered from archaeological sites of

10665-537: The Tokugawa shogunate believed a monopoly on the Santan trade would better protect the Ainu people. In 1869, the imperial government established the Hokkaidō Development Commission as part of the Meiji Restoration . Researcher Katarina Sjöberg quotes Baba 's 1890 account of the Japanese government's reasoning: ... The development of Japan's large northern island had several objectives: First, it

10800-411: The Tokugawa shogunate believed a monopoly on the Santan trade would better protect the Ainu people. In 1869, the imperial government established the Hokkaidō Development Commission as part of the Meiji Restoration . Researcher Katarina Sjöberg quotes Baba 's 1890 account of the Japanese government's reasoning: ... The development of Japan's large northern island had several objectives: First, it

10935-608: The Vetrovoy isthmus revealed volcanic-tectonic dislocations with a layer of beach material, suggesting the occurrence of at least two pyroclastic outbursts in the mid-Late Holocene. Georadar surveys complemented the manual drilling results, providing insights into the geological features of the isthmus. The deposits of the Vetrovoy Isthmus include volcanic-tectonic dislocations, pumice pyroclastics, aeolian-ash deposits and soil-tephra formations. The morphometric parameters of

11070-578: The Wuliehe post. In 1437, four other assistant commanders (Zhaluha, Sanchiha, Tuolingha, and Alingge) also presented tribute. According to the Ming Veritable Records , these posts, like the position of headman, were hereditary and passed down the patrilineal line. During these tributary missions, the headmen would bring their sons, who later inherited their titles. In return for tribute, the Ming awarded them with silk uniforms. Nivkh women in Sakhalin married Han Chinese Ming officials when

11205-505: The Wuliehe post. In 1437, four other assistant commanders (Zhaluha, Sanchiha, Tuolingha, and Alingge) also presented tribute. According to the Ming Veritable Records , these posts, like the position of headman, were hereditary and passed down the patrilineal line. During these tributary missions, the headmen would bring their sons, who later inherited their titles. In return for tribute, the Ming awarded them with silk uniforms. Nivkh women in Sakhalin married Han Chinese Ming officials when

11340-433: The Yamato and Ryukyu ethnic groups, the Ainu people are one of the primary historic ethnic groups of Japan . Official estimates place the total Ainu population in Japan at 25,000. Unofficial estimates place the total population at 200,000 or higher, as the near-total assimilation of the Ainu into Japanese society has resulted in many individuals of Ainu descent having no knowledge of their ancestry. The Ainu are one of

11475-542: The administrative capital of the Kuril islands. There was a village hospital, an Etorofu Fisheries factory, a radio tower of the post office with a radio receiving antenna. The receiver was battery-powered. In 1945, according to decisions of the Yalta Conference , Iturup was occupied by the Soviet Union after Japan's defeat in World War II . The Japanese inhabitants were expelled to mainland Japan. In 1956

11610-411: The basement terrace indicate an area elevation rate during the last phase of coastal marine accumulation that could reach 4 mm/year, slightly higher than the 3.5 m/year recorded during the last 6000 thousand years. In conclusion, several studies suggest that explosive volcanism in the middle Late Holocene significantly affected the morphotectonic plan of the Vetrovoy Isthmus area, possibly contributing to

11745-428: The creation of infrastructure such as roads and railway lines during a development period that lasted until 1904. During this time, the Ainu were ordered to cease religious practices such as animal sacrifice and the custom of tattooing. The same act applied to the native Ainu on Sakhalin after its annexation as Karafuto Prefecture . The Ainu have historically suffered from economic and social discrimination, as both

11880-428: The creation of infrastructure such as roads and railway lines during a development period that lasted until 1904. During this time, the Ainu were ordered to cease religious practices such as animal sacrifice and the custom of tattooing. The same act applied to the native Ainu on Sakhalin after its annexation as Karafuto Prefecture . The Ainu have historically suffered from economic and social discrimination, as both

12015-549: The demise of the multi-ethnic Empire of Japan in 1945, successive governments forged a single Japanese identity by advocating monoculturalism and denying the existence of more than one ethnic group in Japan. Following the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2007, Hokkaido politicians pressured the government to recognize Ainu rights. Prime Minister Fukuda Yasuo answered

12150-416: The demise of the multi-ethnic Empire of Japan in 1945, successive governments forged a single Japanese identity by advocating monoculturalism and denying the existence of more than one ethnic group in Japan. Following the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2007, Hokkaido politicians pressured the government to recognize Ainu rights. Prime Minister Fukuda Yasuo answered

12285-468: The duration of their mission. Tribute missions occurred during the summer months. During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–95), a trade post existed at Delen, upstream of Kiji (Kizi) Lake, according to Rinzo Mamiya . There were 500–600 people at the market during Mamiya's stay there. Local native Sakhalin chiefs had their daughters taken as wives by Manchu officials as sanctioned by

12420-402: The duration of their mission. Tribute missions occurred during the summer months. During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–95), a trade post existed at Delen, upstream of Kiji (Kizi) Lake, according to Rinzo Mamiya . There were 500–600 people at the market during Mamiya's stay there. Local native Sakhalin chiefs had their daughters taken as wives by Manchu officials as sanctioned by

12555-550: The dynasty supplied the chief of each clan and village with official silk clothes ( mangpao , duanpao ), which were the gowns of the mandarin. Those who offered especially large fur tributes were granted the right to create a familial relationship with officials of the Manchu Eight Banners (at the time equivalent to Chinese aristocrats) by marrying an official's adopted daughter. Further, the tribute payers were allowed to engage in trade with officials and merchants at

12690-478: The dynasty supplied the chief of each clan and village with official silk clothes ( mangpao , duanpao ), which were the gowns of the mandarin. Those who offered especially large fur tributes were granted the right to create a familial relationship with officials of the Manchu Eight Banners (at the time equivalent to Chinese aristocrats) by marrying an official's adopted daughter. Further, the tribute payers were allowed to engage in trade with officials and merchants at

12825-519: The few ethnic minorities native to the Japanese islands. They were subject to forced assimilation and colonization by the Japanese since at least the 18th century. Japanese assimilation policies in the 19th century around the Meiji Restoration included forcing Ainu peoples off their land. This, in turn, forced them to give up traditional ways of life such as subsistence hunting and fishing. Ainu people were not allowed to practice their religion and were placed into Japanese-language schools, where speaking

12960-491: The governance of the Yamato Kingship were singled out as northern Emishi. They began to be referred to as "Ezo" (Emishi). Ainu people The Ainu are an indigenous ethnic group who reside in northern Japan and southeastern Russia, including Hokkaido and the Tōhoku region of Honshu, as well as the land surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk , such as Sakhalin , the Kuril Islands , the Kamchatka Peninsula , and

13095-552: The government is not in a position to conclude whether the Ainu should be referred as "indigenous people"... On June 6, 2008, the National Diet of Japan passed a non-binding, bipartisan resolution calling upon the government to recognize the Ainu as indigenous people . In 2019, eleven years after this resolution, the Diet finally passed an act recognizing the Ainu as an indigenous people of Japan. Despite this recognition of

13230-439: The government is not in a position to conclude whether the Ainu should be referred as "indigenous people"... On June 6, 2008, the National Diet of Japan passed a non-binding, bipartisan resolution calling upon the government to recognize the Ainu as indigenous people . In 2019, eleven years after this resolution, the Diet finally passed an act recognizing the Ainu as an indigenous people of Japan. Despite this recognition of

13365-568: The islands and considers the northern edge of the island to be its own northernmost point. The modern English name Iturup and earlier Yetorup are romanizations of the Russian name Ostrov Iturúp ( Остров Итуру́п , "Iturup Island"). It was previously known in English as Etrof from the Japanese name Etorofu-tō ( 択捉島 , "Iturup Island"). Both the Russian and Japanese names come from

13500-663: The mainland, the Chinese described a "strong Kui (or Kuwei, Kuwu, Kuye, Kugi, i.e. Ainu) presence in the area otherwise dominated by the Gilemi or Jilimi (Nivkh and other Amur peoples)." Related names were in widespread use in the region, for example the Kuril Ainu called themselves koushi . The Old Japanese exonym 蝦夷 ( Emi 1 si ) was coined according to the Kojiki-den from 蝦 ("shrimp") + 夷 ("barbarian") as

13635-439: The mainland, the Chinese described a "strong Kui (or Kuwei, Kuwu, Kuye, Kugi, i.e. Ainu) presence in the area otherwise dominated by the Gilemi or Jilimi (Nivkh and other Amur peoples)." Related names were in widespread use in the region, for example the Kuril Ainu called themselves koushi . The Old Japanese exonym 蝦夷 ( Emi 1 si ) was coined according to the Kojiki-den from 蝦 ("shrimp") + 夷 ("barbarian") as

13770-644: The native Ainu Etuworop-sir ( エツ゚ヲロㇷ゚シㇼ ), meaning "island with many capes ". Iturup consists of volcanic massifs and mountain ridges . A series of a dozen calc-alkaline volcanoes running NE to SW form the backbone of the island, the highest being Stokap (1,634 m) in the central part of Iturup. The shores of the island are high and abrupt. The vegetation mostly consists of spruce , larch , pine , fir , and mixed deciduous forests with alder , lianas and Kuril bamboo underbrush . The mountains are covered with birch and Siberian Dwarf Pine scrub, herbaceous flowers (including Fragaria iturupensis ,

13905-425: The obstruction of the strait. The rise of the terrace surface during the middle Holocene may be related to these volcanic events. The rate of uplift of the area during the last phase of coastal marine accumulation is thought to have been about 4 mm/year. However, there are currently no data on the age of the marine georadar facies identified as a result of research on the Vetrovoy isthmus. The native inhabitants of all

14040-496: The perspective of coastal geomorphology. Late Pleistocene explosive volcanism is considered to have been more intense and prolonged than Early Holocene events, leading to the formation of pumice deposits in the Prostor Gulf of Iturup Island. Radiocarbon dating of the peat bog underlying the pumice-pyroclastic cover in the Vetrovoy Isthmus suggests events around 38,000-39,000 years ago. The stratigraphy, genesis and chronology of

14175-566: The population. In an early colonization attempt, a Japanese settlement was established at Ōtomari on Sakhalin's southern end in 1679. In the 1780s, the influence of the Japanese Tokugawa Shogunate on the Ainu of southern Sakhalin increased significantly. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Japanese economic zone extended midway up the east coast, to Taraika. With the exception of the Nayoro Ainu located on

14310-425: The population. In an early colonization attempt, a Japanese settlement was established at Ōtomari on Sakhalin's southern end in 1679. In the 1780s, the influence of the Japanese Tokugawa Shogunate on the Ainu of southern Sakhalin increased significantly. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Japanese economic zone extended midway up the east coast, to Taraika. With the exception of the Nayoro Ainu located on

14445-604: The pressure to meet quotas, they fell into debt. These goods, the officials confirmed, originated at Qing posts, where continental traders acquired them during tributary ceremonies. The information contained in these types of reports turned out to be a serious blow to the future of Matsumae's trade monopoly in Ezo. From 1799 to 1806, the Tokugawa shogunate took direct control of southern Hokkaido. Japan proclaimed sovereignty over Sakhalin in 1807, and in 1809 Mamiya Rinzō claimed that it

14580-500: The pressure to meet quotas, they fell into debt. These goods, the officials confirmed, originated at Qing posts, where continental traders acquired them during tributary ceremonies. The information contained in these types of reports turned out to be a serious blow to the future of Matsumae's trade monopoly in Ezo. From 1799 to 1806, the Tokugawa shogunate took direct control of southern Hokkaido. Japan proclaimed sovereignty over Sakhalin in 1807, and in 1809 Mamiya Rinzō claimed that it

14715-490: The regional variable subgroups of Ainu peoples. While the Ainu can be considered a continuation of the indigenous Jomon culture, they also display links to surrounding cultures, pointing to a larger cultural complex flourishing around the Sea of Okhotsk . Some authors have also described the development of the Ainu culture as the "resistance" of a Jomon society to the emerging Japanese state. One of their Yukar Upopo , or legends, tells that "[T]he Ainu lived in this place

14850-490: The regional variable subgroups of Ainu peoples. While the Ainu can be considered a continuation of the indigenous Jomon culture, they also display links to surrounding cultures, pointing to a larger cultural complex flourishing around the Sea of Okhotsk . Some authors have also described the development of the Ainu culture as the "resistance" of a Jomon society to the emerging Japanese state. One of their Yukar Upopo , or legends, tells that "[T]he Ainu lived in this place

14985-428: The residents, including the Sakhalin Ainu, pay tribute. This was followed by several further visits to the island as part of the Qing effort to map the area. To enforce its influence, the Qing sent soldiers and mandarins across Sakhalin, reaching most parts of the island except the southern tip. The Qing imposed a fur-tribute system on the region's inhabitants. The Qing dynasty ruled these regions by imposing upon them

15120-428: The residents, including the Sakhalin Ainu, pay tribute. This was followed by several further visits to the island as part of the Qing effort to map the area. To enforce its influence, the Qing sent soldiers and mandarins across Sakhalin, reaching most parts of the island except the southern tip. The Qing imposed a fur-tribute system on the region's inhabitants. The Qing dynasty ruled these regions by imposing upon them

15255-400: The shallow strait between neighbouring islands. The present geomorphological appearance of the isthmus is a consequence of subsequent wave and aeolian pyroclastic processing, leading to the formation of marine and lagoon terraces. A study by Afanas'ev et al. focuses on examining the existence of the strait separating the southern and northern parts of Iturup Island in the mid-late Holocene from

15390-506: The site of present-day Kurilsk. Japanese rule over Iturup was formally recognized in the 1855 Treaty of Shimoda . On 26 November 1941, a Japanese carrier fleet left Hitokappu Bay (now called Kasatka Bay), on the eastern shore of Iturup, and sailed for an attack on the American base of Pearl Harbor . Shana Village was located on Iturup (Etorofu) in the Showa era , before 1945. It was

15525-651: The southeastern or Hidaka region of Hokkaido where ethnic Ainu live, such as in Nibutani ( Niputay ). From the early 1870s, Christian missionary work was conducted among the Ainu. The Anglican Communion missionaries included the Rt. Rev. Philip Fyson , Bishop of Hokkaido , and the Rev. John Batchelor . Batchelor wrote extensively in English about the beliefs and daily life of the Ainu in Yezo (or Ezo ), and his publications are

15660-449: The southeastern or Hidaka region of Hokkaido where ethnic Ainu live, such as in Nibutani ( Niputay ). From the early 1870s, Christian missionary work was conducted among the Ainu. The Anglican Communion missionaries included the Rt. Rev. Philip Fyson , Bishop of Hokkaido , and the Rev. John Batchelor . Batchelor wrote extensively in English about the beliefs and daily life of the Ainu in Yezo (or Ezo ), and his publications are

15795-447: The spring of 1637. The Tokugawa bakufu (feudal government) granted the Matsumae clan exclusive rights to trade with the Ainu in the northern part of the island. Later, the Matsumae began to lease out trading rights to Japanese merchants, and contact between Japanese and Ainu became more extensive. Throughout this period, Ainu groups competed with each other to import goods from the Japanese, and epidemic diseases such as smallpox reduced

15930-447: The spring of 1637. The Tokugawa bakufu (feudal government) granted the Matsumae clan exclusive rights to trade with the Ainu in the northern part of the island. Later, the Matsumae began to lease out trading rights to Japanese merchants, and contact between Japanese and Ainu became more extensive. Throughout this period, Ainu groups competed with each other to import goods from the Japanese, and epidemic diseases such as smallpox reduced

16065-594: The submission of the two peoples. In 1264, the Krafuto-Ainu invaded the land of the Nivkh people. They also started an expedition into the Amur region, which was then controlled by the Yuan dynasty , resulting in reprisals by the Mongols who invaded Sakhalin . From the Nivkh perspective, their surrender to the Mongols essentially established a military alliance against the Ainu who had invaded their lands. According to

16200-432: The submission of the two peoples. In 1264, the Krafuto-Ainu invaded the land of the Nivkh people. They also started an expedition into the Amur region, which was then controlled by the Yuan dynasty , resulting in reprisals by the Mongols who invaded Sakhalin . From the Nivkh perspective, their surrender to the Mongols essentially established a military alliance against the Ainu who had invaded their lands. According to

16335-563: The subsequent Satsumon period , from around the 13th century the Ainu established their own culture by absorbing the surrounding culture while engaging in transit trade between Honshu and north-east Asia. This is called the Ainu Culture period or Nibutani period. Active contact between the Wa-jin (ethnonym for Japanese, also known as Yamato people) and the Ainu of Ezogashima (now known as Hokkaidō ) began in this period. The Ainu formed

16470-450: The subsequent Satsumon period , from around the 13th century the Ainu established their own culture by absorbing the surrounding culture while engaging in transit trade between Honshu and north-east Asia. This is called the Ainu Culture period or Nibutani period. Active contact between the Wa-jin (ethnonym for Japanese, also known as Yamato people) and the Ainu of Ezogashima (now known as Hokkaidō ) began in this period. The Ainu formed

16605-542: The tribute location. By these policies, the Qing dynasty brought political stability to the region and established the basis for commerce and economic development. The Qing dynasty established an office in Ningguta , situated midway along the Mudan River , to handle fur from the lower Amur and Sakhalin. Tribute was supposed to be brought to regional offices, but the lower Amur and Sakhalin were considered too remote, so

16740-428: The tribute location. By these policies, the Qing dynasty brought political stability to the region and established the basis for commerce and economic development. The Qing dynasty established an office in Ningguta , situated midway along the Mudan River , to handle fur from the lower Amur and Sakhalin. Tribute was supposed to be brought to regional offices, but the lower Amur and Sakhalin were considered too remote, so

16875-419: The two countries agreed to restore diplomatic relations, but a peace treaty, as of 2024, has not been concluded due to the disputed status of Iturup and some other nearby islands. A Soviet Anti-Air Defense (PVO) airfield, Burevestnik ( English : storm-petrel ), is located on the island and was until 1993 home to a number of Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 fighter jets. In 1968, Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A

17010-480: The west coast in close proximity to China, most Ainu stopped paying tribute to the Qing dynasty. The Matsumae clan was nominally in charge of Sakhalin, but they neither protected nor governed the Ainu there. Instead they extorted the Ainu for Chinese silk, which they sold in Honshu as Matsumae's special product. To obtain Chinese silk, the Ainu fell into debt, owing much fur to the Santan ( Ulch people ), who lived near

17145-428: The west coast in close proximity to China, most Ainu stopped paying tribute to the Qing dynasty. The Matsumae clan was nominally in charge of Sakhalin, but they neither protected nor governed the Ainu there. Instead they extorted the Ainu for Chinese silk, which they sold in Honshu as Matsumae's special product. To obtain Chinese silk, the Ainu fell into debt, owing much fur to the Santan ( Ulch people ), who lived near

17280-444: Was actively promoted by the Ainu to lessen the chances of discrimination against their offspring. As a result, many Ainu today are indistinguishable from their Japanese neighbors, but some Ainu-Japanese are interested in traditional Ainu culture. For example, Oki , born as the child of an Ainu father and a Japanese mother, became a musician who plays the traditional Ainu instrument, the tonkori . There are also many small towns in

17415-444: Was actively promoted by the Ainu to lessen the chances of discrimination against their offspring. As a result, many Ainu today are indistinguishable from their Japanese neighbors, but some Ainu-Japanese are interested in traditional Ainu culture. For example, Oki , born as the child of an Ainu father and a Japanese mother, became a musician who plays the traditional Ainu instrument, the tonkori . There are also many small towns in

17550-415: Was an island. During this period, Ainu women were separated from their husbands and either subjected to rape or forcibly married to Japanese men. Meanwhile, Ainu men were deported to merchant subcontractors for five- and ten-year terms of service. Policies of family separation and assimilation, combined with the impact of smallpox, caused the Ainu population to drop significantly in the early 19th century. In

17685-415: Was an island. During this period, Ainu women were separated from their husbands and either subjected to rape or forcibly married to Japanese men. Meanwhile, Ainu men were deported to merchant subcontractors for five- and ten-year terms of service. Policies of family separation and assimilation, combined with the impact of smallpox, caused the Ainu population to drop significantly in the early 19th century. In

17820-523: Was intercepted over the Kurils and forced to land at Burevestnik with 214 American troops bound for Vietnam . An older airfield, Vetrovoe , exists on the eastern part of the island and may have been used primarily by Japanese forces during World War II . A new international airport, Iturup Airport , was opened in 2014, 7 kilometres ( 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 miles) east of Kurilsk. It was the first airport built from scratch in Russia's post-Soviet history. It has

17955-547: Was seen as a means to defend Japan from a rapidly developing and expansionist Russia . Second ... it offered a solution to the unemployment for the former samurai class ... Finally, development promised to yield the needed natural resources for a growing capitalist economy. As a result of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875) , the Kuril Islands—along with their Ainu inhabitants—came under Japanese administration. In 1899,

18090-433: Was seen as a means to defend Japan from a rapidly developing and expansionist Russia . Second ... it offered a solution to the unemployment for the former samurai class ... Finally, development promised to yield the needed natural resources for a growing capitalist economy. As a result of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875) , the Kuril Islands—along with their Ainu inhabitants—came under Japanese administration. In 1899,

18225-724: Was sending fighter planes to Iturup. Su-35 aircraft landed on a reserve airfield on the island in March 2018 and Su-35s were then deployed to Iturup airport on a trial basis in August 2018. Administratively, the island belongs to the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation . Japan claims Iturup as part of Nemuro Subprefecture . Ainu people The Ainu are an indigenous ethnic group who reside in northern Japan and southeastern Russia, including Hokkaido and

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